inwhichareparticularlyconsideredPopulation，Agriculture，Trade，Industry，Money，Coin，Interest，Circulation，Banks，Exchange，PublicCredit，andTaxesbySirJamesSteuart，Bart。
Oretrabitquodcumquepotestatqueadditacervo。
Hor。Lib。I。Sat。1
inTwoVolumes。
London:
PrintedforA。Millar，andT。Cadell，intheStrand。
MDCCLXVII
PREFACE
ItiswiththegreatestdiffidencethatIpresenttothepublicthisattempttowardsreducingtoprinciples，andformingintoaregularscience，thecomplicatedinterestsofdomesticpolicy。WhenIconsiderthetimeandlabouremployedinthecomposition，Iamapttovalueitfromselfishconsiderations。
WhenIcompareitevenwithmyownabilities，Istillthinkfavourablyofit，forabetterreason；becauseitcontainsasummaryofthemostvaluablepartofallmyknowledge。ButwhenI
considerthegreatnessofmysubject，howsmalldoestheresultofmyapplicationappear！
Theimperfections，therefore，discoveredinthiswork，mustbeascribedtothedisproportionbetweentheextentoftheundertaking，andthatofmycapacity。This，Icanassuremyreader，hasbeenexertedtotheutmost:andif，afterall，Ihavefailed，itmay，atleast，withjustice，besaid，thatIhavemiscarriedinanattemptofthegreatestimportancetomankind。
Inowhere，Ithink，haveshewnadesiretomakemycourttoanyparticularminister，whoseadministrationmighthavebeenhintedat。Ihavefreelyfollowedthethreadofmyreasoningwithoutabias，eitherinfavourofpopularopinions，orofanyofthenumberlesssystemswhichhavebeenformedbythosewhohavewrittenuponparticularpartsofmysubject。ThewarmthofmytempermayhaveledmesometimesintocommendationswhenI
havebeenpleased；butwhenIfelttheeffectsofillhumouronbeingdissatisfiedwithparticularcircumstances，relatingtocountries，tomen，andtothings，whichIhadinmyeyeatthetimeIwaswriting，Iwasimmediatelyawareofthedangerofblamingthestepsofanyadministration，withoutbeingwellformedofthewholecombinationofcircumstanceswhichtheministermayhavehadbeforehimatthetime。
Thiscompositionbeingthesuccessivelabourofmanyyearsspentintravelling，thereaderwillfindsomepassagesinwhichtheunitiesoftimeandplacehavenotbeenobserved。TheseI
couldhavecorrectedwithease，hadInotbeenadvisedtoleavethemascharacterstopointoutthecircumstancesunderwhichI
wrote，andtherebytoconfirmtheauthenticityofcertainfacts。
Themodesofthinking，also，peculiartotheseveralcountrieswhereIhavelived，have，nodoubt，hadaninfluenceonwhatIhavewrittenconcerningtheircustoms:thiswork，therefore，willnot，ingeneral，correspondtothemeridianofnationalopinionsanywhere；andofthisitisproperthereadershouldbeapprised，thathemaynotapplytothedomesticcircumstancesofhisowncountrywhatwasintendedtorefertothoseofothernations；norimputetowilfulprejudice，whatwastheirresistibleeffectofmyexperienceandconviction。
Sincethefirstpublicationofthisworksomecriticismsuponithavebeenpublishedinwhichlittleregardhasbeenpaidtothisadvertisement。
Thegreaterpartofitbyfar，(thethreefirstbooksparticularly)wascomposedabroad。Canitbesupposed，thatduringanabsenceofneartwentyyears，IshouldinmystudieshaveallthewhilebeenmodellingmyspeculationsuponthestandardofEnglishnotions。
IthasbeenallegedthatIhaveimbibedprejudicesabroad，bynomeansconsistentwiththepresentstateofEngland，andthegeniusofEnglishmen。
TowhichIanswer，thatIflattermyselftohaveimbibednoprejudiceseitherabroadorathome，atleastIthinkIhaveexhibitednoneoftheminmywork；becausethereIhaverejectedallpartyopinionswhatever。
Accordingtomywayoftreatingthissubjectnogeneralrulecanbelaiddowninpoliticalmatters:everythingtheremustbeconsideredaccordingtothecircumstancesandspiritofthenationstowhichtheyrelate。Accordinglyweshallfindinthisinquirysomereasoningsbuiltontheprinciplesofarbitrarypower，othersonthoseofnationalliberty，othersagainonthoseofdemocracy。HadI，incomplimenttothesentimentsofEnglishmen，suppressedeverycombinationwhichmightapplytothecircumstancesofthoseverycountrieswhereIwasstudyingmysubject，fromtheactualinspectionoftheirpolicy，whatmeritshouldIhavehadtopleadwithmyowncountrymenfrommytravelsandfrommystudies，anylocalEnglishwriterdescribingEnglishpolicyandsoundingthrougheverypagethemostpeculiaropinionsofthisnation，mighthaveamusedhisreadersfarbetterthaneverIcouldpretendto。
If，fromthiswork，Ihaveanymeritatall，itisbydivestingmyselfofEnglishnotions，sofarastobeabletoexposeinafairlight，thesentimentsandpolicyofforeignnations，relativelytotheirownsituation。
Nowtheprincipalattentionofanintelligentreaderwhoperusesabooklikethis，willbedirectedtowardstheinvestigatorypartofit:everystepofthereasoningwillbeweighedbyhimuntilthefinalconclusionbedrawn；hewillthengivehisassenttoitinproportiontotheaccuracyoftheinduction；butheneverwillrecoilfromwhathehasonceassentedto，inordertoformageneralnotionconcedinganyresultbycomparingitwithhisownanimalfeelingsorwiththepopularopinionofhiscountrymen。
ThismuchIamobligedtosayinmyownjustification，withrespecttoseveralpassageswhichhavebeenwrittenattimeswhenEnglandwasverydistantfrommythoughts。
Ihavereadmanyauthorsonthesubjectofpoliticaloeconomy；andIhaveendeavouredtodrawfromthemalltheinstructionIcould。Ihavetravelled，formanyyears，throughdifferentcountries，andhaveexaminedthem，constantly，withaneyetomyownsubject。IhaveattemptedtodrawinformationfromeveryonewithwhomIhavebeenacquainted:this，however，I
foundtobeverydifficultuntilIhadattainedtosomepreviousknowledgeofmysubject。SuchdifficultiesconfirmedtomethejustnessofLordBacon’sremark，thathewhocandrawinformationbyformingproperquestions，mustbealreadypossessedofhalfthescience。
IcouldformnoconsistentplanfromthevariousopinionsI
metwith:henceIwasengagedtocompiletheobservationsIbadcasuallymade，inthecourseofmytravels，reading，andexperience。FromtheseIformedthefollowingworkafterexpungingthenumberlessinconsistenciesandcontradictionswhichIfoundhadarisenfrommyseparateinquiriesintoeveryparticularbranch。
Ihadobservedsomanypersonsdeclininginknowledgeastheyadvancedinyears，thatIresolvedearlytothrowuponpaperwhateverIhadlearned；andtothisIusedtohaverecourse，asothershavetotheirmemories。Theunityoftheobjectofallmyspeculations，renderedthispracticemoreusefultomethanitwouldbetoonewhoseresearchesaremoreextended。
Whoeverismuchaccustomedtowriteforhisownusemerely，mustcontractamorecarelessstylethananotherwhohasmadelanguagehisstudy，andwhowritesinhopesofacquiringaliteraryreputation。Inever，tillverylately，thoughtofappearingasanauthoronthissubject；and，inthefrequentperusalsofwhatIhadwritten，mycorrectionswerechieflyinfavourofperspicuity。addtothis，thatthelanguageinwhichI
nowwritewas，formanyyears，foreigntothosewithwhomIlivedandconversed。Whenthesecircumstancesareaddedtotheintricacyofmysubject，whichconstantlycarriedoffmyattentionfromeveryornamentoflanguage，Iflattermyselfthatthoseofmyreaders，atleast，whoenterasheartilyasIhavedoneintothespiritofthiswork，willcandidlyoverlookthewantofthatelegancewhichadornsthestyleofsomecelebratedauthorsinthisAugustanage。
Ipresentthisenquirytothepublicasnothingmorethananessaywhichmayserveasacanvassforbetterhandsthanminetoworkupon。
ItcontainssuchobservationsonlyasthegeneralviewofthedomesticpolicyofthecountriesIhaveseen，hassuggested。Itisaspeculation，andnomore。Itisaroughdrawingofamightyplan，proportionedincorrectnesstomyownsagacity，tomyknowledgeofthesubject，andtotheextentofmyideas。
Itgoeslittlefartherthantocollectandarrangesomeelementsrelatingtothemostinterestingbranchesofmodernpolicy，suchaspopulation，agriculture，trade，industry，money，coin，interest，circulation，banks，exchange，publiccredit，andtaxes。Theprinciplesdeducedfromallthesetopics，appeartolerablyconsistent；andthewholeisatrainofreasoning，throughwhichIhaveadheredtotheconnectionofsubjectsasfaithfullyasIcould:butthenatureoftheworkbeingadeductionofprinciples，notacollectionofinstitutions，I
seizedtheopportunitieswhichmyreasoningthrewinmyway，toconnecteveryprinciple，asIwentalong，witheverypartoftheinquirytowhichitcouldrefer；andwhenIfoundtheconnexionsufficientlyshewn，Ibrokeoffsuchdisquisitionsaswouldhaveledmefromtheobjectthenpresent。
Whenprinciplesthuscasuallyappliedinonepart，tomattersintendedtobeafterwardstreatedofinanother，cametobetakenupa-new，theyinvolvedmeinwhatmayappearprolixity。ThisI
foundmostunavoidable，whenIwasledtothoughtswhichwerenewtomyself，andconsequentlysuchasmusthavecostmethegreatestlabourtosetinaclearanddistinctpointofview。HadIbeenmasterofmysubjectonsettingout，thearrangementofthewholewouldhavebeenrenderedmoreconcise:buthadthisbeenthecase，Ishouldneverhavebeenabletogothroughthepainfuldeductionwhichformsthewholechainofmyreasoning，anduponwhich，tomanyreadersslowinformingcombinations，theconvictionitcarriesalongwithitinagreatmeasuredepends:
tothefew，again，ofamorepenetratinggenius，towhomtheslightesthintissufficienttolayopeneveryconsequencebeforeitbedrawn，inallusiontoHorace，Iofferthisapology，Clarusesselaboro，prolixusfio。
ThepathIhavetakenwasnewtome，afterallIhadreadonthesubject。Iexamined，bymyownprinciples，whatIhadgatheredfromothers；andadopteditasfarasIfoundittallywithcollateralcircumstances。When，ontheotherhand，Ifoundadisagreement，Iwasapprizedimmediatelyofsomemistake；andthisIfoundconstantlyowingtothenarrownessofthecombinationsuponwhichithadbeenfounded。
Thegreatdangerofrunningintoerroruponparticularpointsrelatingtothissubject，proceedsfromourviewingtheminalighttooconfined，andtoournotattendingtotheinfluenceofconcomitantcircumstances，whichrendergeneralrulesoflittleuse。Menofpartsandknowledgeseldomfailtoreasonconsequentiallyoneverysubject；butwheninquiriesaremadeconcerningthecomplicatedinterestsofsociety，thevivacityofanauthor’sgeniusisapttopreventhimfromattendingtothevarietyofcircumstanceswhichrenderuncertaineveryconsequence，almost，whichhecandrawfromhisreasoning。TothisIascribethehabitofrunningintowhattheFrenchcallSyst鑝es。Thesearenomorethanachainofcontingentconsequences，drawnfromafewfundamentalmaxims，adopted，perhaps，rashly。Suchsystemsaremereconceits；theymisleadtheunderstanding，andeffacethepathtotruth。Aninductionisformed，fromwhenceaconclusion，calledaprinciple，isdrawnanddefined；butthisisnosoonerdone，thantheauthorextendsitsinfluencefarbeyondthelimitsoftheideaspresenttohisunderstanding，whenhemadehisdefinition。Thebestmethod，therefore，todetectapretendedsystem，isalwaystosubstitutethedefinitioninplaceoftheterm。
Theimperfectionalsooflanguageengagesusfrequentlyindisputesmerelyverbal；andinsteadofbeingonourguardagainstthemanyunavoidableambiguitiesattendingthemostcarefulspeech，weplaceagreatpartofourlearningwhenatschool，andofourwitwhenweappearonthestageoftheworld，intheprostitutionoflanguage。Thelearneddelightinvague，andthewittyinequivocalterms。Ingeneral，wefamiliarizeourselvessomuchtowords，andthinksolittle，whenwespeakandwrite，thatthesignsofourideastaketheplaceoftheimageswhichtheywereintendedtorepresent。
Everytrueproposition，whenunderstood，mustbeassentedtouniversally。Thisisthecasealways，whensimpleideasareaffirmedordeniedofeachother。Nobodyeverdoubtedthatsoundistheobjectofhearing，orcolourthatofsight，orthatblackisnotwhite。Butwheneveradisputearisesconcerningaproposition，whereincomplexideasarecompared，wemayoftenrestassured，thatthepartiesdonotunderstandeachother。
Luxury，saysone，isincompatiblewiththeprosperityofastate。
Luxuryisthefountainofanation’swelfareandhappiness，saysanother。Theremay，inreality，benodifferenceinthesentimentsofthesetwopersons。Thefirstmayconsiderluxuryasprejudicialtoforeigntrade，andascorruptingthemoralsofapeople。Theothermayconsiderluxuryasthemeansofprovidingemploymentforsuchasmustlivebytheirindustry，andofpromotinganequablecirculationofwealthandsubsistence，throughalltheclassesofinhabitants。Ifeachofthemhadattendedtotheother’scomplexideaofluxury，withallitsconsequences，theywouldhaverenderedtheirpropositionslessgeneral。
Thedifference，therefore，ofopinionbetweenmenisfrequentlymoreapparentthanreal。Whenwecompareourownideas，weconstantlyseetheirrelationswithperspicuity；butwhenwecometocommunicatetheserelationstootherpeople，itisoftenimpossibletoputthemintowordssufficientlyexpressiveoftheprecisecombinationofthemwehavemadeinourownminds。
Thisbeingthecase，Ihaveavoided，asmuchaspossible，condemningsuchopinionsasIhavetakenthelibertytoreview；
becauseIhaveexaminedsuchonlyashavebeenadvancedbymenofgeniusandreputation；andsinceallmattersofcontroversyregardthecomparisonofourideas，ifthetermsweusetoexpressthemweresufficientlyunderstoodbybothparties，mostpoliticaldisputeswould，Iampersuaded，besoonatanend。
Hereitmaybeobjected，thatwefrequentlyadoptanopinion，withoutbeingabletogiveasufficientreasonforit；andyetwecannotpersuadeourselvestogiveitup，thoughwefinditcombatedbythestrongestarguments。TothisIanswer，thatinsuchcaseswedonotadheretoourownopinions，buttothoseofothersreceivedupontrust。Itisourregardfortheauthority，andnotfortheopinion，whichmakesustenacious:forweretheopiniontrulyourown，wecouldnotfailofseeing，oratleastweshouldnotlongbeatalossinrecollecting，thegrounduponwhichitisbuilt。Butwhenweassentimplicitlytoanypoliticaldoctrine，thereisnoroomforreason:wethensatisfyourselveswiththepersuasionthatthosewhomwetrusthavesufficientreasonsforwhattheyadvance。Whileourassentthereforeisimplicit，wearebeyondconviction；notbecausewedonotperceivetheforceoftheargumentsbroughtagainstouropinion，butbecauseweareignorantoftheforceofthosewhichcanbebroughttosupportit:andasnobodywillsellwhatbelongstohim，withoutbeingpreviouslyinformedofitsvalue，sonobodywillgiveupanimplicitopinion，withoutknowingallthatcanbesaidforit。TothisclassofmenIdonotaddressmyselfinthisinquiry。
ButIinsensiblyrunintoametaphysicalspeculation，inordertoprove，thatinpoliticalquestionsitisbetterforpeopletojudgefromexperienceandreason，thanfromauthoritytoexplaintheirterms，thantodisputeaboutwords；andtoextendthecombinationsoftheirownideas，thantofollowconceits，howeverdecoratedwiththenameofsystems。HowfarI
haveavoidedsuchdefects，thereaderwilldetermine。
Everywritervalueshimselfuponhisimpartiality；becauseheisnotsensibleofhisfetters。ThewanderingandindependentlifeIhaveledmaynaturallyhavesetmefree，insomemeasure，fromstrongattachmentstopopularopinions。Thismaybecalledimpartiality。Butasnomancanbedeemedimpartial，wholeanstoanysidewhatever，Ihavebeenparticularlyonmyguardagainsttheconsequencesofthissortofnegativeimpartiality；becauseI
havefounditsometimescarryingmetoofarfromthattowhichanationalprejudicemighthaveledme。
Indiscussinggeneralpoints，thebestmethodIfoundtomaintainajustbalanceinthisrespect，wastoavertmyeyefromthecountryinwhichIlivedatthetime；andtojudgeofabsentthingsbytheabsent。Objectswhicharepresent，areapttoproduceperceptionstoostrongtobeimpartiallycomparedwiththoserecalledbymemoryonly。
WhenIhavehadoccasiontodipintoanyquestionconcerningthepreferencetobegiventocertainformsofgovernmentaboveothers，andtotouchuponpointswhichhavebeentheobjectofsharpdisputes，Ihavegivenmyopinionwithfreedom，whenitseemedproper:butinstatingthequestion，Ihaveendeavouredtoavoidalltrite，and，asImaycallthem，technicaltermsofparty；whichinsuchdisputeseverysidechusestotakeintheirownacceptation:andasthereisnosentimentofconcordorgood-willintheirhearts，insteadofcomingtoexplanationstogether，theyarecharmedtofindanoccasiontodifferconcerninggeneralpropositions，fromthosetheyhateforparticularconsiderations。
Ihavesometimesenteredsoheartilyintothespiritofthestatesman，astobeapttoforgetmystationinthesocietywhereIlive；andwhenasaprivatemanIhavereadovertheworkofthepolitician，mynaturalpartialityinfavourofindividualshasledmetocondemn，asMachiavellianprinciples，everysentiment，approvingthesacrificeofprivateconcernsinfavourofageneralplan。
Inorder，therefore，toreconcilemetomyselfinthisparticular，andtopreventcertainexpressionshereandthereinterspersed，frommakingtheslightestimpressionuponareaderofdelicatesentiments，Imustobserve，thatnothingwouldhavebeensoeasyastosoftenmanypassages，wherethepoliticianappearstohavesnatchedthepenoutofthehandoftheprivatecitizen:butasIwriteforsuchonlywhocanfollowaclosereasoning，andattendtothegeneralscopeofthewholeinquiry，Ihave，purposely，madenocorrection；butcontinuedpainting，inthestrongestcolours，everyinconveniencewhichmustaffectcertainindividualslivingunderourfreemoderngovernments，wheneverawisestatesmansetsaboutcorrectingoldabuses，proceedingfromidleness，sloth，orfraudinthelowerclasses，arbitraryjurisdictionsinthehigher，andneglectsinadministrationswithrespecttotheinterestsofboth。Themoreanycureispainfulanddangerous，themoreoughtmencarefullytoavoidthedisease。Thisleadsmetosayawordconcerningtheconnectionbetweenthetheoryofmoralsandthatofpolitics。
Ilayitdownasageneralmaxim，thatthecharacteristicofagoodactionconsistsintheconformitybetweenthemotive，andthedutyoftheagent。Weretherebutonemanuponearth，hisdutywouldcontainnootherpreceptsthanthosedictatedbyself-love。Ifhecometobeafather，ahusband，afriend，hisself-lovefallsimmediatelyunderlimitations:hemustwithholdfromhimself，andgivetohischildren；hemustknowhowtosacrificesomeofhisfancies，inordertogratify，nowandthen，thoseofhiswife，orofhisfriend。Ifhecometobeajudge，amagistrate；hemustfrequentlyforgetthatheisafriend，orafather:andifherisetobeastatesman，hemustdisregardmanyotherattachmentsmorecomprehensive，suchasfamily，placeofbirth，andeven，incertaincases，hisnativecountry。Hisdutyherebecomesrelativetothegeneralgoodofthatsocietyofwhichheisthehead:andasthedeathofacriminalcannotbeimputedtothejudgewhocondemnshim，neithercanaparticularinconvenienceresultingtoanindividual，inconsequenceofasteptakenforageneralreformation，beimputedtohimwhositsatthehelmofgovernment。
Ifitshouldbeasked，ofwhatutilityaspeculationsuchasthiscanbetoastatesman，towhomitisinamanneraddressedfromthebeginningtotheend:Ianswer，thatalthoughitseemaddressedtoastatesman，therealobjectoftheinquiryistoinfluencethespiritofthosewhomhegoverns；andthevarietyofmattercontainedinit，mayevensuggestusefulhintstohimself。
Buthisowngeniusandexperiencewillenablehimtocarrysuchnotionsfarbeyondthereachofmyabilities。
IhavealreadysaidthatIconsideredmyworkasnomorethanacanvasspreparedformoreablehandsthanminetoworkupon。
Nowalthoughthesketchitcontainsbenotsufficientlycorrect，Ihavestillmadesomeprogress，Ithink，inpreparingthewayforotherstoimproveuponmyplan，bycontrivingproperquestionstoberesolvedbymenofexperienceinthepracticalpartofgovernment。
Ileaveitthereforetomastersinthesciencetocorrectandextendmyideas:andthosewhohavenotmadetheprinciplesofpolicytheirparticularstudy，mayhaveanopportunityofcomparingtheexpositionIhavegivenofthemwiththecommonlyreceivedopinionsconcerningmanyquestionsofgreatimportancetosociety。Theywill，forinstance，beabletojudgehowfarpopulationcanbeincreasedusefully，bymultiplyingmarriages，andbydividinglands:howfartheswellingofcapitals，citiesandtowns，tendstodepopulateacountry:howfartheprogressofluxurybringsdistressuponthepoorindustriousman:howfarrestrictionslaiduponthecorntrade，tendtopromoteanamplesupplyofsubsistenceinallourmarkets:howfartheincreaseofpublicdebtstendstoinvolveusinageneralbankruptcy:howfartheabolitionofpapercurrencywouldhavetheeffectofreducingthepriceofallcommodities:howfarataxtendstoenhancetheirvalue:andhowfarthediminutionofdutiesisanessentialrequisiteforsecuringtheliberty，andpromotingtheprosperityandhappinessofapeople。
Isitnotofthegreatestimportancetoexamine，withcandour，theoperationsbywhichallEuropehasbeenengagedinasystemofpolicysogenerallydeclaimedagainst，andsocontrarytothatwhichweheardailyrecommendedasthebest？Toshew，fromtheplainprinciplesofcommonsense，thatourpresentsituationistheunavoidableconsequenceofthespiritandmannersofthepresenttimes；andthatitisquitecompatiblewithalltheliberty，affluence，andprosperity，whichanyhumansocietyeverenjoyedinanyage，orunderanyformofgovernment？
Apeopletaughttoexpectfromastatesmantheexecutionofplans，bigwithimpossibilityandcontradiction，willremaindiscontentedunderthegovernmentofthebestofKings。
BookI
OfPopulationandAgricultureIntroductionOeconomy，ingeneral，istheartofprovidingforallthewantsofafamily，withprudenceandfrugality。
Ifanythingnecessaryorusefulbefoundwanting，ifanythingprovidedbelostormisapplied，ifanyservant，anyanimal，besupernumeraryoruseless，ifanyonesickorinfirmbeneglected，weimmediatelyperceiveawantofoeconomy。Theobjectofit，inaprivatefamily，isthereforetoprovideforthenourishment，theotherwants，andtheemploymentofeveryindividual。Inthefirstplace，forthemaster，whoisthehead，andwhodirectsthewhole；nextforthechildren，whointeresthimaboveallotherthings；andlastfortheservants，whobeingusefultothehead，andessentialtothewell-beingofthefamily，havethereforeatitletobecomeanobjectofthemaster’scareandconcern。
Thewholeoeconomymustbedirectedbythehead，whoisbothlordandstewardofthefamily。Itishowevernecessary，thatthesetwoofficesbenotconfoundedwithoneanother。Aslord，heestablishesthelawsofhisoeconomy；assteward，heputstheminexecution。Aslord，hemayrestrainandgivehiscommandstoallwithinthehouseashethinksproper；assteward，hemustconductwithgentlenessandaddress，andisboundbyhisownregulations。
Thebettertheoeconomist，themoreuniformityisperceivedinallhisactions，andthelesslibertiesaretakentodepartfromstatedrules。Heisnotsomuchmaster，asthathemaybreakthroughthelawsofhisoeconomy，althoughineveryrespecthemaykeepeachindividualwithinthehouse，inthemostexactsubordinationtohiscommands。Oeconomyandgovernment，eveninaprivatefamily，presentthereforetwodifferentideas，andhavealsotwodifferentobjects。
Whatoeconomyisinafamily，politicaloeconomyisinastate:withtheseessentialdifferences，however，thatinastatetherearenoservants，allarechildren:thatafamilymaybeformedwhenandhowamanpleases，andhemaythereestablishwhatplanofoeconomyhethinksfit；butstatesarefoundformed，andtheOeconomyofthesedependsuponathousandcircumstances。
Thestatesman(thisisageneraltermtosignifythelegislatureandsupremepower，accordingtotheformofgovernment)isneithermastertoestablishwhatoeconomyhepleases，or，intheexerciseofhissublimeauthority，tooverturnatwilltheestablishedlawsofit，lethimbethemostdespoticmonarchuponearth。(1*)
Thegreatartthereforeofpoliticaloeconomyis，firsttoadaptthedifferentoperationsofittothespirit，manners，habits，andcustomsofthepeople；andafterwardstomodelthesecircumstancesso，astobeabletointroduceasetofnewandmoreusefulinstitutions。
Theprincipalobjectofthisscienceistosecureacertainfundofsubsistenceforalltheinhabitants，toobviateeverycircumstancewhichmayrenderitprecarious；toprovideeverythingnecessaryforsupplyingthewantsofthesociety，andtoemploytheinhabitants(supposingthemtobefree-men)insuchamannerasnaturallytocreatereciprocalrelationsanddependenciesbetweenthem，soastomaketheirseveralinterestsleadthemtosupplyoneanotherwiththeirreciprocalwants。
Ifoneconsidersthevarietywhichisfoundindifferentcountries，inthedistributionofproperty，subordinationofclasses，geniusofpeople，proceedingfromthevarietyofformsofgovernment，laws，climate，andmanners，onemayconclude，thatthepoliticaloeconomyineachmustnecessarilybedifferent，andthatprinciples，howeveruniversallytrue，maybecomequiteineffectualinpractice，withoutasufficientpreparationofthespiritofapeople。
Itisthebusinessofastatesmantojudgeoftheexpediencyofdifferentschemesofoeconomy，andbydegreestomodelthemindsofhissubjectssoastoinducethem，fromtheallurementofprivateinterest，toconcurintheexecutionofhisplan。
Thespeculativepersonwho，removedfromthepractice，extractstheprinciplesofthissciencefromobservationandreflection，shoulddivesthimself，asfaraspossible，ofeveryprejudiceinfavourofestablishedopinions，howeverreasonable，whenexaminedrelativelytoparticularnations:hemustdohisutmosttobecomeacitizenoftheworld，comparingcustoms，examiningminutelyinstitutionswhichappearalike，whenindifferentcountriestheyarefoundtoproducedifferenteffects:
heshouldexaminethecauseofsuchdifferenceswiththeutmostdiligenceandattention。Itisfromsuchinquiriesthatthetrueprinciplesarediscovered。
Hewhotakesupthepenuponthissubject，keepinginhiseyethecustomsofhisownoranyothercountry，willfallmorenaturallyintoadescriptionofoneparticularsystemofit，thanintoanexaminationoftheprinciplesofthescienceingeneral；
hewillapplaudsuchinstitutionsashefindsrightlyadministeredathome；hewillcondemnthosewhichareadministeredwithabuse；but，withoutcomparingdifferentmethodsofexecutingthesameplanindifferentcountries，hewillnoteasilydistinguishthedisadvantageswhichareessentialtotheinstitution，fromthosewhichproceedfromtheabuse。Forthisreasonaland-taxexcitesheindignationofaFrenchman，anexcisethatofanEnglishman。Onewholooksintotheexecutionofboth，ineachcountry，andineverybranchoftheirmanagement，willdiscovertherealeffectsoftheseimpositions，andbeabletodistinguishwhatproceedsfromabuse，fromwhatisessentialtotheburden。
Nothingismoreeffectualtowardspreparingthespiritofapeopletoreceiveagoodplanofoeconomy，thanaproperrepresentationofit。Ontheotherhand，nothingisbettercalculatedtokeepthestatesman，whoisattheheadofaffairs，inawe。
Whenprinciplesarewellunderstood，therealconsequencesofburdensomeinstitutionsareclearlyseen:whenthepurposestheyareintendedforarenotobtained，theabuseofthestatesman’sadministrationappearspalpable。Peoplethenwillnotsomuchcryoutagainsttheimposition，asagainstthemisapplication。Itwillnotbealand-taxoffourshillingsinthepound，noranexciseuponwinesandtobacco，whichwillexcitethemurmursofanation；itwillbetheprodigaldissipationandmisapplicationoftheamountofthesetaxesaftertheyarelaidon。Butwhenprinciplesarenotknown，allinquiryisatanend，themomentanationcanbeengagedtosubmittotheburden。Itisthesamewithregardtomanyotherpartsofthisscience:whilepeopleremainblindtheyarealwaysmistrustful。
Havingpointedouttheobjectofmypursuit，Ishallonlyadd，thatmyintentionistoattachmyselfprincipallytoacleardeductionofprinciples，andashortapplicationofthemtofamiliarexamples，inordertoavoidabstractionasmuchaspossible。Ifartherintendtoconfinemyselftosuchpartsofthisextensivesubject，asshallappearthemostinterestinginthegeneralsystemofmodernpolitics；ofwhichIshalltreatwiththatspiritofliberty，whichreignsmoreandmoreeveryday，throughoutallthepoliteandflourishingnationsofEurope。
WhenIcomparetheelegantperformanceswhichhaveappearedinGreatBritainandinFrancewithmydryandabstractedmanneroftreatingthesamesubject，inaplainlanguagevoidofornament，IownIamdiscouragedonmanyaccounts。IfIbeobligedtosetoutbylayingdown，asfundamentalprinciples，themostobvioustruths，Idreadtheimputationofpedantry，andofpretendingtoturncommonsenseintoscience。IfIfollowtheseprinciplesthroughaminutedetail，Imayappeartrifling。I
thereforehopethereaderwillbelieveme，whenItellhim，thatthesedefectshavenotescapedmydiscernment，butthatmygenius，thenatureofthework，andtheconnectionofthesubject，haveobligedmetowriteinanorderandinastyle，whereeverythinghasbeensacrificedtoperspicuity。
Myprincipalaimshallbetodiscovertruth，andtoenablemyreadertotouchtheverylinkofthechainwhereImayatanytimegoastray。
Mybusinessshallnotbetoseekfornewthoughts，buttoreasonconsequentially；andifanythingnewshallbefound，itwillbeintheconclusions。
Longstepsinpoliticalreasoningleadtoerror:closereasoningistedious，andtomanyappearstrivial:this，however，mustbemyplan，andmyconsolationis，thatthefartherI
advance，Ishallbecomethemoreinteresting。
Everysuppositionmustbeconsideredasstrictlyrelativetothecircumstancespresupposed；andthough，inordertopreventmisapplication，andtoavoidabstractionasmuchaspossible，I
frequentlymakeuseofexamplesforillustratingeveryprinciple；
yetthese，whicharetakenfrommattersoffact，mustbesupposeddivestedofeveryforeigncircumstanceinconsistentwiththesupposition。
Ishallcombatnoparticularopinioninsuchintricatematters；thoughsometimesImaypasstheminreview，inordertopointouthowIamledtodifferfromthem。
Ipretendtoformnosystem，but，bytracingoutasuccessionofprinciples，consistentwiththenatureofmanandwithoneanother，Ishallendeavourtofurnishsomematerialstowardstheformingofagoodone。
Chap。I
OftheGovernmentofMankindManwefindactinguniformlyinallage，inallcountries，andinallclimates，fromtheprinciplesofself-interest，expediency，duty，orpassion。Inthisheisalike，innothingelse。
Thesemotivesofhumanactionsproducesuchavarietyofcircumstances，thatifweconsidertheseveralspeciesofanimalsinthecreation，weshallfindtheindividualsofnoclasssounliketooneanother，asmantoman。Nowonderthenifpeopledifferinopinionwithregardtoeverythingalmostwhichrelatestoourspecies。
Asthisnobleanimalisasociablecreature，bothfromnecessityandinclination，wefindalso，inallages，climatesandcountries，acertainmodificationofgovernmentandsubordinationestablishedamongthem。Hereagainwearepresentedwithasgreatavariety，astherearedifferentsocieties；allhoweveragreeinginthis，thattheendofavoluntarysubordinationtoauthorityiswithaviewtopromotethegeneralgood。
Constantanduninterruptedexperiencehasprovedtoman，thatvirtueandjustice，inthosewhogovern，aresufficienttorenderthesocietyhappy，underanyformofgovernment。Virtueandjustice，whenappliedtogovernment，meannomorethanatenderaffectionforthewholesociety，andanexactandimpartialregardfortheinterestofeveryclass。
Allactions，andallthingsindeed，aregoodorbadbyrelationonly。Nothingissocomplexasrelationswhenconsideredwithregardtoasociety，andnothingissodifficultastodiscovertruth，wheninvolvedandblendedwiththeserelations。
Wearenottoconcludefromthis，thateveryoperationofgovernmentmustbecomeproblematicalanduncertainastoitsconsequences:someareevidentlygood；othersarenotoriouslybad；those，thetendencyofwhichislessevident，arealwaystheleastessential，andthemorecomplextheyappeartoadiscerningeye，themoretrivialtheyarefoundtobeintheirimmediateconsequences。
Agovernmentmustbecontinuallyinaction，andoneprincipalobjectofitsattentionmustbe，theconsequencesandeffectsofnewinstitutions。
Experiencealonewillshew，whathumanprudencecouldnotforesee；andmistakesmustbecorrectedasoftenasexpediencyrequires。
Allgovernmentshavewhattheycalltheirfundamentallaws；
butfundamental，thatis，invariablelaws，canneversubsistamongmen，themostvariablethingweknow:theonlyfundamentallaw，saluspopuli，musteverberelative，likeeveryotherthing。
Butthisisratheramaximthanalaw。
Itishoweverexpedient，nayabsolutelynecessary，thatineverystate，certainlawsbesupposedfundamentalandinvariable:
bothtoserveasacurbtotheambitionofindividuals，andtopointouttothestatesmantheoutlines，orsketchofthatplanofgovernment，whichexperiencehasprovedtobethebestadaptedtothespiritofhispeople。
Suchlawsmayevenbeconsideredasactuallyinvariable，whileastatesubsistswithoutconvulsionsorrevolutions；
becausethenthealterationsaresogradual，thattheybecomeimperceptibletoall，butthemostdiscerning，whocancomparethecustomsandmannersofthesamepeopleindifferentperiodsoftimeandunderdifferentcircumstances。
Aswehavetakenforgrantedthefundamentalmaxim，thateveryoperationofgovernmentshouldbecalculatedforthegoodofthepeople，sowemaywithequalcertaintydecide，thatinordertomakeapeoplehappy，theymustbegovernedaccordingtothespiritwhichprevailsamongthem。
IamnexttoexplainwhatImeanbythespiritofapeople，andtoshowhowfarthisspiritmustbemadetoinfluencethegovernmentofeverysociety。
Chap。II
OftheSpiritofaPeopleThespiritofapeopleisformeduponasetofreceivedopinionsrelativetothreeobjects；morals，government，andmanners:theseoncegenerallyadoptedbyanysociety，confirmedbylongandconstanthabit，andnevercalledinquestion，formthebasisofalllaws，regulatetheformofeverygovernment，anddeterminewhatiscommonlycalledthecustomsofacountry。
Toknowapeople，wemustexaminethemunderthesegeneralheads。Weacquiretheknowledgeoftheirmoralswithease，byconsultingthetenetsoftheirreligion，andfromwhatistaughtamongthembyauthority。
Thesecond，orgovernment，ismoredisguised，asitisconstantlychangingfromcircumstances，partlyresultingfromdomesticandpartlyfromforeignconsiderations。Athoroughknowledgeoftheirhistory，andconversationwiththeirministersofstate，maygiveone，whohasaccesstothesehelps，averycompetentknowledgeofthisbranch。
Thelast，ortheknowledgeofthemannersofapeople，isbyfarthemostdifficulttoacquire，andyetisthemostopentoeveryperson’sobservation。Certaincircumstanceswithregardtomannersaresupposedbyeveryoneinthecountrytobesowellknown，sogenerallyfollowedandobserved，thatitseldomoccurstoanybodytoinformastrangerconcerningthem。Inonecountrynothingissoinjuriousasastrokewithastick，orevenagesturewhichimpliesadesignoradesiretostrike。inanotherastrokeisnotnearsooffensiveasanopprobriousexpression。
Aninnocentlibertywiththefairsex，whichinonecountrypasseswithoutcensure，islookeduponinanotherasthehighestindignity。Ingeneral，theopinionofapeoplewithregardtoinjuriesisestablishedbycustomonly，andnothingismorenecessaryingovernment，thananexactattentiontoeverycircumstancepeculiartothepeopletobegoverned。
ThekingdomofSpainwaslostforaviolencecommitteduponchastity；(2*)thecityofGenoaforablow；(3*)thekingdomsofNaplesandSicilyhaveeverbeenreadytorevolt；becausehavingbeenformanyagesunderthedominionofstrangers，thepeoplehaveneverbeengovernedaccordingtothetruespiritoftheirmanners。Letusconsulttherevolutionsofallcountries，andweshallfind，thatthemosttrivialcircumstanceshavehadagreaterinfluenceonsuchevents，thanthemoreweightyreasons，whicharealwayssetforthastherealmotives。Ineednotenlargeuponthissubject，myintentionisonlytosuggestanideawhichanyonemaypursue，andwhichwillbeapplieduponmanyoccasionsaswegoalong；forthereisnotreatinganypointwhichregardsthepoliticaloeconomyofanation，withoutaccompanyingtheexamplewithsomesuppositionrelativetothespiritofthepeople。
Ihavesaid，thatthemostdifficultthingtolearnconcerningapeople，isthespiritoftheirmanners。
Consequently，themostdifficultthingforastrangertoadopt，istheirmanner。Menacquirethelanguage，nayevenlosetheforeignaccent，beforetheylosethepeculiarityoftheirmanner。
Thereasonisplain。Theinclinationsmustbechanged，thetasteforamusementsmustbenew-modelled；establishedmaimsupongovernment，manners，nayevenuponsomemoralactions，mustundergocertainnewmodifications，beforethestranger’sconversationandbehaviourcanbecomeconsistentwiththespiritofthepeoplewithwhomhelives。
Fromtheseconsiderations，wemayfindthereason，whynothingismoreheavytobearthanthegovernmentofconquerors，inspiteofalltheirendeavourstorenderthemselvesagreeabletotheconquered。Ofthis，experiencehaseverprovedthetruth，andprincesaresomuchpersuadedofit，thatwhenacountryissubduedinourdays，orwhenitotherwisechangesmasters，thereisseldomanyquestionofaltering，butbyveryslowdegreesandlengthoftime，theestablishedlawsandcustomsoftheinhabitants。Imightsafelysay，thereisnoformofgovernmentuponearthsoexcellentinitself，as，necessarily，tomakethepeoplehappyunderit。Freedomitself，imposeduponapeoplegroaningunderthegreatestslavery，willnotmakethemhappy，unlessitismadetoundergocertainmodifications，relativetotheirestablishedhabits。
HavingexplainedwhatImeanbythespiritofapeople，I
comenexttoconsider，howfarthisspiritmustinfluencegovernment。
Ifgovernmentsbetakeningeneral，weshallfindthemanalogoustothespiritofthepeople。Butthepointunderconsiderationis，howastatesmanistoproceed，whenexpediencyandrefinementrequireachangeofadministration，orwhenitbecomesnecessaryfromachangeofcircumstances。
ThegreatalterationintheaffairsofEuropewithinthesethreecenturies，bythediscoveryofAmericaandtheIndies，thespringingupofindustryandlearning，theintroductionoftradeandtheluxuriousarts，theestablishmentofpubliccredit，andageneralsystemoftaxation，haveentirelyalteredtheplanofgovernmenteverywhere。
Fromfeudalandmilitary，itisbecomefreeandcommercial。I
opposefreedomingovernmenttothefeudalsystem，tomarkonlythatthereisnotfoundnowthatchainofsubordinationamongthesubjects，whichmadetheessentialpartofthefeudalform。Theheadtherehadlittlepower，andthelowerclassesofthepeoplelittleliberty。Noweveryindustriousman，wholiveswithoeconomy，isfreeandindependentundermostformsofgovernment。
Formerly，thepowerofthebaronsswalloweduptheindependencyofallinferiorclasses。Iopposecommercialtomilitary；becausethemilitarygovernmentsnowaremadetosubsistfromtheconsequencesandeffectsofcommerceonly。thatis，fromtherevenueofthestate，proceedingfromtaxes。Formerly，everythingwasbroughtaboutbynumbers；now，numbersofmencannotbekepttogetherwithoutmoney。
Thisissufficienttopointoutthenatureoftherevolutioninthepoliticalstate，andofconsequenceinthemannersofEurope。
Thespiritofapeoplechangesnodoubtofitself，butbyslowdegrees。Thesamegenerationcommonlyadherestothesameprinciples，andretainsthesamespirit。Ineverycountrywefindtwogenerationsuponthestageatatime；thatistosay，wemaydistributeintotwoclassesthespiritwhichprevails；theoneamongstmenbetweentwentyandthirty，whenopinionsareforming；
theotherofthosewhoarepastfifty，whenopinionsandhabitsareformedandconfirmed。Apersonofjudgmentandobservationmayforeseemanythingsrelativetogovernment，fromanexactattentiontotheriseandprogressofnewcustomsandopinions，providedhepreservehismindfreefromallattachmentsandprejudices，infavourofthosewhichhehimselfhasadopted，andinthatdelicacyofsensationnecessarytoperceivetheinfluenceofachangeofcircumstances。Thisisthegeniuspropertoformagreatminister。
Ineverynewstepthespiritofthepeopleshouldbefirstexamined；andifthisbenotfoundripefortheexecutionoftheplan，itoughttobeputoff，keptentirelysecret，andeverymethodusedtopreparethepeopletorelishtheinnovation。
TheprojectofintroducingpoperyintoEnglandwasblownbeforeitwasputinpractice，andsomiscarried。QueenElizabethkeptherownsecret，andsucceededinasimilarattempt。Theschemeofageneralexcisewaspushedwithtoomuchvivacity，wasmadeamatterofparty，wasill-timed，andthepeoplenowisepreparedforit；henceitwillbethemoredifficulttobringaboutatanothertime，withoutthegreatestprecautions。
Inturningandworkinguponthespiritofapeople，nothingisimpossibletoanablestatesman。Whenapeoplecanbeengagedtomurdertheirwivesandchildren，andtoburnthemselves，ratherthansubmittoaforeignenemy，whentheycanbebroughttogivetheirmostpreciouseffects，theirornamentsofgoldandsilver，forthesupportofacommoncause；whenwomenarebroughttogivetheirhairtomakeropes，andthemostdecrepitoldmentomountthewallsofatownforitsdefence；IthinkImaysay，thatbyproperlyconductingandmanagingthespiritofapeople，nothingisimpossibletobeaccomplished。ButwhenIsay，nothingisimpossible，Imustbeunderstoodtomean，thatnothingessentiallynecessaryforthegoodofthepeopleisimpossible；
andthisisallthatisrequiredingovernment。
Thatitrequiresaparticulartalentinastatesmantodisposethemindsofapeopletoapproveevenoftheschemewhichisthemostconducivetotheirinterestandprosperity，appearsfromthis，thatweseeexamplesofwise，rich，andpowerfulnationslanguishingininactivity，atatimewheneveryindividualisanimatedwithaquitecontraryspirit；becomingapreytotheirenemies，likethecityofJerusalem，whiletheyaretakenupwiththeirdomesticanimosities，merelybecausetheremediesproposedagainsttheseevilscontradictthespiritofthetimes。
Thegreatartofgoverningistodivestoneselfofprejudicesandattachmentstoparticularopinions，particularclasses，andabovealltoparticularpersons；toconsultthespiritofthepeople，togivewaytoitinappearance，andinsodoingtogiveitaturncapableofinspiringthosesentimentswhichmayinducethemtorelishthechange，whichanalterationofcircumstanceshasrenderednecessary。
Cananychangebegreateramongfreemen，thanfromastateofabsolutelibertyandindependencetobecomesubjecttoconstraintinthemosttrivialactions？ThischangehashowevertakenplaceoverallEuropewithinthesethreehundredyears，andyetwethinkourselvesmorefreethaneverourfatherswere。
Formerlyagentlemanwhoenjoyedabitofland，knewnotwhatitwastohaveanydemandmadeuponhim，butinvirtueofobligationsbyhimselfcontracted。Hedisposedofthefruitsoftheearth，andofthelabourofhisservantsorvassals，ashethoughtfit。Everythingwasbought，sold，transferred，transported，modified，andcomposed，forprivateconsumption，orforpublicuse，withouteverthestate’sbeingoncefoundinterestedinwhatwasdoing。This，Isay，wasformerlythegeneralsituationofEurope，amongfreenationsunderaregularadministration；andtheonlyimpositionscommonlyknowntoaffectlandedmen，weremadeinconsequenceofacontractofsubordination，feudalorother，whichhadcertainlimitations；
andtheimpositionswereappropriatedforcertainpurposes。
Dailyexperienceshews，thatnothingismoreagainsttheinclinationsofapeoplethantheimpositionoftaxes；andthelesstheyareaccustomedtothem，themoredifficultitistogetthemestablished。
Thegreatabuseofgovernorsintheapplicationoftaxescontributesnotalittletoentertainandaugmentthisrepugnancyinthegoverned:butbesidesabuse，thereisoftentoolittlemanagementusedtopreparethespiritsofthepeopleforsuchinnovations；forweseethemuponmanyoccasionssubmittingwithcheerfulnesstoveryheavyimpositions，providedtheyhewell-timed，andconsistentwiththeirmannersanddisposition。A
Frenchgentleman，whocannotbearthethoughtofbeingputuponalevelwithapeasantinpayingaland-tax，payscontentedly，intimeofwar，ageneraltaxuponallhiseffects，underadifferentname。Topayforyourheadisterribleinonecountry；
topayforlightappearsasterribleinanother。
Itoftenhappens，thatstatesmentakethehintofnewimpositionsfromtheexampleofothernations，andnotfromaniceexaminationoftheirowndomesticcircumstances。Butwhenthesearerightlyattendedto，itbecomeseasytodiscoverthemeansofexecutingthesameplan，inawayquiteadaptedtothespirit，temper，andcircumstancesofthepeople。Whenstrangersareemployedasstatesmen，thedisorderisstillgreater，unlesstherebeextraordinarypenetration，temper，and，aboveall，flexibilityanddiscretion。
Statesmenhavesometimesrecoursetoartificeinsteadofreason，becausetheirintentionsoftenarenotupright。Thisdestroysallconfidencebetweenthemandthepeople；andconfidenceisnecessarywhenyouareinamannerobligedtoaskafavour，orwhenwhatyoudemandisnotindisputablyyourright。A
peoplethustrickedintoanimposition，thoughexpedientfortheirprosperity，willopposeviolently，atanothertime，alikemeasure，evenwhenessentialtotheirpreservation。
Atothertimes，weseestatesmenpresentingtheallurementofpresentease，preciselyatthetimewhenpeople’smindsarebestdisposedtoreceiveaburden。Imeanwhenwarthreatens，andwhenthemindisheatedwitharesentmentofinjuries。Isitnotwonderful，atsuchatimeasthis，toincreasetaxesinproportiononlytotheinterestofmoneywanted；doesnotthisimplyashortsightedness，oratleastanindifferenceastowhatistocome？Isitnotmorenatural，thatapeopleshouldconsenttocomeunderburdenstogratifyrevenge，thansubmittorepayalargedebtwhentheirmindsarerestoredtoastateoftranquility。
FromtheexamplesIhavegiven，IhopewhatImeanbythespiritofapeopleissufficientlyunderstood，andIthinkIhaveabundantlyshewnthenecessityofitsbeingproperlydisposed，inordertoestablisharightplanofoeconomy。Thisissotrue，thatmanyexamplesmaybefound，ofapeople’srejectingthemostbeneficialinstitutions，andeventhegreatestfavours，merelybecausesomecircumstancehadshockedtheirestablishedcustoms。
Nowonderthen，ifweseethemrefusetocomeunderlimitations，restraints，andburdens，whentheutmosttheycanbeflatteredwithfromthem，isadistantprospectofnationalgood。
Ihavefounditnecessarytopremisethesegeneralreflections，inordertoobviatemanyobjectionswhichmightnaturallyenoughoccurintheperusalofthisinquiry。Ishallhaveoccasiontomakeanumberofsuppositions，andtodrawconsequencesfromthem，whichareabundantlynatural，providedaproperspiritinthepeoplebepresupposed，butwhichwouldbefarfrombeingnaturalwithoutthissupposition。Isuppose，forexample，thatapoorman，loadedwithmanychildren，wouldbegladtohavethestatemaintainthem；thatanother，whohaswastelands，wouldbeobligedtoonewhowouldgratuitouslybuildhimafarm-houseuponit。yetinbothsuppositionsImayprovemistaken；forfathersthereare，whowouldratherseetheirchildrendeadthanoutoftheirhands；andproprietorsaretobefound，who，forthesakeofhunting，wouldlaythefinestcountryinEuropeintoawaste。
InordertocommunicateanadequateideaofwhatIunderstandbypoliticaloeconomy，Ihaveexplainedtheterm，bypointingouttheobjectoftheart；whichis，toprovidefood，othernecessaries，andemploymenttoeveryoneofthesociety。
Thisisaverysimpleandaverygeneralmethodofdefiningamostcomplicatedoperation。
Toprovideaproperemploymentforallthemembersofasociety，isthesameastomodelandconducteverybranchoftheirconcerns。
Uponthisideamaybeformed，Ithink，themostextensivebasisforaninquiryintotheprinciplesofpoliticaloeconomy。
Thenextthingtobedone，istofalluponadistinctmethodofanalysingsoextensiveasubject，bycontrivingatrainofideas，whichmaybedirectedtowardseverypartoftheplan，andwhich，atthesametime，maybemadetoarisemethodicallyfromoneanother。
ForthispurposeIhavetakenahintfromwhatthelaterevolutionsinthepoliticsofEuropehavepointedouttobetheregularprogressofmankind，fromgreatsimplicitytocomplicatedrefinement。
Thisfirstbookshallthensetoutwithtakingupsocietyinthecradle，asImaysay。Ishallhereexaminetheprincipleswhichinfluencetheirmultiplication，themethodofprovidingfortheirsubsistence，theoriginoftheirlabour，theeffectsoftheirlibertyandslavery，thedistributionofthemintoclasses，withsomeothertopicswhichrelatetomankindingeneral。
Hereweshallfindtheprinciplesofindustryinfluencingthemultiplicationofmankind，andthecultivationofthesoil。ThisIhavethrowninonpurposetopreparemyreaderforthesubjectofthesecondbook；wherehewillfindthesameprinciple(underthewingsofliberty)providinganeasysubsistenceforanumerouspopulace，bythemeansoftrade，whichsendsthelabourofanindustriouspeopleoverthewholeworld。
Fromtheexperienceofwhathashappenedtheselasttwohundredyears，wefindtowhatapitchthetradeandindustryofEuropehasincreasedalienations，andthecirculationofmoney。I
shallthereforecloselyadheretothese，asthemostimmediateconsequencesoftheprecedingimprovement；and，byanalysingthem，Ishallformmythirdandfourthbooks，inwhichIintendtotreatofmoneyandcredit。
Weseealsohowcredithasengagednationstoavailthemselvesofitintheirwars，andhow，bytheuseofit，theyhavebeenledtocontractdebts；whichtheynevercansatisfyandpay，withoutimposingtaxes。Thedoctrine，then，ofdebtsandtaxeswillverynaturallyfollowthatofcreditinthisgreatchainofpoliticalconsequences。
Bythiskindofhistoricalclue，Ishallconductmyselfthroughthegreatavenuesofthisextensivelabyrinth；andinmyreviewofeveryparticulardistrict，Ishallstepfromconsequencetoconsequence，untilIhavepenetratedintotheinmostrecessesofmyownunderstanding。
Whenasubjectisbrokenoff，IshallrendermytransitionsasgradualasIcan，bystillpreservingsomechainofconnexion；
andalthoughIcannotflattermyself(insuchinfinitevarietyofchoice，astoorderanddistribution)tohitatalltimesonthatmethod，whichmayappeartoeveryreaderthemostnaturalandthemostcorrect，yetIshallsparenopainsincastingthematerialsintodifferentforms，soastomakethebestdistributionoftheminmypower。
Chap。III
UponwhatPrinciples，andfromwhatnaturalCausesdoMankindmultiply？AndwhataretheEffectsofProcreationinCountrieswhereNumbersarefoundtoincrease？
Themultiplicationofmankindhasbeentreatedofindifferentways；somehavemadeouttablestoshowtheprogressionofmultiplication，othershavetreatedthequestionhistorically。
Thestateofnumbersindifferentagesoftheworld，orindifferentcountriesatdifferenttimes，hasbeenmadetheobjectofinquiry；andthemostexactscrutinyhasbeenmadeintoancientauthors，asthemeansofinvestigatingthetruthofthismatter。Allpassagesrelativetothesubjecthavebeenlaidtogether，andaccompaniedwithglossesandinterpretationsthemostplausible，inordertodeterminethemainquestion。TheelaborateperformancesofMrHume，andDrWallace，whohaveadoptedoppositeopinionsinregardtothepopulousnessoftheancientworld，haveleftnothingnewtobesaiduponthissubject；atleasttheapplicationtheyappeartohavegiveninexaminingtheancients，isagreatdiscouragementtoanyonewhomightotherwisestillflatterhimselftofindoutcircumstancesinthem，propertocastanewlightuponthequestion。
Myintentioninthischapterisnottodecide，noreventogivemyopinionuponthatmatter，farlesstocombattheargumentsadvancedoneitherside。Iamtoconsiderthequestionunderadifferentpointofview；nottoinquirewhatnumbersofpeoplewerefoundupontheearthatacertaintime，buttoexaminethenaturalandrationalcausesofmultipliCation。Ifwecandiscoverthese，wemayperhapsbeledtojudgehowfartheymighthaveoperatedindifferentagesandindifferentcountries。
Thefundamentalprincipleofthemultiplicationofallanimals，andconsequentlyofman，isgeneration；thenextisfood:generationgivesexistence，foodpreservesit。Didtheearthproduceofitselfthepropernourishmentformanwithunlimitedabundance，weshouldfindnooccasiontolabourinordertoprocureit。Nowinallcountriesfoundinhabited，asinthosewhichhavebeenfounddesolate，ifthestateofanimalsbeinquiredinto，thenumberofthemwillbefoundinproportiontothequantityoffoodproducedbytheearth，regularlythroughouttheyear，fortheirsubsistence。Isay，regularlythroughouttheyear，becauseweperceive，inthoseanimalswhichproduceingreatabundance，suchasallthefeatheredsort，thatvastmultitudesaredestroyedinwinter；theyarebroughtforthwiththefruitsoftheearth，andfallinproportiontotheirdecay。
Thisprincipleissonatural，thatIthinkitcanhardlybecontroverted。
Astoman，theearthdoesnotspontaneouslyproducenourishmentforhiminanyconsiderabledegree。Iallowthatassomespeciesofanimalssupportlifebydevouringothers，somayman；butitmustbeobserved，thatthespeciesfeedingmustalwaysbemuchinferiorinnumbertothespeciesfedupon。Thisisevidentinreasonandinfact。
Weretheearththereforeuncultivated，thenumbersofmankindwouldnotexceedtheproportionofthespontaneousfruitswhichsheoffersfortheirimmediateuse，orforthatoftheanimalswhichmightbethepropernourishmentofman。
Thereisthereforeacertainnumberofmankindwhichtheearthwouldbeabletomaintainwithoutanylabour:allowmetocallthisquantity(A)。Doesitnot，fromthisexpositionofthematter，appearplain，thatwithoutlabour(A)nevercanincreaseanymorethananimals，whichdonotworkforthemselves，canincreasebeyondtheproportionoffoodprovidedforthembynature？Letitbehoweverobserved，thatIdonotpretendtolimit(A)toadeterminatenumber。Theseasonswillnodoubtinfluencethenumbersofmankind，asweseetheyinfluencetheplentyofotheranimals；butIsay(A)willneverincreasebeyondthefixedproportionabovementioned。
Havingresolvedonequestionwithregardtomultiplication，andshewnthatnumbersmustbecomegreaterorsmalleraccordingtotheproductionsofnature，Icometothesecondthingproposedtobetreatedofinthechapter；towit，whatwillbecomeofthegenerativefacultyafterithasproducedthefullproportionof(A)，andwhateffectswillafterwardsfollow。
Weseehowbeneficent，Imighthavesaidprodigal，natureisinbestowinglifebygeneration。Severalkindsofanimals，especiallyinsects，multiplybythousands，andyetthespeciesdoesnotappearannuallytoincrease。Nobodycanpretendthatparticularindividualsofanyspecieshaveaprivilegetolive，andthatothersdiefromadifferenceintheirnature。Itisthereforereasonabletoconclude，thatwhatdestroyssuchvastquantitiesofthoseproduced，mustbe，amongothercauses，thewantoffood。Letusapplythistoman。
Thosewhoaresupposedtobefedwiththespontaneousfruitsoftheearth，cannot，fromwhathasbeensaid，multiplybeyondthatproportion；atthesametimethegenerativefacultywillworkitsnaturaleffectsinaugmentingnumbers。Theconsequencewillbe，thatcertainindividualsmustbecomeworsefed，consequentlyweaker。consequently，if，inthatweaklystate，natureshouldwithholdapartofherusualplenty，thewholemultitudewillbeaffectedbyit；adiseasemaytakeplace，andsweepoffafargreaternumberthanthatproportionedtothedeficiencyoftheseason。Whatresultsfromthis？Thatthosewhohaveescaped，findingfoodmoreplentiful，becomevigorousandstrong。generationgiveslifetoadditionalnumbers，foodpreservesit，untiltheyriseuptotheformerstandard。
Thusthegenerativefacultyresemblesaspringloadedwithaweight，whichalwaysexertsitselfinproportiontothediminutionofresistance:whenfoodhasremainedsometimewithoutaugmentationordiminution，generationwillcarrynumbersashighaspossible；ifthenfoodcometobediminished，thespringisoverpowered；theforceofitbecomeslessthannothing。
Inhabitantswilldiminish，atleast，inproportiontotheovercharge。If，upontheotherhand，foodbeincreased，thespringwhichstoodat0，willbegintoexertitselfinproportionastheresistancediminishes；peoplewillbegintobebetterfed；
theywillmultiply，and，inproportionastheyincreaseinnumbers，thefoodwillbecomescarceagain。
Imustheresubjoinaremarkveryanalogoustothissubject。
Thatthegenerativefacultyinman(whichwehavecomparedtoaspring)，andthecareandlovewehaveforourchildren，firstpromptustomultiply，andthenengageustodividewhatwehavewithourlittleones。Thusfromdividingandsubdividingithappens，thatineverycountrywherefoodislimitedtoacertainquantity，theinhabitantsmustbesubsistedinaregularprogression，descendingdownfromplentyandamplesubsistence，tothelastperiodsofwant，andevensometimesstarvingforhunger。
Althoughtheexamplesofthislastextremityarenotcommoninsomecountries，yetIbelievetheyaremoresothanisgenerallyimagined；andtheotherstagesofwantareproductiveofmanydiseases，andofadecaywhichextinguishesthefacultyofgeneration，orwhichweakensit，soastoproducechildrenlessvigorousandlesshealthy。Iappealtoexperience，ifthisreasoningbenotjust。
Puttwoorthreepairsofrabbitsintoafieldproperforthem，themultiplicationwillberapid；andinafewyearsthewarrenwillbestocked:youmaytakeyearlyfromitahundredpairs，Ishallsuppose，andkeepyourwarreningoodorder:giveovertakinganyforsomeyears，youwillperhapsfindyouroriginalstockratherdiminishedthanincreased，forthereasonsabovementioned。AfricayearlyfurnishesmanythousandsforthecultivationofAmerica；inthissheresemblesthewarren。Ihavelittledoubtbutthatifallhersonswerereturnedtoheratonce，byfarthegreaterpartwoulddieofhunger。
返回顶部