Chap。IV

ContinuationofthesameSubject，withregardtothenaturalandimmediateEffectsofAgriculture，astoPopulationInowsupposemantoaddhislabourandindustrytothenaturalactivityofthesoil:sofar，asbythisheproducesanadditionalquantityoffood，sofarhelaysafoundationforthemaintenanceofanadditionalnumber。ThisnumberIshallcall(B)。FromthisIconclude，thatas(A)issupposedtobeinaconstantproportiontothespontaneousfruits，so(B)mustbeinproportiontoagriculture(bythistermIunderstandatpresenteverymethodofaugmentingfoodbylabour)，consequentlythenumbermaintainedbythelabourofmankindmustbetothewholenumberofmankindas(B)isto(A+B)，oras(B)isto(A)and(B)jointly。

Bythisoperationwefindmankindimmediatelydividedintotwoclasses；thosewho，withoutworking，liveuponthespontaneousfruitsoftheearth；thatis，uponmilk，cattle，hunting，&c。Theotherpart，thosewhoareobligedtolabourthesoil。Itispropernexttoinquirewhatshouldnaturallyobligeamantolabour；andwhatarethenaturalconsequencesofitastomultiplication。

Wehavealreadysaid，thattheprincipleofgenerationisinherentinman，andpromptshimtomultiply。Anotherprinciple，asnaturallyinherentinthemind，asthefirstisinthebody，isself-love，oradesireofeaseandhappiness，whichpromptsthosewhofindinthemselvesanysuperiority，whetherpersonalorpolitical，tomakeuseofeverynaturaladvantage。Consequently，suchwillmultiplyproportionably:becausebyappropriatingtothemselvesthefruitsoftheearth，theyhavethemeansofsubsistingtheiroffspring。Theothers，Ithink，willverynaturallybecometheirservants；asthismethodis，ofallothers，themosteasytoprocuresubsistence。Thisissoanalogoustothenatureofman，thatweseeeverywhere，evenamongchildren，thatthesmallestsuperiorityinanyoneovertherest，constantlydrawsalongwithitatributeofserviceinonewayorother。Thosewhobecomeservantsforthesakeoffood，willsoonbecomeslaves:forslaveryisbuttheabuseofservice，establishedbyacivilinstitution；andmenwhofindnopossibilityofsubsistingotherwise，willbeobligedtoserveupontheconditionsprescribedtothem。

Thisseemsaconsequencenotunnaturalintheinfancyoftheworld:yetIdonotpretendtoaffirmthatthiswastheoriginofslavery。Servants，however，therehavealwaysbeen；andtheabuseofserviceiswhatweunderstandbyslavery。Thesubordinationofchildrentotheirparents，andofservantstotheirmasters，seemstobethemostrationaloriginofsocietyandgovernment。

Thefirstoftheseisnatural，andfollowsastheunavoidableconsequenceofanentiredependence:thesecondispolitical，andmayverynaturallytakeplaceastothosewhocannototherwiseprocuresubsistence。Thislastspeciesofsubordinationmay，I

think，havetakenplace，themomentmanbecameobligedtolabourforsubsistence，butnosooner。

Thewantsofmanarenotconfinedtofood，merely。Whenfoodistobeproducedfromtherudesurfaceoftheearth，agreatpartofhistimemustbetakenupwiththisobject，evensupposinghimtobeprovidedwitheveryutensilproperfortheexerciseofhisindustry:hemustthereforebeinaworseconditiontoprovideforhisotherwants:consequently，hemaybewillingtoserveanyonewhowilldoitforhim。Whereas，ontheotherhand，ifwesupposeallmankindidleandfed，livinguponthespontaneousfruitsoftheearth，theplanofuniversallibertybecomesquitenatural:becauseundersuchcircumstancestheyfindnoinducementtocomeunderavoluntarysubordination。

Letusnowborrowtheideaofaprimitivesociety，ofagovernment，ofaking，fromthemostancienthistorywehave，thebettertopointouttheeffectsofagricultureandmultiplication。Thesocietyisthewholetakentogether；itisJacob，hissons，theirwives，theirchildren，andalltheservants。ThegovernmentregardstheinstitutionsprescribedbyJacob，toeveryoneofthefamily，concerningtheirrespectivesubordinationandduty。Multiplicationwillheregoforward，notinproportiontothegenerativefaculty，butaccordingtotheemploymentofthepersonsalreadygenerated。IfJacobcontinuepasturinghisherds，hemustextendthelimitsofhisrightofpasture；hemustmultiplyhisstockofcattle，inproportionasthemouthsofhisfamilyaugment。Heischargedwithallthisdetail:forheismaster，anddirector，andstatesman，andgeneralprovider。Hisservantswillworkastheyareordered；butifhehasnothadtheproperforesight，tobreakuplandssosoonashisfamilycomesnearlyuptothatproportionwhichhisflockscaneasilyfeed；ifinthiscase，adryseasonshouldburnupthegrassinPalestine，hewillbeobligedtosendsomeofhisstockofcattle，bysomeofhisfamily，tomarket，theretobesold；

andwiththepricehemustbuycorn。Forinthisearlyage，therewasmoney，thereweremanufacturesofsackcloth，ofcommonraiment，andofparty-colouredgarments；therewasatradeincorn，inspicery，balm，andmyrrh。Jacobandhisfamilywereshepherds，buttheylivednotentirelyonflesh；theyeatbread:

consequentlytherewastillageinthosedays，thoughtheyexercisednone。Thefaminehoweverwasreadytodestroythem，andprobablywouldhavedoneit，butfortheprovidentialcircumstanceofJoseph’sbeinggovernorofEgypt。Herelievedtheirdistress，hegavetohisfamilythebestcountryinthewholekingdomforpasture；andtheyhadagratuitoussupplyofbread。

Nodoubt，solongasthesefavourablecircumstancessubsisted，multiplicationwouldgoonapace。WhatsupernaturalassistanceGodwaspleasedtograntfortheincreaseofhischosenpeople，doesnotconcernmyinquiry。

Ihavementionedtransientlythisexampleofthepatriarch，topointoutonlyhowancienttheuseofmoney，theinventionoftradeandmanufacturesappeartohavebeen。Withoutsuchpreviousestablishments，Iconsidermankindassavages，livingonthespontaneousfruitsoftheearth，asinthefirstsupposition；andconfined，astonumbers，totheactualextentoftheseproductions。

Fromwhathasbeensaid，wemayconclude，thatthenumbersofmankindmustdependuponthequantityoffoodproducedbytheearthfortheirnourishment；fromwhich，asacorollary，maybedrawn。

Thatmankindhavebeen，astonumbers，andmusteverbe，inproportiontothefoodproduced；andthatthefoodproducedwillbeinthecompoundproportionofthefertilityoftheclimate，andtheindustryoftheinhabitants。

Fromthislastpropositionitappearsplain，thattherecanbenogeneralrulefordeterminingthenumberofinhabitantsnecessaryforagriculture，noteveninthesamecountry。Thefertilityofthesoilwhenlaboured，theeaseoflabouringit，thequantityofgoodspontaneousfruits，theplentyoffishintheriversandsea，theabundanceofwildbirdsandbeasts，haveinallages，andevermustinfluencegreatlythenourishment，and，consequently，regulatethemultiplicationofman，anddeterminehisemployment。

Tomakeanestablishmentinacountrynotbeforeinhabited，torootoutwoods，destroywildandvenomousanimals，drainmarshygrounds，giveafreecoursetowater，andtolaydownthesurfaceintocornfields，mustsurelyrequiremorehandsthantocultivatethesameafteritisimproved。Forthetruthofthis，I

appealtoourAmericanbrethren。

Wemaythereforeconclude，thatthemostessentialrequisiteforpopulation，isthatofagriculture，ortheprovidingofsubsistence。Uponthisalltherestdepends:whilesubsistenceisuponaprecariousfooting，nostatesmancanturnhisattentiontoanythingelse。

Thegreatimportanceofthisobjecthasengagedsometoimagine，thattheluxuriousarts，inourdays，areprejudicialbothtoagricultureandmultiplication。Itissometimesofillconsequencetofixone’sattentiontoomuchuponanyoneobject，howeverimportant。Nobodycandisputethatagricultureisthefoundationofmultiplication，andthemostessentialrequisitefortheprosperityofastate。Butitdoesnotfollowfromthis，thateverybodyalmostinthestateshouldbeemployedinit；

thatwouldbeinvertingtheorderofthings，andturningthemasterintotheservant。Thedutyandbusinessofmanisnottofeed；heisfed，inordertodohisduty，andtobecomeusefulinhisprofession；whetheragriculture，art，orscience。

Itisnotsufficientformypurposetoknow，thattheintroductionofagriculture，bymultiplyingthequantityoftheearth’sproductions，doesevidentlytendtoincreasethenumbersofmankind。Imustexaminethepoliticalcauseswhichmustconcur，inordertooperatethiseffect。

Forthispurpose，mynextinquiryshallbedirectedtowardsdiscoveringthetrueprincipleswhichinfluencetheemploymentofman，withrespecttoagriculture。Ishallsparenopainsinexaminingthispointtothebottom，eventhoughitshouldleadmetoanticipatesomebranchesofmysubject。

Ishallendeavourtolaydownprinciplesconsistentwiththenatureofman，withagriculture，andwithmultiplication，inorder，bytheirmeans，todiscoverboththeuseandabuseofthetwolast。Whenthesepartsarewellunderstood，therestwillgoonmoresmoothly，andIshallfindthelessoccasiontointerruptmysubject，inordertoexplainthetopicsuponwhichthewholedepends。

Chap。V

InwhatManner，andaccordingtowhatPrinciples，andpoliticalCauses，doesAgricultureaugmentPopulation？

Ihavealreadyshewn，howthespontaneousfruitsoftheearthprovideafundofnourishmentforadeterminatenumberofmen，andhaveslightlytouchedupontheconsequencesofaddinglabourtothenaturalactivityofthesoil。

Letmenowcarrythisinquiryalittlefarther。Letmesupposeacountryfertileinspontaneousproductions，capableofimprovementsofeverykind，inhabitedbyapeoplelivingunderafreegovernment，andinthemostrefinedsimplicity，withouttrade，withouttheluxuriousarts，andwithoutambition。Letmeheresupposeastatesman，whoshallinspireatasteforagricultureandforlabourintothosewhoformerlyconsumedthespontaneousfruitsoftheearthineaseandidleness。Whatwillbecomeofthisaugmentationoffoodproducedbythisadditionallabour？

Thesuddenincreaseoffood，suchasthatheresupposed，willimmediatelydiffusevigourintoall；andiftheadditionalquantitybenotverygreat，nosuperfluitywillbefound。Nosoonerwilltheinhabitantsbefullynourished，buttheywillbegintomultiplya-new:thentheywillcometodividewiththeirchildren，andfoodwillbecomescarceagain。

Thusmuchisnecessaryfortheillustrationofoneprinciple；

buttheeffects，whichwehavebeenpointingout，willnotbeproducedbarelybyengagingthosewholivedbyhunting(I

suppose)toquitthattrade，andturnfarmers。Thestatesmanmustalsofindoutamethodtomaketheproduceofthisnewbranchofindustrycirculatedownwards，soastorelievethewantsofthemostnecessitous:Otherwise，theplentyproduced，remaininginthehandsofthosewhoproducedit，willbecometothemanabsolutesuperfluity；which，hadtheyanytradewithaneighbouringstate，theywouldsell，orexchange，andleavetheirfellow-citizenstostarve。Andaswesupposenotradeatall，thissuperfluitywillperishliketheircherries，inayearofplenty；andconsequentlythefarmerswillimmediatelygiveoverworking。

If，topreventthisinconveniency，thestatesmanshallforcecertainclassestolabourthesoil，and，withdiscretion，distributetheproduceofittoallthathaveoccasionforsubsistence，takinginreturntheirservicesforthepublicbenefit；thiswillproveaninfalliblewayofmultiplyinginhabitants，ofmakingthemlaborious，andofpreservingasimplicityofmanners；butitisalsothepictureofancientslavery，andisthereforeexcludedfromthesupposition。

Ifheactsconsistentlywiththatspiritofliberty，whichwehavesupposedtoanimatehissubjects，hehasnomethodleft，buttocontrivedifferentemploymentsforthehandsofthenecessitous，that，bytheirlabour，theymayproduceanequivalentwhichmaybeacceptabletothefarmers，inlieuofthissuperfluity；fortheselastcertainlywillnotraiseit，iftheycannotdisposeofit；norwilltheydisposeofit，butforaproperequivalent。Thisistheonlymethod(inafreestate)ofprocuringadditionalfood，andofdistributingitthroughthesociety，asthepriceofthosehourswhichbeforewerespentinidleness:and，asthiswillproveamorecertainandmoreextensivefundofsubsistence，thantheprecariousproductionsofspontaneousfruits，whichcannotbeincreasedatdiscretion，andinproportiontodemand，itwillgreatlyincreasenumbers；but，ontheotherhand，itmustevidentlydestroythatsimplicityofmannerswhichnaturallyreignsamongnationswhodonotlabour。

Apeople，therefore，whohaveanindustriousturn，willmultiplyinproportiontothesuperfluityproducedbytheirfarmers；becausethelabourofthenecessitouswillproveanequivalentforit。

Nowthisadditionalnumberofinhabitants，beingraisedandfedwiththesuperfluityactuallyproducedbythefarmers，canneverbesupposednecessaryforprovidingthisquantity，which(thoughrelativelytothefarmersitbecalledasuperfluity)ismerelyasufficiencyrelativelytothewholesociety。and，therefore，ifitbefoundnecessarytoemploythenewinhabitantsalsoinfarming，itmustbewithaviewonlytoastillgreatermultiplication。

Farther，wemaylayitdownasaprinciple，thatafarmerwillnotlabourtoproduceasuperfluityofgrainrelativelytohisownconsumption，unlesshefindssomewantwhichmaybesuppliedbymeansofthatsuperfluity’。neitherwillotherindustriouspersonsworktosupplythewantsofthefarmerforanyotherreasonthantoprocuresubsistence，whichtheycannototherwisesoeasilyobtain。Thesearethereciprocalwantswhichthestatesmanmustcreate，inordertobindthesocietytogether。

Here，then，isoneprinciple:Agricultureamongafreepeoplewillaugmentpopulation，inproportiononlyasthenecessitousareputinasituationtopurchasesubsistencewiththeirlabour。

If，inanycountrywhichactuallyproducesnourishmentforitsinhabitants，accordingtotheprogressionabove-mentioned，aplanissetonfootfortheextensionofagriculture；theaugmentationmustbemadetobearadueproportiontotheprogressofindustryandwantsofthepeople，orelseanoutletmustbeprovidedfordisposingofthesuperfluity。Andif，atsettingout，aforeignconsumptioncannotbeprocuredfortheproduceofhusbandry，thegreatestcautionmustbehadtokeeptheimprovementofthesoilwithinproperbounds:for，withoutthis，theplanintendedforanimprovementwill，byover-doing，turnouttothedetrimentofagriculture。Thiswillbethecase，ifthefruitsoftheearthbemadetoincreasefasterthanthenumbersandtheindustryofthosewhoaretoconsumethem。Forifthewholebenotconsumed，theregorgingplentywilldiscouragetheindustryofthefarmer。

Butif，togetherwithanencouragementtoagriculture，aproperoutletbefoundforthesuperfluity，untilthenumbersandindustryofthepeople，byincreasing，shallaugmentthehome-consumption，whichagainbydegreeswilldiminishthequantityofexportation，thenthespringwilleasilyovercometheresistance；itwilldilate；thatis，numberswillcontinuetoincrease。

Fromthismaybederivedanotherprinciple:Thatagriculture，whenencouragedforthesakeofmultiplyinginhabitants，mustkeeppacewiththeprogressofindustry；orelseanoutletmustbeprovidedforallsuperfluity。

Intheforegoingexample，Ihavesupposednoexportation，themoretosimplifythesupposition:Iwas，therefore，obligedtothrowinacircumstance，inordertosupplythewantofit；towit，anaugmentationofinlanddemandfromthesuspensionofhunting；andIhavesupposedthosewhoformerlysupportedthemselvesbythis，toconsumethesuperfluousfoodofthefarmersforthepriceoftheirlabour。Thismaydowellenoughasasupposition，andhasbeenmadeuseofmerelytoexplainprinciples。butthemannersofapeoplearenotsoeasilychanged；andthereforeIhavealittleanticipatedthesuppositionoftrade，toshewonlyhowitmustconcurwithindustry，intheadvancementofagricultureandmultiplication。

Letmenextconsidertheconsequencesofanaugmentationofagricultureinacountrywheretheinhabitantsarelazy；orwheretheyliveinsuchsimplicityofmanners，astohavefewwantswhichlabourandindustrycansupply。Inthiscase，Isay，theschemeofagriculturewillnotsucceed；and，ifsetonfoot，apartofthegroundswillsoonbecomeagainuncultivated。

Thelaziestpartofthefarmers，disgustedwithalabourwhichproducesaplentysuperfluoustothemselves，whichtheycannotdisposeofforanyequivalent，willgiveoverworking，andreturntotheirancientsimplicity。Themorelaboriouswillnotfurnishfoodtothenecessitousfornothing:suchthereforewhocannototherwisesubsist，willnaturallyservetheindustrious，andtherebyselltheirserviceforfood。Thusbythediminutionoflabour，apartofthecountry，proportionaltothequantityoffoodwhichthefarmersformerlyfoundsuperfluous，willagainbecomeuncultivated。

Herethenwillbefoundacountry，thepopulationofwhichmuststopforwantoffood；andwhich，bythesupposition，isabundantlyabletoproducemore。Experienceeverywhereshewsthepossibleexistenceofsuchacase，sincenocountryinEuropeiscultivatedtotheutmost:andthattherearemanystill，wherecultivation，andconsequentlymultiplication，isatastop。ThesenationsIconsiderasinamoralincapacityofmultiplying:theincapacitywouldbephysical，iftherewasanactualimpossibilityoftheirprocuringanaugmentationoffoodbyanymeanswhatsoever。

Theseprinciplesseemtobeconfirmedbyexperience；whetherwecomparethemwiththemanneroflivingamongthefreeAmericansavages，oramongthefree，industrious，andlaboriousEuropeans。

Wefindtheproductionsofallcountries，generallyspeaking，inproportiontothenumberoftheirinhabitants；and，ontheotherhand，theinhabitantsaremostcommonlyinproportiontothefood。

Ibegthatthismaynotbelookeduponasaquibble，orwhatiscalledaviciouscircle。Ihavequalifiedthegeneralpropositionbysubjoiningthatitisfoundtruemostcommonly；

andfromwhatistofollow，weshallbetterdiscoverboththetruthandmeaningofwhatishereadvanced。Whilecertaincausesoperate，foodwillaugment，andmankindwillincreaseinproportion；whenthesecausescease，procreationwillnotaugmentnumbers；thenthegeneralpropositionwilltakeplace；numbersandfoodwillremainthesame，andbalanceoneanother。ThisI

imaginetobesoinfact；andIhopetoshewthatitisrationalalso。Letmenowputanendtothischapter，bydrawingsomeconclusionsfromwhathasbeenlaiddown，inordertoenlargeourideas，andtoenableustoextendourplan。

First，Oneconsequenceofafruitfulsoil，possessedbyafreepeople，giventoagriculture，andinclinedtoindustry，willbetheproductionofasuperfluousquantityoffood，overandabovewhatisnecessarytofeedthefarmers。Inhabitantswillmultiply；and，accordingtotheirincrease，acertainnumberofthewhole，proportionaltosuchsuperfluityofnourishmentproduced，willapplythemselvestoindustryandtothesupplyingofotherwants。

Secondly，Fromthisoperationproducedbyindustry，wefindthepeopledistributedintotwoclasses。Thefirstisthatofthefarmerswhoproducethesubsistence，andwhoarenecessarilyemployedinthisbranchofbusiness；theotherIshallcallfreehands；becausetheiroccupationbeingtoprocurethemselvessubsistenceoutofthesuperfluityofthefarmers，andbyalabouradaptedtothewantsofthesociety，mayvaryaccordingtothesewants，andtheseagainaccordingtothespiritofthetimes。

Thirdly，If，inthecountrywearetreatingof，bothmoneyandtheluxuriousartsbesupposedtobeunknown，thenthesuperfluityofthefarmerswillbeinproportiontothenumberofthosewhoselabourwillbefoundsufficienttoprovideforalltheothernecessitiesoftheinhabitants；and，sosoonasthisisaccomplished，theconsumptionandproducebecomingequallybalanced，theinhabitantswillincreasenomore，oratleastveryprecariously，unlesstheirwantsbemultiplied。

Chap。VI

HowtheWantsofMankindpromotetheirMultiplicationIfthecountryweweretreatingofintheformerchapterbesupposedofaconsiderableextentandfruitfulness，andiftheinhabitantshaveturnforindustry，inashorttimeluxury，andtheuseofmoney(orofsomethingparticipatingofthenatureofmoney)，willinfalliblybeintroduced。

ByLUXURY，Iunderstandtheconsumptionofanythingproducedbythelabouroringenuityofman，whichflattersoursensesortasteofliving，andwhichisneithernecessaryforourbeingwellfed，wellclothed，welldefendedagainsttheinjuriesoftheweather，orforsecuringusagainsteverythingwhichcanhurtus。(4*)

ByMONEY，Iunderstandanycommodity，whichpurelyinitselfisofnomaterialusetomanforthepurposesabove-mentioned，butwhichacquiressuchanestimationfromhisopinionofit，astobecometheuniversalmeasureofwhatiscalledvalue，andanadequateequivalentforanythingalienable。(5*)

Hereanewsceneopens。Thismoneymustbefoundinthehandsofsomeoftheinhabitants；naturally，ofsuchashavehadthewittoinventit，andtheaddresstomaketheircountrymenfondofit，byrepresentingitasanequivalentvalueforfoodandnecessaries；thatistosay，themeansofprocuring，withoutworkortoil，notonlythelabourofothers，butfooditself。

Herethenisproducedanewobjectofwant。Everypersonbecomesfondofhavingmoney；buthowtogetitisthequestion。

Theproprietorswillnotgiveitfornothing，and，byourformersupposition，everyonewithinthesocietywasunderstoodtobeabundantlysuppliedwithfoodandnecessaries；thefarmers，fromtheirlabouringtheground；thefreehands，bythereturnoftheirowningenuity，infurnishingnecessaries。Theproprietorsthereforeofthismoneyhavealltheirwantssupplied，andstillarepossessorsofthisnewkindofriches，whichwenowsupposetobecovetedbyall。

Thenaturalconsequenceherewillbe，thatthosewhohavethemoneywillceasetolabour，andyetwillconsume；andtheywillnotconsumefornothing，fortheywillpaywithmoney。

Herethenisanumberofinhabitants，wholiveandconsumetheproduceoftheearthwithoutlabouring；foodwillsoonbecomescarce；demandforitwillrise，andthatwillbepaidwithmoney，thisisthebestequivalentofall；manywillruntotheplough；thesuperfluityofthefarmerswillaugment；therichwillcallforsuperfluities；thefreehandswillsupplythem，anddemandfoodintheirturn。Thesewill，therich，whonotbefoundaburdenonthehusbandman，asformerlyhiredofthemtheirlabourorservice，mustpaythemwithmoney，andthismoneyintheirhandswillserveasanequivalentforthesuperfluityofnourishmentproducedbyadditionalagriculture。

Whenoncethisimaginarywealth(money)becomeswellintroducedintoacountry，luxurywillverynaturallyfollow；andwhenmoneybecomestheobjectofourwants，mankindbecomeindustrious，inturningtheirlabourtowardseveryobjectwhichmayengagetherichtopartwithit；andthustheinhabitantsofanycountrymayincreaseinnumbers，untilthegroundrefusesfarthernourishment。Theconsequencesofthiswillmakethesubjectofanotherchapter。

Beforeweproceed，somethingmustbesaid，inorderalittletorestrainthesegeneralassertions。

Wehavesupposedaveryrapidprogressofindustry，andaverysuddenaugmentationofinhabitants，fromtheintroductionofmoney。Butitmustbeobserved，thatmanycircumstanceshaveconcurredwiththemoneytoproducethiseffect。

Wehavesupposedacountrycapableofimprovement，alaboriouspeople，atasteforrefinementandluxuryintherich，anambitiontobecomeso，andanapplicationtolabourandingenuityinthelowerclassesofmen。Accordingtothegreaterorlessdegreeofforce，orconcurrenceoftheseandlikecircumstances，willthecountryinquestionbecomemoreorlesscultivated，andconsequentlypeopled。

Ifthesoilbevastlyrich，situatedinawarmclimate，andnaturallywatered，theproductionsoftheearthwillbealmostspontaneous:thiswillmaketheinhabitantslazy。Lazinessisthegreatestofallobstaclestolabourandindustry。Manufactureswillneverflourishhere。Therich，withalltheirmoney，willnotbecomeluxuriouswithdelicacyandrefinement；forIdonotmeanbyluxurythegratificationoftheanimalappetites，northeabuseofriches，butaneleganceoftasteandinliving，whichhasforitsobjectthelabourandingenuityofman；andastheingenuityofworkmenbegetsatasteintherich，sotheallurementofricheskindlesanambition，andencouragesanapplicationtoworksofingenuity，inthepoor。

Richesthereforewillherebeadoredasagod，butnotmadesubservienttotheusesofman；anditisbythemeansofswiftcirculationonly(asshallbeobservedinitsproperplace)thattheybecomeproductiveoftheeffectsmentionedabove。(6*)

Whenmoneydoesnotcirculate，itisthesamethingasifitdidnotexist；andasthetreasuresfoundincountrieswheretheinhabitantsarelazydonotcirculate，theyareratherornamentalthanuseful。

Itisnotthereforeinthemostfruitfulcountriesoftheworld，norinthosewhicharethebestcalculatedfornourishinggreatmultitudes，thatwefindthemostinhabitants。Itisinclimateslessfavouredbynature，andwherethesoilproducestothoseonlywholabour，andinproportiontotheindustryofeveryone，wherewemayexpecttofindgreatmultitudes；andeventhesemultitudeswillbefoundgreaterorless，inproportionastheturnoftheinhabitantsisdirectedtoingenuityandindustry。

Insuchcountrieswhereindustryismadetoflourish，thefreehands(ofwhomwehavespokenabove)willbeemployedinusefulmanufactures，which，beingrefineduponbytheingenious，willdeterminewhatiscalledthestandardoftaste；thistastewillincreaseconsumption，whichagainwillmultiplyworkmen，andthesewillencouragetheproductionoffoodfortheirnourishment。

Letitthereforeneverbesaid，thattherearetoomanymanufacturersemployedinacountry；itisthesameasifitweresaid，therearetoofewidlepersons，toofewbeggars，andtoomanyhusbandmen。

Wehavemorethanonceendeavouredtoshew，thatthesemanufacturersnevercanbefedbutoutofthesuperfluityofthefarmers。Itisacontradiction，Ithink，tosay，thatthosewhoarefeduponthesurplusofthosewhocultivatethesoilarenecessaryforproducingasufficiencytothemselves。Forifeventhissurplusweretodiminish，themanufacturers，notthelabourers，wouldbethefirsttobeextinguishedforwantofnourishment。

Theimportanceofthedistributiveproportionofmankindintolabourersandfreehandsappearssogreat，andhassointimateaconnectionwiththissubject，thatitengagesmetoseekforanillustrationoftheprinciplesIhavebeenlayingdown，inanexampledrawnfromfacts，astheyarefoundtostandinoneofthegreatestandmostflourishingnationsinEurope。ButbeforeI

proceedfartherinthispartofmysubject，Imustexaminetheconsequencesofslaverywithregardtothesubjectwearenowupon。Relationsherearesomanyandsovarious，thatitisnecessarytohavesometimesrecoursetotransitions，ofwhichI

givenoticetomyreader，thathemaynotlosetheconnection。

Chap。VII

TheEffectsofSlaveryupontheMultiplicationandEmploymentofMankindBeforeIgoontofollowtheconsequencesoftheabovereasoning，Imuststoptoconsideradifferenceofnosmallimportancebetweenancientandmoderntimes，whichwillservetoillustratethenatureofslavery，withregardtopopulationandtheemploymentofmankind。

Wehaveendeavouredtolaydowntheprincipleswhichseemtoinfluencethisquestion，supposingalltobefree。Inthiscase，Iimaginethehumanspecieswillmultiplyprettymuchinproportiontotheirindustry；theirindustrywillincreaseaccordingtotheirwants，andtheseagainwillbediversifiedaccordingtothespiritofthetimes。

FromthisIconclude，thatthemorefreeandsimplethemannersofanycountryare，caeterisparibus，thefewerinhabitantswillbefoundinit。Thisisprovedbyexperienceeverywhere。TheTartars，whofreelywanderupanddownacountryofvastextent，multiplybutlittle；thesavagesinAmerica，wholiveuponhunting，inastateofgreatindependence；theinhabitantsofseveralmountainouscountriesinEurope，wheretherearefewmanufactures，andwheretheinhabitantsdonotleavethecountry；inallsuchplacesmankinddonotmultiply。

Whatisthereasonofthis？Onewouldimagine，wherethereisagreatextentofgroundcapableofproducingfood，thatmankindshouldmultiplyuntilthesoilrefusedtogivemore。Iimaginetheanswermaybeeasilydiscoveredfromtheprinciplesabovelaiddown。

Wheremankindhavefewwants，thenumberoffreehandsnecessarytosupplythemisverysmall，consequentlyverylittlesurplusfromthefarmersissufficienttomaintainthem。Whenthereforeithappens，thatanypoorfamilyintheclassoffreehandsisverynumerous，divisiontherecomestobecarriedtoitsutmostextent，andthegreatestpartbecomequiteidle，becausethereisnodemandfortheirwork。Aslongastheycanbefedbythedivisionoftheemolumentsarisingfromthelabouroftheirparents，orbythecharityofothers，theylive；whentheseresourcesfail，theybecomemiserable。Insowretchedasituationitisnoteasytofindbread。Thefarmerswillnotdoubletheirdiligencefromacharitabledisposition。Thosewhohavelandwillnotallowthoseindigentpeoplealibertytoraisegraininitfornothing；andalthoughtheyshould，thepoorarenotinacapacitytoprovidewhatisnecessaryfordoingit。Allotherworkisfullystocked，thewretcheddie，orextinguishwithoutmultiplying。

Tomakethismoreevident，letussupposethewantsofmankind，inanypolitenationofEurope，whichlivesandflourishesinourdaysupontheproduceofitsownsoil，reducedallatoncetothesimplicityoftheancientpatriarchs，oreventothatoftheoldRomans。Supposeallthehandsnowemployedintheluxuriousarts，andineverybranchofmodernmanufactures，tobecomequiteidle，andallforeigntradetobecutoff，howcouldtheybesubsisted？Whatoeconomycouldbesetonfoot，abletopreservesomanylivesusefultothestate？Yetitisplainbythesupposition，thatthefarmersofthecountryarecapableofmaintainingthem，sincetheyactuallydoso。Itwouldbeabsurdtoproposetoemploytheminagriculture，sincethereareenoughemployedinthis，toprovidefoodforthewhole。

Ifitbecertainthatsuchpeoplewoulddieforwantwithoutanyresource；mustitnotfollowthat，unlesstheirparentshadfoundthemeansofmaintainingthemwhenchildren，andtheythemselvesthemeansofafterwardssubsistingbytheirindustryinsupplyingwants，theycouldnothaveexistedbeyondtheirfirstinfancy？

Thisseemstostrikedeepagainstthepopulousnessoftheoldworld，whereweknowthatthewantsofmankind，withregardtotradesandmanufactures，weresofew。

Butinthosedaysthewantsofmankindwereofadifferentnature。Atpresent，thereisademandfortheingenuityofman；

then，therewasademandforhispersonandservice。Now，providedtherebeademandforman，whateverusehebeputto，thespecieswillmultiply；forthosewhostandinneedofthemwillalwaysfeedthem，and，aslongasfoodistobefound，numberswillincrease。

Inthepresenttimesfoodcannot，ingeneral，befound，butbylabour，andthatcannotbefoundbuttosupplywants。Nobodywillfeedafreeman，morethanhewillfeedthewildbirdsorbeastsofthefield，unlesshehasoccasionforthelabouroftheoneorfleshoftheother。

Intheoldworldtheprincipleswerethesame，butthespiritofnationswasdifferent。Princeswantedtohavenumerousarmies。

Freestatessoughtforpowerinthenumberoftheircitizens。ThewantsofMankindbeingfew，andasimplicityofmannersestablished，tohaveencouragedindustry，exceptinginagriculture，whichinallageshasbeenthefoundationofpopulation，wouldhavebeenaninconsistency。Tomakemankindlabourbeyondtheirwants，tomakeonepartofastateworktomaintaintheothergratuitously，couldonlybebroughtaboutbyslavery，andslaverywasthereforeintroduceduniversally。

Slaverywasthenasnecessarytowardsmultiplication，asitwouldnowbedestructiveofit。Thereasonisplain。Ifmankindbenotforcedtolabour，theywilllabourforthemselvesonly；andiftheyhavefewwants，therewillbelittlelabour。Butwhenstatescometobeformed，andhaveoccasionforidlehandstodefendthemagainsttheviolenceoftheirenemies，foodatanyratemustbeprocuredforthosewhodonotlabour；and，asbythesupposition，thewantsofthelabourersaresmall，amethodmustbefoundtoincreasetheirlabourabovetheproportionoftheirwants。

Forthispurposeslaverywascalculated:ithadtwoexcellenteffectswithrespecttopopulation。Thefirst，that，inunpolishednations，livinguponthespontaneousfruitsoftheearth，andalmostcontinuallyinwar，liveswerepreservedforthesakeofmakingslavesofthecaptives。These，soldtoprivatepeople，ordifferentstates，weresureofbeingfed；whereas，remainingintheirowncountry，theyoccupiedaplaceonly，which，bytheforceofthegenerativefaculty，ashasbeenobserved，wassoontobefilledupbypropagation:foritmustnotbeforgot，thatwhennumbersaresweptoff，byanysuddencalamity，whichdoesnotproportionallydiminishsubsistence，anewmultiplicationimmediatelytakesplace。Thusweperceivethehurtdonebyplagues，bywar，andbyotherdevastations，eitheramongmen，orcattle，repairedinafewyears，eveninthosecountrieswherethestandardnumberofbothisseldomfoundtoincrease。Whatimmensequantitiesofcattleareyearlyslaughtered！Doesanybodyimaginethatifallwereallowedtolive，numberswouldincreaseinproportion？Thesameistrueofmen。

Thesecondadvantageofslaverywas，thatincountrieswhereagoodpoliceprevailed，andwherethepeoplehadfewerwantsbyfarthanarefeltinmoderntimes，theslaveswereforcedtolabourthesoilwhichfedboththemandtheidlefreemen，aswasthecaseinSparta；ortheyfilledalltheservileplaceswhichfreemenfillnow，andtheywerelikewiseemployed，asinGreeceandinRome，insupplyingwithmanufacturesthosewhoseservicewasnecessaryforthestate。

Herethenwasaviolentmethodmakingmankindlaboriousinraisingfood；andprovidedthisbeaccomplished，(byanymeanswhatever，)numberswillincrease。

Trade，industry，andmanufactures，tendonlytomultiplythenumbersofmen，byencouragingagriculture。Ifitbethereforesupposed，thattwostatesareequallyextended，equallyfruitful，andequallycultivated，andtheproduceconsumedathome，I

believetheywillbefoundequallypeopled。Butsupposetheonelabouredbyfreemen，theotherbyslaves，whatdifferencewillbefoundinmakingwar？Inthefirst，thefreehandsmust，bytheirindustryandlabour，purchasetheirfood，andadaylostisinamanneradayoffasting:inthelast，theslavesproducethefood，theyarefirstfed，andtherestcostsnothingtothebodyoffreemen，whomaybeallemployedinwar，withoutthesmallestprejudicetoindustry。

Fromtheseprinciplesitappears，thatslaveryinformertimeshadthesameeffectinpeoplingtheworldthattradeandindustryhavenow。Menwerethenforcedtolabourbecausetheywereslavestoothers；menarenowforcedtolabourbecausetheyareslavestotheirownwants。

Idonot，however，pretend，thatinfactslaveryinancienttimesdideverywherecontributetopopulation，anymorethanI

canaffirmthatthespiritofindustryintheDutchiscommontoallfreenationsinourdays。Allthatisnecessaryformypurposeis，tosetforththetwoprinciples，andtoshewthenaturaleffectsoftheoneandtheother，withrespecttothemultiplicationofmankindandadvancementofagriculture，theprincipalobjectsofourattentionthroughoutthisbook。

Ishallatpresentenlargenofartheruponthismatter，butreturntowhereIleftoffintheprecedingchapter，andtakeupthefartherexaminationofthefundamentaldistributionofinhabitantsintolabourersandfreehands。

Chap。VII

WhatProportionofInhabitantsisnecessaryforAgriculture，andwhatProportionmaybeusefullyemployedineveryotherOccupation？

Ihaveproposedthisquestion，notwithanintentiontoansweritfully，buttopointout，how，withtheproperlightsgiven，itmaybeanswered。

AsIwriteundercircumstancesnotthemostfavourableforhavingrecoursetobooks，ImustemploythoseIhave。ThearticlePoliticalArithmetic，ofMrChambers’sCyclopedia，furnishesmewithsomeextractsfromSirWilliamPetty，andDrDavenant，whichIhereintendtoemploy，towardspointingoutasolutionofthequestionproposed。TheseauthorsconsiderthestateofEnglandasitappearedtothem，andwhattheysayisconclusivewithrespecttothatstateonly。

SirWilliamPettysupposestheinhabitantsofEnglandtobesixmillions，thevalueofgrainyearlyconsumedbythemtenmillionssterling，thebushelofwheatreckonedat5s。，andthatofbarleyat2s。6d。Ifwecastthetwotogether，andreckonuponanaverage，thiswillmakethequarter，oreightbushelsofgrain，worth1l。10s。:butinregard，thebarleycannotamounttoonehalfofallthegrainconsumed，especiallyasthereisagoodquantityofryemadeuseof，whichisworthmorethanthebarley，thoughlessthanthewheat；letussupposethegrainworth32s。

perquarter，atamedium；thentenmillionssterlingwillpurchasesixmillionsofquartersofgrain，orthereabouts；

which，usedfornourishment，inbreadandbeer，givesthemeanquantityofonequarter，or512poundstroyofgrainforeveryinhabitant，includingthenourishmentofhisproportionalpartofanimals；supposingthatSirWilliamattendedtothiscircumstance，foritisnotmentionedbyChambers。AndImustobserve，by-the-bye，thatthiscomputationmayholdgoodastoEngland，wherepeopleeatsolittlebread；butwouldnotanswerinFrance，norinalmostanyothercountryIhaveseen。

DrDavenant，correctingSirWilliam’scalculation，makestheinhabitants5，545，000。These，accordingtoSirWilliam’spricesandproportions，wouldconsumetotheamountof8，872，000l。

sterling。buttheDrcarriesit，withreason，alittlehigher，andstatesitat9，075，000l。sterling；thedifference，however，isinconsiderable。Fromthisheconcludesthegrossproduceofthecorn-fieldstobeabout9，075，000l。sterling。Imakenocriticismuponthiscomputation。

Next，astothevalueofotherlands；IfindSirWilliamreckonsthegrossproduceoftheminbutter，cheese，milk，wool，horsesyearlybred，fleshforfood，tallow，hides，hay，andtimber，toamountto12，000，000l。sterling:TheamountthereforeofthegrossproduceofallthelandsinEnglandmustbeequaltothesetwosumsaddedtogether，thatis，to21，075，000l。sterling。

Fromthesedata，theDrvaluestheyearlyrentofcorn-landsattwomillionsterling，andthoseofpasture，&c。atsevenmillions；inall，ninemillions。

Fromthisitappears，thattheland-rentsofEnglandaretothegrossproduce，asnineistotwenty-one，orthereabouts。

Letmenowexaminesomeotherproportions。

Therentsofthecorn-landsaretothegrossproduceofthem，astwoistonine；thoseofpasture，asseventotwelve。

Nowitisverycertain，thatallrentsareinaprettyjustproportiontothegrossproduce，afterdeductingthreeprincipalarticles。

First，Thenourishmentofthefarmer，hisfamily，andservants。

Secondly，Thenecessaryexpencesofhisfamily，formanufactures，andinstrumentsforcultivatingtheground。

Thirdly，Hisreasonableprofits，accordingtothecustomofeverycountry。

Ofthesethreearticles，letusdistinguishwhatpartimpliesthedirectconsumptionofthepureproduce，fromwhatdoesnot。

Ofthefirstsortarethenourishmentofmenandcattle，woolandflaxforclothing，firing，andothersmallerarticles。

Ofthesecondareallmanufacturesbought，servants’wages，thehireoflabourersoccasionally，andprofits，eitherspentinluxury，(thatis，superfluity，)lent，orlaidup。

Thethreearticlesabovementioned(whichwehavedistributedundertwoheads)beingdeductedfromthegrossproduce，theremainingvalueshewstheland-rent。

Thisbeingthecase，Iamnexttoexaminethecauseofthegreatdisproportionbetweentherentsofcorn-lands，andthoseofpasture，whencomparedwiththegrossproduce，inordertodrawsomeconclusion，whichmayleadtothesolutionofthequestionhereproposed。

Thisdifferencemustproceedfromthegreaterproportionoflabouringandotherinhabitantsemployedinconsequenceoftillage；whichmakestheexpenceofitfargreaterthanthatofpasture。Andsince，intheoneandtheother，everyarticleofnecessaryexpenceorconsumptionoughtnaturallytobeproportionallyequalamongthoseconcernedinboth，thatis，proportionaltothenumberoflabouringinhabitants；itfollows，thattheproportionofpeopleemployedinagriculture，andupontheaccountofit，indifferentcountries，isnearlyintheratioofthegrossproduce，totheland-rent；or，inotherwords，intheproportionoftheconsumptionmadebythefarmers，andbythoseemployednecessarilybythem，tothenetproduce，whichisthesamething。

Nowastheconsumptionuponcorn-farmsis7/9，andthatuponpasture5/12，theproportionofthesetwofractionsmustmarktheratiobetweenthepopulousnessofpasture-lands，andthoseintillage；thatistosay，tillage-landsinEnglandwere，atthattime，peopledinproportiontopasture-lands，as84isto45，oras28to15。

Thispointbeingsettled，Iproceedtoanother:towit，theapplicationofthisnetproduceorsurplusofthequantityoffoodandnecessariesremainingoverandabovethenourishment，consumption，andexpence，oftheinhabitantsemployedinagriculture；andwhichwehaveobservedabovetobeequaltotheland-rentsofEngland，thatistosay，toninemillionsyearly。

Mustnotthisofnecessitybeemployedinthenourishment，andfortheuseofthosewhomwehavecalledthefreehands；whomaybeemployedinmanufactures，trades，orinanyotherway，accordingtothetasteofthetimes？

Nowthenumbersofapeople，Itaketobeverynearlyintheproportionofthequantityoffoodtheyconsume；especiallywhenasocietyistakenthus，insuchaccumulativeproportion，andwhenallaresupposedtobeunderthesamecircumstancesastotheplentyoftheyear。

ThewholegrossproduceofEnglandwehavesaidtobe21，000，000l。sterling，ofwhich9millionshaveremainedforthosenotemployedinagriculture；thefarmers，therefore，andtheirattendants，mustannuallyconsume12millions；consequentlythelastclassistothefirstas12isto9。If，therefore，accordingtoDrDavenant，therebe5，545，000peopleinthatkingdom，theremustbeabout3，168，571employedordependentuponagriculture，and2，376，429freehandsforeveryotheroccupation。

Butthisproportionoffarmerswillbefoundfarless，ifwereflect，thatwehavereckonedforthemthetotalamountofthethreearticlesabovementioned，thatistosay，thetotalconsumptiontheymake，aswellinmanufactures，profitsupontheirlabour，&c。asforfoodandnecessaries:whereastherehasbeennothingreckonedforthefreehands，buttheland-rent；

consequentlythereshouldbeaddedtothenumberofthelatterasmanyasareemployedinsupplyingwithallsortsofmanufacturesthewholeofthefarmersofEngland，andallthosewhodependuponthem；andthisnumbermustbetakenfromoneandaddedtotheotherclass。Ifthisnumberbesupposedtoamounttofourhundredthousand，itwilldomorethancastthebalanceupontheoppositeside。

Fromthesemattersoffact(sofarastheyareso)wemayconclude:

First，Thattheraisingoftherentsoflandsshowstheincreaseofindustry，asitswellsthefundofsubsistenceconsumedbytheindustrious；thatis，bythosewhobuyit。

Secondly，Thatitmaydenoteeitheranincreaseofinhabitants，orthedepopulationoftheland，inordertoassemblethesuperfluousmouthsinvillages，towns，&c，wheretheymayexercisetheirindustrywithgreaterconvenience。

Whiletheland-rentsofEuropewereverylow，numbersoftheinhabitantsappearedtobeemployedinagriculture；butwerereallynomorethanidleconsumersoftheproduceofit。Thisshallbefurtherillustratedinthesubsequentchapters。

Thirdly，Themoreacountryisintillage，themoreitisinhabited，andthesmalleristheproportionoffreehandsforalltheservicesofthestate。Themoreacountryisinpasture，thelessitisinhabited，butthegreateristheproportionoffreehands。

Idonotpretend，asIhavesaidabove，thatthereisanycalculationtobedependedoninthischapter；Ihaveonlyendeavouredtopointouthowacalculationmightbemade，whenthetruestateofEnglandcomestobeknown。

Thisquestionnotbeingofanaturetoenterintothechainofourreasoning，maybeconsideredratherasincidentalthanessential；Ihavethereforetreateditsuperficiallyandchieflyforthesakeoftheconclusions。

Ournextinquirywillnaturallybeintotheprincipleswhichdeterminetheresidenceofinhabitants，inordertodiscoverwhy，inallflourishingstates，citiesarenowfoundtobeeverywhereonthegrowinghand。

Chap。IX

WhatarethePrincipleswhichregulatetheDistributionofInhabitantsintoFarms，Hamlets，Villages，Towns，andCity？

Havingpointedoutthenaturaldistributionofinhabitantsintothetwocapitalclassesofwhichwehavebeentreating，Iamgoingtoexaminehowfartheiremploymentmustdecideastotheirplaceofresidence。

First，Whenmankindisfeduponthespontaneousfruitsoftheearth，thedistributionoftheirresidencedependsuponthedivisionofthelands。Iftheseareincommontoall，thentheinhabitantswillbescatteredabroad，orgatheredtogether，accordingastheproductionsoftheearthareequallydistributedoverthefaceofthecountry，orconfinedtosomefruitfulspotsonly。

HencetheTartarswanderwiththeirflocksandfeeduponthem:hencethehuntingIndiansarescatteredinsmallsocieties，throughthewoods，andliveupongame:henceothers，whofeeduponthefruitsoftheearth，arecollectedingreaternumbersuponthesidesofrivers，andinwateredvalleys。

Wherethereforethesurfaceoftheearthisnotappropriated，theretheplaceproducingthefooddeterminestheplaceofresidenceofeveryoneofthesociety，andtheremankindmayliveinidleness，andremainfreefromeveryconstraint。

Secondly，Whentheearthisnotincommontothosewholiveuponherspontaneousfruits，butisappropriatedbyafew，thereeitherslaveryorindustrymustbeintroducedamongthosewhoconsumethesurplusoftheproprietors；becausethesewillexpecteitherserviceorworkinreturnfortheirsuperfluity。Inthiscase，theresidenceoftheinhabitantswilldependuponthecircumstanceswearegoingtoconsider；andtheobjectofagricultureincountrieswherethesurfaceoftheearthisnotbrokenup，beingsolelydirectedtowardsthegatheringinoffruits，willdeterminetheresidenceofthoseonlywhoarenecessaryforthatpurpose:consequentlyitwillfollow，thatinclimateswheretheearthproducesspontaneously，andinvastabundance，theremaybefoundlargecities；becausethenumberofthosewhoarenecessaryforgatheringinthefruitsissmallinproportiontothequantityofthem；whereasinothercountries，wheretheearth’sproductionsarescanty，andwheretheclimaterefusesthoseofthecopiousandluxuriantkind，therewillhardlybefoundanyconsiderabletown，becausethenumberofthosewhoarenecessaryforcollectingthesubsistence，bearsagreatproportiontothefruitsthemselves。Idonotsay，thatinthefirstcasetheremustbelargetowns，orthatintheothertherecanbenone；butIsaythat，inthefirstcase，thosewhomaybegatheredintotowns，bearagreatproportiontothewholesociety；andthat，inthesecond，theybearasmallone。

IthinkIhavefoundthisprincipleconfirmedbyexperience。

WhenIcomparethebulkandpopulousnessofthecitiesofLombardy，andstillmore，thoseofthewateredprovincesofSpain，withtheinhabitantsoftheterritorywhichmaintainsthem，IfindtheproportionofthefirstvastlygreaterthaninthoseofFranceandEngland；andstillmoreagaininthesetwolastmentionedkingdoms，thaninthemorenortherncountriesandprovinces，wheretheearth’sproductionsbearalessproportiontothelabourbestowedinproducingthem。Now，althoughIallowthatneithertheoneortheotherisfedbyspontaneousproductions，yetstillitmaybeinferred，thatthemoretheclimatecontributestofavourthelabourofman，themoretheproductionsparticipateofthespontaneousnature。(7*)

Again，incountrieswherelabourisrequiredforfeedingasociety，thesmallertheproportionoflabourers，thegreaterwillbethatofthefreehands。Fruitswhichareproducedbyannuallabour，andstillmore，suchasaretheconsequenceofathoroughcultivation，(suchasluxuriantpasture，)givereturnsfarsuperiortothenourishmentofthoseemployedinthecultivation；consequently，allthesurplusisconsumedbypeoplenotemployedinagriculture；consequently，bythosewhoarenotboundtoresideuponthespotwhichfeedsthem，andwhomaychoosethehabitationbestadaptedfortheexerciseofthatindustrywhichismostpropertoproduceanequivalenttothefarmersfortheirsuperfluities。

Fromthisitisplainthattheresidenceofthefarmersonlyisessentiallyattachedtotheplaceofcultivation。Hence，farmsinsomeprovinces，villagesinothers。

Inowproceedtotheotherclassofinhabitants；thefreehandswholiveuponthesurplusofthefarmers。

TheseImustsubdivideintotwoconditions。Thefirst，thosetowhomthissurplusdirectlybelongs，orwho，witharevenueinmoneyalreadyacquired，canpurchaseit。Thesecond，thosewhopurchaseitwiththeirdailylabourorpersonalservice。

Thoseofthefirstconditionmaylivewheretheyplease；

thoseofthesecond，mustlivewheretheycan。Theresidenceoftheconsumersdetermines，inmanycases，thatofthesuppliers。

Inproportion，therefore，asthosewholivewheretheypleasechoosetolivetogether，inthisproportionmusttheothersfollowthem。Andinproportionasthestatethinksfittoplacetheadministrationofgovernmentinoneplace，inthesameproportionmusttheadministrators，andeveryonedependinguponthem，begatheredtogether。TheseItaketobeprincipleswhichinfluencetheswellingofthebulkofcapitals，andsmallercities。

Whentheresidenceoftheconsumerdoesnotdeterminethatofhimwhosuppliesit，otherconsiderationsareallowedtooperate。

Thisisthecaseinwhatmayproperlybecalledmanufactures，distinguishedfromtrades，whethertheybeforhome-consumption，orforeignexportation。Theseconsiderationsare，First，Relativetotheplaceandsituationoftheestablishment；whichgivesapreferencetothesidesofriversandrivulets，whenmachineswroughtbywaterarenecessary；totheproximityofforestsandcollieries，whenfireisemployed；

totheplacewhichproducesthesubstanceofthemanufacture；asinmines，collieries，brick-works，&c。

Secondly，Relativetotheconvenienceoftransportation，asuponnavigablerivers，orbygreatroads。

Thirdly，Relativetothecheapnessofliving，consequentlynot(frequently)ingreatcities，exceptfortheirownconsumption。Butitmustbeobserved，thatthislastconsiderationcanhardlyeverbepermanent:fortheveryestablishmentbeingthemeansofraisingprices，theadvantagemustdiminishinproportionastheundertakingcomestosucceed。

Thebestrulethereforeis，tosetdownsuchmanufacturesuponthebanksofnavigablerivers，whereallnecessaryprovisionsmaybebroughtfromadistanceatasmallcost。Thisadvantageispermanent，theothersarenot；andmayproveintimehurtful，byachangeinthoseverycircumstanceswhichdecidedastothechoiceofthesituation。Fromtheestablishmentofmanufacturesweseehamletsswellintovillages，andvillagesintotowns。

Sea-portsowetheirestablishmenttoforeigntrade。Fromoneorotheroftheseandsimilarprinciples，aremankindgatheredintohamlets，villages，towns，andcities。

Chap。X

OftheConsequenceswhichresultfromtheSeparationofthetwoprincipalClassesofaPeople，theFarmersandtheFreeHands，withregardtotheirDwellingIamnextgoingtoexaminetheconsequencesresultingtothestate，tothecitizens，andtothelandedinterest，fromthiskindofseparation，asImaycallit，betweentheparentearthandherlaboriouschildren，whichnaturallytakesplaceeverywhereinproportiontotheprogressofindustry，luxury，andtheswiftcirculationofmoney。

Astothestate，itis，Ithink，veryplain，that，withoutsuchadistributionofinhabitants，itwouldbeimpossibletolevytaxes。Foraslongastheearthnourishesdirectlythosewhoareuponhersurface，aslongasshedeliversherfruitsintotheveryhandofhimwhoconsumesthem，thereisnoalienation，nooccasionformoney，consequentlynopossibilityofestablishinganextensivetaxation，asshallinitsplacebefullyexplained。

Fromthisprincipleis，Iimagine，tobededucedthereason，whywefindtaxationsolittleknownunderthefeudalformofgovernment。

Thepersonalserviceofthevassals，withtheircattleandservantsuponalloccasions，madethepowerandwealthofthelords，andtheirrentsweremostlypaidinkind。Theylivedupontheirlands，werecommonlyjealousofoneanother，andhadconstantdisputes。Thiswasaverygoodreasontokeepthemfromcomingtogether。Townsweresituatedroundtheirhabitations。

Theseweremostlycomposedofthefewtradesmenandmanufacturersthatwereinthecountry。Thelord’sjudge，hisfiscal，andhiscourtofrecord，addedtothesenumbers；lawsuits，andthelord’sattendance，broughtthevassalsfrequentlytogether；thisgaveencouragementtohousesofentertainment；andthisItaketobethepictureofthegreatestpartofsmalltowns，ifweascendthreeorfourhundredyearsfromthepresenttime。

Citiesweretheresidenceofbishops。Theselordswereveryindependentofthecivilgovernment，andhadatthesametimetheprincipaldirectioninit。Theyprocuredprivilegestotheircities，andthesecommunitiesformedthemselvesbydegreesintosmallrepublics:taxesherehaveeverbeenfamiliar。Thefeudallordsseldomappearedhere，andtheinferiorclassesofthepeopleenjoyedlibertyandeaseinthesecitiesonly。

InsomecountriesofEurope，asinGermany，theprincipalcitizens，intime，becamepatricians。InFrancecertainofficesofpublictrustsometimesprocurednobilitytothosewhoborethem，andalwaysconsideration。Therepresentativesofthecitizenswereevenadmittedintothestates，andformedthetiers阾at。Elsewheretheyreceivedcasualmarksofdistinctionfromthesovereign，astheLordMayorofLondondoestothisdayusuallyreceiveknighthood。Inshort，theonlydawningofpubliclibertytobemetwithduringthefeudalgovernment，wasinthecities；nowondertheniftheyincreased。

UponthediscoveryofAmericaandtheEast-Indies，industry，trade，andluxury，weresoonintroducedinthekingdomsofSpain，France，andEngland:thegrandeurandpoweroftheHanstownshadalreadypointedouttosovereignstheimportanceoftheseobjects。

Thecourtsofprincesthenbecamemagnificent；thefeudallordsinsensiblybegantofrequentthemwithmoreassiduitythanformerly。Thesplendoroftheprincesooneclipsedthoserayswhichshonearoundthemupontheirownlands。Theynownomoreappearedtooneanotherasobjectsofjealousy，butofemulation。

Theybecameacquainted，begantorelishacourtlife，andeveryoneproposedtohaveahouseinthecapital。Achangeofhabitationmadeachangeofcircumstances，bothastocityandcountry。Astothecity；sofarasinhabitantswereincreased，bytheadditionofthegreatlords，andofthosewhofollowedtheirexample，sofardemandincreasedforeverysortofprovisionandlabour；andthisquicklydrewmoreinhabitantstogether。Everyoneviedwithanotherinmagnificenceofpalaces，clothes，equipages。Modeschangedandbyturnsenlivenedthedifferentbranchesofingenuity。Whencecamesogreatanumberofinhabitantsallofasudden？Hewhowouldhavecasthiseyesonthedesertedresidencesofthenobility，wouldquicklyhavediscoveredthesource；hewouldtherehaveseentheoldpeopleweepingandwailing，andnothingheardamongthembutcomplaintsofdesolation:theyouthwereretiredtothecity:therewasnochangeastothem。

Thisisnodoubtaplainconsequenceofasuddenrevolution，whichnevercanhappenwithoutbeingattendedwithgreatinconveniences。Manyofthenumerousattendantsofthenobilitywhouselesslyfilledeveryhouseandhabitationbelongingtothegreatman，werestarvingforwant。Hewasatcourt，andcallingaloudformoney，athinghewasseldomaccustomedtohaveoccasionfor，excepttolockupinhischest。Inordertoprocurethismoney，hefounditexpedienttoconvertaportionofthepersonalservicesofhisvassalsintocash:bythishelosthisauthority。Hethenlookedoutforafarmer(notahusbandman)foranestatewhichheformerlyconsumedinitsfruits。Thisundertaker，asImaycallhim，beganbydismissingidlemouths。

Stillgreatercomplaintsensued。Atlast，themoneyspentinthecitybegantoflowintothehandsoftheindustrious:thisraisedanemulationandthechildrenofthemiserable，whohadfeltthesadeffectsoftherevolution，butwhocouldnotforeseetheconsequences，begantoprofitbyit。Theybecameeasyandindependentinthegreatcity，byfurnishingtotheextravaganceofthoseunderwhosedominiontheywereborn。

Thisprogressionisperhapstoominutelytracedtobeexact；

Ithereforestop，toconsiderthesituationofaffairsatthatperiod，whenalltheinconveniencesofthesuddenrevolutionhadceased，andwhenthingswerecometothestateinwhichwenowfindthem。Capitalsswelledtoagreatextent；ParisandLondonappearingmonstroustosome，asbeingaloadupontherestofthecountry。Thismustbeexamined。

Weagree，Isuppose，thattheinhabitantsofcitiesarenotemployedinagriculture，andwemayagreethattheyarefedbyit:wehaveexaminedintothecausesoftheincreaseofcities，andwehaveseenthefundprovidedfortheirsubsistence，towit，thesurplusoffruitsproducedbyhusbandmen。

Whatarethentheadvantagesresultingtothecitizensfromthisgreatincreaseoftheircity？Icannotfindanygreatbenefitresultingtoeachindividualfromthiscircumstance；butIconclude，thatthesameadvantageswhichmanyfindinparticular，mustbecommontogreatnumbers，consequentlygreatnumbersaregatheredtogether。

Theprincipalobjectionsagainstgreatcitiesare，thathealththereisnotsogood，thatmarriagesarenotsofrequentasinthecountry，thatdebaucheryprevails，andthatabusesaremultiplied。

TothisIanswer，thattheseobjectionslieequallyagainstmostcities，andarenotpeculiartothosecomplainedoffortheirbulk；andthattheevilsproceedmorefromthespiritoftheinhabitants，thanfromthesizeofthecapital。

Itisfurtherurged，thatthenumberofdeathsexceedsthenumberofbirthsingreatcities；consequentlysmallertowns，andeventhecountry，isstrippedofitsinhabitants，inordertorecruitthesecapitals。

HereIfirstdeny，thatinallcapitalsthenumberofdeathsexceedsthenumberofbirths；forinParisitisotherwise。Butsupposingtheassertiontobetrue，whatconclusioncanbedrawnfromit，exceptthatmanypeoplewhoareborninthecountrydieintown。Thatthecountryshouldfurnishcitieswithinhabitantsisnoevil。Whatoccasionhasthecountryforsupernumeraryhands？Ifithasenoughforthesupplyofitsownwants，andofthedemandsofcities，hasitnotenough？Haditmore，thesupernumerarieswouldeitherconsumewithoutworking，or，ifaddedtotheclassoflabourers，insteadofbeingaddedtothenumberoffreehands，wouldoverturnthebalancebetweenthetwoclasses；grainwouldbecometooplentiful，andthatwouldcastageneraldiscouragementuponagriculture:whereas，bygoingtocities，theyacquiremoney，andtherewithpurchasethegraintheywouldhaveconsumed，hadtheyremainedinthecountry；andthismoney，whichtheiradditionallabourincitieswillforceintocirculation，wouldotherwisehaveremainedlockedup，oratleastwouldnothavegoneintothecountry，butinconsequenceofthedesertionofthesupernumeraries。Theproperandonlyrightencouragementforagriculture，isamoderateandgradualincreaseofdemandfortheproductionsoftheearth:thisworksanaturalandbeneficialincreaseofinhabitants；andthisdemandmustcomefromcities，forthehusbandmenneverhaveoccasiontodemand；itistheywhooffertosale。

Thehighpricesofmostthingsinlargecitiesisabenefitsurely，notalosstothecountry。ButImustobserve，thatthegreatexpenceoflivingincapitalsdoesnotaffectthelowerclasses，northemoderateandfrugal，inanyproportiontowhatitdoestherich。Ifyouliveonbeef，mutton，bread，andbeer，youmayliveascheapinLondonandinParisasinmostcitiesI

know。Thesearticlesabound，andthoughthedemandbegreat，theprovisionmadeforsupplyingitisinproportion。Butwhenyoucometofish，fowl，andgame；delicaciesofeverykindbroughtfromfar，bythepost，byships，andbymessengers；whenyouhavefineequipages，largehouses，expensiveservants，andabundanceofwasteineveryarticle，withoutonegrainofoeconomyinany，itisnowonderthatmoneyshouldrunawaysofast。Idonot，fromwhathasbeensaid，conclude，thatthereisanyevidentadvantageinhavingsoovergrownacapitalasLondoninsuchakingdomasEngland；butthatIdonotfindgreatforceintheobjectionsIhavemetwithagainstit。ThattheremaybeotherswhichIdonotknow，Iwillnotdeny，becauseIamnotsufficientlyacquaintedwiththatkingdomtobeacompetentjudgeofthematter。

Letmenowconcludethischapter，bymentioninginwhatrespectsIthinkcitiesanadvantage，ingeneral，toacountry；

and，asIgoalong，Ishallpointoutwhereintheyproveadisadvantage，inparticular，tosomepartsofit。

Thegeneraladvantagesofthemare:

First，Toremovethenecessaryloadupontheland；thoseidlepeople，whoeatupapartoftheproduceoflabourwithoutcontributingtoit。

Secondly，Theopportunityoflevyingtaxes，andofmakingtheseaffecttherich，inproportiontotheconsumptiontheymake，withouthurtingindustryorexportation。

Thirdly，Theadvantagesresultingtothelandedinterestarenolessconsiderable。Thisisprovedbyuniversalexperience；forweseeeverywhere，thatthemomentanycity，town，orvillage，beginstoencrease，bytheestablishmentoftradeormanufactures，thelandsroundaboutimmediatelyriseintheirvalue。Thereasonofthisseemseasilydeducedfromtheaboveprinciples。

Whenafarmerhasgothisoeconomyunderrightregulations，notonesupernumerary，noruselessmouth，butabundanceofhandsforeverykindoflabour，whichisgenerallythecaseneartownsandcities，theproximityofthemdischargeshimofeverysuperfluity。Hiscattleconsumetheexactquantityofgrainandofforagenecessary；whatremainsismoney，asuperfluouseggismoney；asuperfluousdayofacart，ofahorse，asuperfluoushourofaservant，isallmoneytothefarmer。Thereisaconstantdemandforeverythinghecandoorfurnish。Tomakethisthemoresensiblyperceived，removeintoaprovince，farfromatown，andcomparesituations。Thereyoufindabundanceofthingssuperfluous，whichcannotbeturnedintomoney，whichthereforeareconsumedwithoutmuchnecessity，andwithlittleprofit。Itisgoodtohaveanestatethere，whenyouwanttoliveuponit；itisbettertohaveonenearthegreattown，whenyoudonot。

Itmaybealleged，thatthedisadvantagesfeltbythedistantfarmerandproprietor，whentheycomparesituationswiththoseresidingnearthetown，proceedfromthetown:thismustbeexamined。

Ifthetownconsumetheproduceofthisdistantfarm，itmustconsumeitincompetitionwitheveryplaceatasmallerdistance；

consequentlythiscompetitionmustdomoregoodthanharmtothedistantfarm。Ifthecityconsumenoneoftheproduce，whereindoesitaffectit？Itmaybeanswered，that，byenteringintocompetitionwiththedistantfarmerforthelabouringinhabitants，thesedesertagriculture，infavourofamorelucrativeoccupation，tobefoundinthecity。Scarcityofhandsinthecountryraisesthepriceoflabourononehand，whileitdiminishesthepriceofsubsistenceontheother；consequentlythefarmersuffersadoubledisadvantage。Ofthistherecanbenodoubt；butastheserevolutionscannotbytheirnaturebesudden，itbecomesthedutyofthestatesman，whomIsupposeconstantlyawake，directlytosetonfootsomebranchofindustryineverysuchdistantpartofthecountry；andaspricesofsubsistencewilldiminishforawhile，forthereasonsabove-mentioned，thiswillproveanencouragementtotheestablishment；thisagainwillacceleratepropagation，asitwillproveanoutletforchildren，and，inashorttime，thefarmerwillfindhimselfinabettersituationthanever。Butevenwithoutthisassistancefromindustrythestate，afewyearswillsetalltorights，providedthespiritofiskeptup:forcities，byswelling，extendtheirdemandtothemostdistantcornersofacountry；theinhabitantswhodesertdonotceasetoconsume，andtherebytheyrepairthehurttheydobytheirdesertion。Iappealtoexperienceforthetruthofthis。Dowenotperceivedemandextendingeveryyearfartherandfartherfromgreatcapitals？IknowplacesinFrancewhich，twentyyearsago，neverknewwhatitwastosendevenadelicacytoParis，butbythepost，andwhichnowsendthithereveryweekloadedwaggons，withmanythousandweightofprovisions，somuchthatImayalmostsay，thatafattedchickeninthemostdistantprovinceofthatcountrycanbesoldwithgreatprofitintheParismarketduringallthewinterseason；

andcattlecarrythithertheirownfleshcheaperthananywaggoncan。Whatdistantfarmthencancomplainofthegreatnessofthatnoblecity？Thereishoweveracase，whereadistantpartofacountrymaysufferineveryrespect，towit，whentherevolutionissudden；aswhenarichman，whousedtospendhisincomeinhisprovince，fortheencouragementofindustry，goestoParisorLondon，andstaysawayforayearortwo，withoutmindingtheinterestoftheestateheabandons。Nodoubtthismustaffecthisprovinceinproportion；butineveryrevolutionwhichcomesongraduallybythedesertionofsuchonlyaslivedbytheirindustry，newmouthsarebornandsupplytheold。Theonlyquestionisaboutemployingthemwell:whileyouhavesuperfluousfoodandgoodoeconomy，acountrywillalwaysreapthesamebenefitfromhernaturaladvantages。

Fourthly，Anotheradvantageofcitiesis，thenecessityarisingfromthenceofhavinggreatroads，andtheseagainproveaconsiderableencouragementtoagriculture。

ThemiserableconditionofroadsoverallEuropealmost，tillwithinthesehundredyears，isaplainproofofthescantyconditionofthecities，andofthesmallencouragementformerlygiventowardsextendingtheimprovementofthesoil。

LetanyoneexaminethesituationofthelandedinterestbeforethemakingofgreatroadsinseveralprovincesinFrance，andcompareitwithwhatitisatpresent。Ifthisbefoundadifficultinquiry，lethimcomparetheappearanceofyounggentlemenofmiddlingfortune，ashefindsthematParis，orintheirregiment，withthatoftheirfathers，wholiveintheirprovinceintheoldway，andhewillhaveaverygoodopportunityofperceivingtheprogressofeaseandrefinementinthisclass，whichhasproceededfromnoothercausethantheimprovementofthesoil。Peoplecomplainthatpricesarerisen；ofthisthereisnodoubtwithregardtomanyarticles。Isnotthisquiteconsistentwithourprinciples？Itisnotbecausethereisnowalargermassofmoneyinthekingdom，thoughIallowthistobetrue，andalsothatthiscircumstancemayhavecontributedtoraiseprices；butthedirectprinciplewhichhasinfluencedthem，andwhichwillalwaysregulatetheirriseandfall，istheincreaseofdemand。Nowthegreatroadsinamannercarrythegoodstomarket；theyseemtoshortendistances，theyaugmentthenumberofcarriagesofallsorts，theyremovetheinconveniencesabove-mentionedresultingfromthedistanceofthecity。Themoredistantpartsofthecountrycometomarket，incompetitionwiththefarmersintheneighbourhoodofthecities。Thiscompetitionmightmaketherentsoflandslyingroundsuchcitiesaswerethefirsttoencourageindustry，sinkintheirvalue。Butthehurtinthisrespectdonetotheproprietorsoftheselandswouldsoonberepaired。Thecitieswouldincreaseinbulk，demandwouldincreasealso，andpriceswouldrisea-new。Everythingwhichemploysinhabitantsusefullypromotesconsumption；andthisagainisanadvantagetothestate，asitdrawsmoneyfromthetreasuresoftherichintothehandsoftheindustrious。Theeasytransportationoffruitsproducesthiseffect:thedistantfarmercanemployhisidlehoursinproviding，andtheidledaysofhisservantsandcattleinsendingthingstomarket，fromfarmswhichformerlyneverknewwhatitwastosellsuchproductions。

Ishallcarrythesespeculationsnofarther，butconcludebyobserving，thatthemakingofroadsandnavigablecanalsmustadvancepopulation，astheycontributetotheadvancementofagriculture。

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