Chap。XI

OftheDistributionofInhabitantsintoClasses；oftheEmploymentandMultiplicationofthemHavingdeducedtheeffectsofmodernpolicy，inassemblingsolargeaproportionofinhabitantsintocities，itispropertopointtheprincipleswhichshoulddirectthestatesmantothepropermeansofproviding，supporting，andemployingthem。

Withoutthistheyneithercanlivenormultiply。Theirparent，Earth，hasinamannerbanishedthemfromherbosom；theyhavehernomoretosuckletheminidleness；industryhasgatheredthemtogether，labourmustsupportthem，andthismustproduceasurplusforbringingupchildren。Ifthisresourceshouldfail，miserywillensue:thedepopulationofthecitieswillbefollowedbytheruinofthelands，andallwillgotowrecktogether。Wehavealreadylaiddowntheprincipleswhichappearthemostnaturaltoengagemankindtolabour，supposingalltobefreeandwehaveobservedhowslavery，informertimes，mightworkthesameeffect，astopeoplingtheworld，thattradeandindustrydonow；menwerethenforcedtolabourbecausetheywereslavestoothers，menareforcedtolabournowbecausetheyareslavestotheirownwants:providedmanbemadetolabour，andmaketheearthproduceabundantly，andprovidedthateitherauthority，industry，orcharity，canmaketheproducecirculateforthenourishmentofthefreehands，theprincipleofagreatpopulationisbroughttoafullactivity。

Ishallnowsupposetheseprinciplestobewellunderstood。

Wantspromoteindustry，industrygivesfood，foodincreasesnumbers:thenextquestionis，hownumbersaretobewellemployed？

Itisageneralmaximinthemouthofeverybody；increasetheinhabitantsofthestate:thestrengthandpowerofastateisinproportiontothenumberofitsinhabitants。

Iamnotfondofcondemningopinions；butIamverymuchforlimitinggeneralpropositions。IhavehardlyeverescapedbeingledintoerrorbyeveryoneIhavelaiddown。Nothingissosystematical，nothingsoprettyinatreatiseasgeneralmaxims；

theyfacilitatethedistributionofourideas，andIhaveneverbeenabletodashthemoutbutwithacertainregret。

AsIoftenrecurtoprivateoeconomicsforclearingupmyideasitbeageneralrule，thatconcerningthepolitical，Ihaveaskedmyself，ifitbeageneralrule，that，themasterofafamilyshouldincreasethemouthsofit，tothefullproportionofallhecanfeed？Nowitismyopinion，thatinasmallfamilywellcomposed，andwhereeveryoneisproperlyemployed，bothmasterandservantsaremuchhappierthaninothersvastlymorenumerous，wherethesameorderandregularityisnotkeptup；andthatasmallnumberofwelldisciplinedsoldiersismoreformidable，andreallystronger，thanthenumerouspopulaceofalargecity。

Theuseofinhabitantsistobemutuallyserviceableonetoanotherinparticular，andtothesocietyingeneral。

Consequently，everystateshould，ingoodpolicy，firstapplyitselftomaketheinhabitantstheyhaveanswerthispurpose，beforetheycarrytheirviewstowardsaugmentingtheirnumbers。I

thinkitisabsurdtowishfornewinhabitants，withoutfirstknowinghowtoemploytheold；anditisignoranceoftherealeffectsofpopulation，toimaginethatanincreaseofnumberswillinfalliblyremoveinconvenienceswhichproceedfromtheabusesofthosealreadyexisting。

Ishallthenbeginbysupposingthatinhabitantsrequirerathertobewellemployedthanincreasedinnumbers。

IfIknowthenumberofinhabitants，Imayknowtheproportionwhichdieeveryyear:consequently，Iknowhowmanypairsofbreedersarenecessarytokeepupthestock。IfIwanttoraisetwentybushelsofgrainonly，Idonotsowmylandswithtwentybushels。IfIhaveasmanychildrenbornastherearepeoplewhodie，Ihaveenoughbythesupposition。Butthesechildrenmustberaisedproportionally，fromthedifferentclassesofinhabitants，whichIhereconsiderasdistributedintotwoconditions；thosewhodonotlabour，andthosewhodo。MayI

notventuretosay，thatthereisnoabsolutenecessitythatthoseofthefirstclassshouldmultiplyinordertorecruitthesecond。Ifthenthesecondclassiskeptuptoitsproperstandardbyitsownmultiplication，andiftheirworkbeallconsumed，willitnotbefoundthatthediminutionofthosemouthswhodonotwork，andwhichappearusefulinconsiderationonlyoftheconsumptiontheymake，isnoreallosstothenation？

Buttothisitisobjected，thatifthenumberofthefirstclassbediminished，theworkofthesecondwilllieuponhand。

HereIlookformyanswerfromwhatdailyexperiencepointsout。Twopersons(A)and(B)haveeach1000l。ayear；(A)hasmanychildren，(B)hasnone:theybothspendtheirincome；(A)

uponthenecessariesoflifeforhisfamily，andfortheeducationofhischildren；forthesupplyingofwhich，thoseoftheworkingclassonlyareemployed，forwhoeverdoesorgivesanythingformoney，Iconsiderasaworker:(B)spendshisincomeasafashionableyounggentleman:hehasafinechariot，abundanceoffootmeninlacedliveries；inshort，withoutexaminingintotheparticularsofhisexpence，Ifindthewhole1000l。spentattheendoftheyear。Neither(A)or(B)doanywork；orareanyof(A’s)childrennecessaryasasupplytotheworkinghands，bythesupposition。Isitnottruethen，that(B)

hasconsumedasmuchworkorservice，fortheseIconsiderasthesamething，as(A)withhisfamily？Nay，Imaystillgofarther，andaffirm，that(B)hascontributedasmuch，ifnotmore，topopulationthan(A)。Forifithetrue，thathewhogivesfoodgivesnumbers，Isay，thattheexpenceof(B)hasgivenfoodtothechildrenoftheindustriousemployedbyhim:consequently，insteadofhavingdirectlycontributedtotheincreaseoftheidleofthestate，whichisthecasewith(A)，hehasindirectlycontributedtothemultiplicationoftheindustrious。Whatgoodthendoesthestatereapfrom(A’s)children，fromhismarriage，fromhismultiplication？Indeed，Iseenoharmalthoughhehadremainedabatchelor:forthosewhoproduceidleconsumersonly，certainlyaddneitherriches，strength，oreasetoastate。Anditisofsuchpeoplealonethatthereisanyquestionhere。

FromthisIconclude，thattherecanbenodeterminatenumberofrichidleconsumersnecessarytoemployadeterminatenumberofindustriouspeople，nomorethanofmasterstoemployafixednumberofmenialservants。Dowenotseeasinglemanfrequentlyattendedbymoreservantsthanarenecessarywhenhegetsawifeandfamily？nay，itmanytimeshappens，thatayoungman，uponhismarriage，diminishesthenumberofhisdomestics，inordertogivebreadtohischildren。

Ifrichesbecalculated，asIhopetoprove，fortheencouragementofindustry；ifcirculationistobeacceleratedbyeverymethod，inordertogivebreadtothosewhoaredisposedtowork，or，inotherwords，whoaredisposedtobecomevigorousmembersofthecommonwealth，bycontributingwiththeirstrength，theiringenuity，ortheirtalents，tosupplyherwants，toaugmentherriches，topromoteandadministeragoodgovernmentathome，ortoserveitabroad:then，Isay，thetoogreatmultiplicationofthosewhocomeundernoneoftheseclasses，theidleconsumersasIhavecalledthem，contributedirectlytomaketheotherpartlanguish。

Thereisnogoverningastateinperfection，andconsequentlynoexecutingtheplanforarightdistributionoftheinhabitants，withoutexactlyknowingtheirsituationastonumbers，theiremployment，thegainsuponeveryspeciesofindustry，thenumbersproducedfromeachclass。Thesearethemeansofjudginghowfarthoseofaparticulartradeoroccupationareinasituationtobringupafamily。Toexamine，ontheotherhand，thestateofthehigherclasseswhodonotlabour，theeaseoftheircircumstances，andtheusethestatehasfortheirservice；thismayappearsuperfluous；sincethosewhodonotwork，mustbesupposedtohavewherewithaltolive；

andconsequently，nottostandinneedofassistance。Butthisisnoteverywhere，noralwaysthecase；andmanyexcellentsubjectsarelosttoastate，forwantofaproperattentioninthestatesmantothisobject。

Ihaveobservedhownecessaryathingitistogovernapeopleaccordingtotheirspirit；nowbygoverningIunderstand，protecting，cherishing，andsupporting，aswellaspunishing，restraining，andexacting。If，therefore，therebefoundinanycountry，averynumerousnobility，wholookupontradeandtheinferiorartsasunbecomingtheirbirth；agoodstatesmanmustreflectuponthespiritofformertimes，andcompareitwiththatofthepresent。Hewillthenperceive，thatthesesentimentshavebeentransmittedfromfathertoson，andthatsixgenerationsarenotelapsedsince，overallEurope，theywereuniversallyadopted:that，althoughtherevolutionwetalkedoffinthe10thchapterhasineffectrenderedthemlessadaptedtothespiritofthepresenttimes，theyarehoweverproductiveofexcellentconsequences；theyserveasabulwarktovirtue，againsttheallurementsofriches；anditisdangeroustoforceasetofmenwhoformaconsiderablebodyinastate，fromnecessity，totrampleunderfoot，whattheyhavebeenpersuadedfromtheirinfancytobethetestofanobleandgenerousmind。

Abouttwohundredyearsago，thenobilityofseveralnations，(Imean，bythisterm，allpeoplewellborn，whetheradornedwithparticularmarksofroyalfavourornot，)usedtoliveupontheproduceoftheirlands。Inthosedaystherewaslittleluxury，littlecirculation；thelandsfednumbersofuselessmouths，inthemodernacceptationofuseless，consequentlyproducedaverymoderateincomeinmoneytotheproprietors，whonotwithstandingwerethemostconsiderablepersonsinthestate。Thisclassofinhabitantsremaininginactiveinthecountry，duringtherevolutionabovementioned，have，inconsequenceoftheintroductionofindustry，tradeandluxury，insensiblyhadthebalanceofwealth，andconsequentlyofconsiderationturnedagainstthem。Ofthisthereisnodoubt。Thisclasshoweverhasretainedthemilitaryspirit，theloftysentiments；andnotwithstandingtheirdepressioninpointoffortune，arefoundcalculatedtoshinethebrightest，whensetinaproperelevation。Intimesofpeace，whentradeflourishes，thelustreofthosewhowallowinpublicmoney，theweightandconsiderationofthewealthymerchant，andeventheeaseandaffluenceoftheindustrioustradesman，eclipsethepoornobility；theybecomeanobjectofcontempttobadcitizens，anobjectofcompassiontothegood；andpoliticalwritersimaginetheyrenderthemanimportantservice，whentheyproposetoreceivethemintothelowerclassesofthepeople。Butwhendangerthreatensfromabroad，andwhenarmiesarebroughtintothefield，comparethebehaviourofthoseconductedbyawarlikenobility，withthoseconductedbythesonsoflabourandindustry；thosewhohaveglory，withthosewhohavegainfortheirpointofview。Letthestatesufferonlythisnobilitytolanguishwithoutaproperencouragement，thereisnofearbuttheywillsoondisappear；

theirlandswillbecomepossessedbypeopleofawayofthinkingmore*-la-mode，andthearmywillquicklyadoptnewsentiments，moreanalogoustothespiritofamoneyedinterest。

Ifindnothingmoreaffectingtoagoodmind，thantoseethedistressofapoornobilityinbothsexes。Somehaveproposedtradeforthisclass。Whydoyounottrade？Ianswer，forthenobility；because，inordertotrade，Imusthavemoney。Thisobjectionisunanswerable。Whythendoyounotapplytootherbranchesofindustry？Ifitisthestatewhoissupposedtoaskthequestion，Iask，inmyturn，Whatadvantageshecanreapfromtheirindustry？Whatprofitfromtheirbecomingshop-keepers，weavers，ortaylors？Arenot，oroughtnotalltheseemploymentstobeprovidedwithhandsfromtheirownmultiplication？Whatadvantagecanshereapbythechildrenofoneclasstakingthebreadoutofthemouthsofanother？

Ifthesentimentsinwhichthenobilityhavebeeneducated，provedetrimentaltothestate，throwadiscouragementuponthem。

Ifbirthistobenomarkofdistinction，letitnotbedistinguishedbyanyparticularprivilege，whichinappearancesetsthisclassabovethelevelofthosewithwhomthestateintendsitshouldbeincorporated。Youdonotmakeyourvalet-de-chambregetbehindyourcoach，thoughuponanoccasionitmightbeconvenient，andthoughperhapshehadbeenyourfootmanthedaybefore；youwouldeventurnhimoutofdoors，didhenotchangehiscompanywithhisrank。

Ifyoucannotaffordtohaveanobility，letitdieaway:

grant，asinEngland，thetitleofnobletooneofafamilyonly，andletalltherestbecommoners；thatistosay，distinguishedbynopersonalprivilegewhatsoeverfromthelowestclassesofthepeople。Butifyouwantthemtoserveyouassoldiers，andwishtheyshouldpreservethosesentimentsyouapproveofinasoldier，takecareatleastoftheirchildren。Iftheseappeartoyoupoorandragged，whiletheyarewanderingupanddowntheirfather’slands，chasingawretchedhareorapartridgecomparethem，wheninthetroops，withthoseofyourwealthyneighbours，ifanysuchyouhave。

Theestablishmentofanh魌elmilitaireshewsthattherearesomepeopleatleastwholendaneartosuchrepresentations。I

donotproposethataprinceshoulddivertintothischannelthosestreamsofwealthwhichflowfromeverypartofthestate，thoughnothingismorereasonablethanformentopayinordertoprotecttheirgains；butletataxbeimposeduponnobleproperty，andletitbeappropriatedfortheeducationofthegenerousyouthfromtheirearliestyears。Therethestatewillhaveallunderhereye，theyareherchildren，hersubjects，andtheyasknomorethantobetakenfromtheobscurityoftheirhabitations，andrenderedcapableofbeingemployedwhileyoungandvigorous。Whentheyhavedonetheirtask，thecountrywhichproducedthemwillreceivethembackintoherwarmbosom；theretheywillproduceotherslikethemselves，andsupportthespiritandpropagationoftheirownclass，withoutbecominganychargeuponothers。

Astatesmanshouldmakeithisendeavourtoemployasmanyofeveryclassaspossible，andwhenemploymentfailsinthecommonrunofaffairs，tocontrivenewoutletsforyoungpeopleofeverydenomination。Theoldandidleare，inmanyparticulars，lostbeyondrecovery。

Themutualrelationslikewise，throughindustry，betweenclassandclass，shouldbemultipliedandencouragedtotheutmost。Relationsbymarriage，Iamapttobelieve，proveheremorehurtfulthanbeneficial。Thatistosay，Iwouldratherdiscouragetheintermarriageofthepersonsofdifferentclasses；

butIwouldencourage，asmuchaspossible，allsortsofmutualdependencesbetweenthem，inthewayoftheirtrades。Thelasttendstokeepeveryoneemployed，accordingtothewantsandspiritofhisclass；thefirstisproductiveingeneralofnogoodeffectthatIcanperceive；whichisreasonsufficientforastatetogiveatleastnoencouragementtosuchmarriages，andthisisalltherestraintpropertobeimposed。

Suchmembersofthesocietyasremainunemployed，eitherfromnaturalinfirmitiesormisfortunes，andwhotherebybecomealoaduponothers，arereallyaloaduponthestate。Thisisadiseasewhichmustbeendured。Thereisnobody，nothing，withoutdiseases。Astateshouldprovideretreatsofallsorts，forthedifferentconditionsofherdecayedinhabitants:humanity，goodpolicy，andchristianity，requireit。Thusmuchmaybesaidingeneralupontheprincipleswhichdirecttheemploymentanddistributionofinhabitants，whichineverystatemustbedifferent，accordingtocircumstancesrelatingtotheextension，situation，andsoilofthecountry，andaboveall，tothespiritofthepeople。Iamnexttooffersomeconsiderationswithregardtothepropermethodsofaugmentingnumbers。

Chap。XII

OfthegreatAdvantageofcombiningawelldigestedTheoryandaperfectKnowledgeofFactswiththepracticalPartofGovernment，inordertomakeaPeoplemultiplyWehavethehappinesstoliveinanagewheredailyopportunitiesoffer，ofperceivingthedifferencebetweenexercisinganartaccordingtothemechanicalreceivedpractice，andaccordingtotheprincipleswhichstudyandrefinementhaveintroducedforbringingittoperfection。Thiswillappearinthestrongestlighttoonewhocomparestheoperationofbuildinganordinaryhouse，withthatofexecutingagreatpublicwork，wherethemostablearchitectsareemployed；themakingacommonparishroad，withthatofamilitaryway，throughmountains，forests，andmarshes。Inthefirst，everydifficultyappearsunsurmountable:inthesecond，thegreatestobstaclesaremadetovanish。Bycomparingthesethings，wedistinguishbetweentheartist，whoproceedsbytherulesofthescience，andtheordinarytradesman，whohasnootherresourcethancommonpractice，aidedbyhisowningenuity。

Everybranchofsciencemustbecarriedtoperfectionbyamasterinit，formedbythehandofnature，andimprovedbyapplicationandexperience。ThegreatgeniusofMrdeColbertsawthroughtheconfusionandperplexityoftheadministrationoftheFrenchfinances；heinventedresourcesforswellingthepublictreasure，whichneverwouldhavebeenliabletosomanyinconveniencesasarecomplainedof，hadtheadministrationbeenconductedwithasmuchdisinterestedness，asitwassetonfootwithability。ThegeniusofMrLawwasoriginalastofiguresandpapercredit。SirRobertWalpolediscoverednewprinciplesoftaxation；heextendedtheplanofpubliccredit，andreducedtheapplicationofittoascience。Thesewerehornstatesmeninthecommonacceptationoftheword，theywerecreatorsofnewideas，theyfoundoutnewprinciplesforthegovernmentofmen，andledthembytheirinteresttoconcurintheexecutionoftheirplans。

Menofaspeculativedispositionmaybroachhints，althoughtheforceoftheory，destituteofpractice，andunassistedbyexperiment，benotsufficienttocarrythemthelengthofformingaplan。Agreatgenius，withpowerandauthority，hasoccasionfornomorethanahinttostrikeoutthesystem，andtocarryit，withsuccess，intoexecution。

Noproblemsofpoliticaloeconomyseemmoreobscurethanthosewhichinfluencethemultiplicationofthehumanspecies，andwhichdeterminethedistributionandemploymentofthem，soasbesttoadvancetheprosperityofeachparticularsociety。

Ihavenowherefoundthesematterstreatedtomywish，norhaveIeverbeenabletosatisfymyselfconcerningthem。Therearemanycloudswhichstillcoverthefruitfulfieldsofthisscience；anduntilthesebedissipated，thepoliticaleyecannottakeinthewholelandscape，norjudgeofthedeformitieswhichappearinthemanyrepresentationswhichourmodernpaintersaredailygivingofit。

Imayhere，withoutanimputationofvanity，putmyselfsofaruponalevelwiththegreatMontesquieu，astoadoptthesayingofCorreggio，Ioanchesonpittore；Iamalsoadauber；

forIfranklyacknowledgemyownincapacitytotreatthissubjectwithalltheperspicuityitdeserves:myfrequentrepetitions，andmyoftenreturningtoitatdifferenttimes，inordertoclearupmyideasandthoseofmyreaders，shewsplainly，thatI

amsensibleofmyowninsufficiency。Bysettingit，however，indifferentlights，andviewingitasitwerefromdifferentstations，perhapsbothmyreaderandImaycomeatlasttoseealittleclearer。

Inaformerchapter，Ihaveendeavouredtolaydowntheprincipleswhichinfluencemultiplication；butalas！theyareallsogeneral，thattheycanbeconsideredonlyasthemostremote。

Theymaysatisfyaslightspeculation，butcanbeoflittleuseinpractice。Ihaveprincipallyinsisteduponthosewhicharefoundtooperateatalltimesamongsocietieswhereprimitivesimplicityprevails。Nowthismattercomestobeexaminedinamorecomplexlight，asrelativetothemannersofmodernmankind，whichnostatesman，howeverable，canchange；wheretrade，industry，luxury，credit，taxes，anddebts，areintroduced。InthesethemostpolitenationsofEuropeareinvolved。Thisisachainofadamant，ithangstogetherbyacohesion，whichthesuccessiverevolutionsofthreecenturieshavesocementedwiththespiritofnations，thatitappearstobeindissoluble。Itisnotmybusinesstoexaminehowfarthemodernsystemistobepreferredtotheancient；mypointofviewis，toinvestigatehowastatesmanmayturnthecircumstanceswhichhaveproducedthisnewplanofoeconomytothebestadvantageformankind，leavingthereformationofsuchaplantotimeandtoevents，ofwhichI

amnotthemaster。Schemesforrecallingancientsimplicityandformakingmankindhonestandvirtuous，arebeautifulspeculations:Iadmirethemasmuchasanybody，butnotenoughtobelievethempracticableinourdegenerateage。

IfthereforetheprinciplesIherelaydownappearcontradictorytosoamiableasystemofpolicy，letnomanthenceconcludeanythingtomydisadvantageupontheaccountofmyparticularopinionconcerningit，whichisamatterofnoimportancewhatsoever。Myobjectistoexaminetheconsequencesofwhatwefeelandseedailypassing，andtopointouthowfarthebadmaybeavoided，andthegoodturnedtothebestadvantage。

Thelossofancientsimplicity，andtheintroductionofthiscomplicatedschemeofliving，hasrenderedthemechanismofgovernmentinfinitelymoredifficult，andalmosteverydisorderinthepoliticalbodyaffectsmultiplication。Depopulationisascertainamarkofpoliticaldiseases，aswastingisofthoseofthehumanbody。Theincreaseofnumbersinastateshewsyouthandvigour:whennumbersdonotdiminish，wehaveanideaofmanhood，andofagewhentheydecline。

Theimportanceofthesubjectthereforerequiresmetobringitoncemoreuponthecarpet，inordertoinquireintothepropermethodsofrestoringandpreservingyouth，andofdiffusingvigourintoeveryarticulation，intoeveryvein，intoeverynerve，asImaysay，ofamodernsociety。

IntherepublicofLycurgusanunmarriedmanmetwithnorespect；becausenoreasonbutdebaucherycouldpreventhismarrying。Marriagewasnoloadinastatewhereallwerefedandtakencareofatthepubliccharge。ASpartanwhodidnotmarry，wasconsideredasonewhorefusedtocontributetowardsrecruitingofthearmy，merelytogratifyavicioushabit。

Thejustriumliberorum，andtheotherencouragementsgivenbyAugustusCaesartoengagetheRomanstomarry，werecalculatedchieflyforthenobility，andforthecitizensonly，butnotatallfortheinferiorclass(theslaves)boundtolabour。Thevicetobecorrected，andthatwhichtheemperorhadinhiseyeinthoseinstitutions，wastheprodigalanddissolutelifeofrichmenwholivedincelibacy。ThisaffectedtheRomanstate，anddepriveditofitsprincipalforce，themilitarypower，theequites。JudgeoftheforceofthisclassbythenumbersofthemdestroyedatCannae。Inthosedays，thechiefencouragementtomultiplicationwastobedirectedtowardsthehigherclasses:thelowerclassesofthepeople(byfarthemostnumerousinallcountriesandinallages)wereeasilyrecruited，bytheimportationofslaves，astheyarenowintheWestIndies，where，consequently，thesameprinciplemustnaturallyoperate，whichfixedtheattentionofthewiseemperor。ThestateofaffairsinEurope，andinEnglandparticularly，ischangedentirely，bytheestablishmentofuniversalliberty。Ourlowestclassesareabsolutelyfree；theybelongtothemselves，andmustbringuptheirownchildren，elsethestatebecomesdepopulated。Thereisnoresourcetousfromimportation，whetherbyships，oractsofparliamentfornaturalization。Weshallalwayshaveanumerousandfreecommonpeople，andshallconstantlyhavethesameinconveniencestostrugglewith，aslongasthelowestclassesremaininsuchdepressionasnottobeabletosupporttheirownnumbers。Herethenliesthedifficulty。Inordertohaveaflourishingstate，whichSirWilliamTemplebeautifullycomparedtoapyramid，wemustformalargeandsolidbasisofthelowestclassesofmankind。Astheclassesmountinwealth，thepyramiddrawsnarroweruntilitterminateinapoint，(asinmonarchy，)

orinasmallsquare，asinthearistocraticalandmixedgovernments。Thislowestclassthereforemustbekeptup，and，aswehavesaid，byitsownmultiplication。Butwhereeveryonelivesbyhisownindustry，acompetitioncomesin，andhewhoworkscheapestgainsthepreference。Howcanamarriedman，whohaschildrentomaintain，disputethispreferencewithonewhoissingle？Theunmarriedthereforeforcetheotherstostarve；andthebasisofthepyramidiscontracted。Letthisshortsketchofamostimportantpartofoursubjectsufficeatpresent；itshallbetakenupandexaminedatmorelength，inthechapterconcerningphysicalnecessaries，ornaturalwants。

Fromthisresultstheprincipalcauseofdecayinmodernstates:itresultsfromliberty，andisinseparablyconnectedwithit。

Severalmodernwritersuponthissubject，recommendmarriage，inthestrongestmanner，toallclassesofinhabitants；yetaparishpriestmight，properlyenough，bewarrantednottojoinacoupleunlesstheycouldmakeitappearthattheirchildrenwerenotlikelytobecomeaburdentotheparish。Couldanyfaultbefound，reasonably，withsucharegulation？Thosewhoaregratuitouslyfedbyothersarealoaduponthestate，andnoacquisition，certainly，solongastheycontinueso。Nothingissoeasyastomarry；nothingsonatural，especiallyamongthelowersort。Butasinordertoreap，itisnotsufficienttoplowandtosow，soinordertobringupchildren，itisnotsufficienttomarry。Anestisnecessaryforeveryanimalwhichproducesahelplessbrood:ahouseisthenestforchildren；buteverymanwhocanbegetachildcannotbuildorrentahouse。

ThesereflectionsleadmetomakeadistinctionwhichI

apprehendmaybeofuseinclearingupourideasconcerningpopulation。Letmethereforeconsiderthegenerationofmaninapoliticallight，anditwillpresentitselfundertwoforms。Theoneasarealmultiplication；theotherasprocreationonly。

Childrenproducedfromparentswhoareabletomaintainthem，andbringthemuptoawayofgettingbreadforthemselves，doreallymultiplyandservethestate。Thosebornofparentswhosesubsistenceisprecarious，orwhichisproportionedtotheirownphysicalnecessaryonly，haveaprecariousexistence，andwillundoubtedlybegintheirlifebybeingbeggars。Manysuchwillperishforwantoffood，butmanymoreforwantofease；theirmendicitywillbeaccompaniedwiththatoftheirparents，andthewholewillgotoruin；accordingtotheadmirableexpressionoftheMarechaldeVauban，inhisDiximeRoyale。Lamendicite，sayshe，estunmalquituebientotsonhomme。Hehadmanyexamplesofthetruthofitbeforehiseyes；whoeverhasnot，musthaveseenlittleoftheworld。

Whenmarriageiscontractedwithouttherequisitesformultiplication，itproducesaprocreation，attendedwiththeabovementionedinconveniences；andasbyfarthegreaterpartofinhabitantsareinthelowerclasses，itbecomesthedutyofastatesmantoprovideagainstsuchevils，ifheintends，usefullytoincreasethenumberofhispeople。

Everyplanproposedforthispurpose，whichdoesnotproceeduponanexactrecapitulationoftheinhabitantsofacountry，parishbyparish，willprovenothingmorethananexpedientforwalkinginthedark。AmongsuchrecapitulationsorlistsIwouldrecommend，asanimprovementuponthoseIhaveseenintheMarechaldeVauban’sexcellentperformanceabovecited，andinthestatesofhisPrussianMajesty，orelsewhere，tohaveonemadeout，classingalltheinhabitants，notonlybythetradestheyexercise，butbythoseoftheirfathers，withaviewtodistinguishthoseclasseswhichmultiply，fromthosewhichonlyprocreate。Ishouldbegladalsotoseebillsofmortalitymadeoutforeveryclass，principallytocomparethebirthsanddeathsofthechildreninthem。

Letmetakeanexample。Supposethen，thatIhavebeforemeageneralrecapitulationofalltheinhabitantsofacountry，parishbyparish，wheretheymayappeardistributedundertherespectivedenominationsoftheirfathers’employment。Ishallimmediatelyfindaconsiderablenumberproducedfromthehigherclasses；fromthosewholiveuponanincomealreadyprovided，anduponbranchesofindustrywhichproduceaneasyandamplesubsistence。Thesehavenooccasionfortheassistanceofthestateinbringinguptheirchildren，andyoumayencouragemarriage，orpermitcelibacyinsuchclasses，inproportiontotheuseyoufindfortheiroffspringwhentheyarebroughtup。

WhenIcometothelowerclasses，Iexamine，forexample，thatofshoemakers，whereIfindacertainnumberproduced。ThisnumberI

firstcomparewiththenumberofshoemakersactuallyexisting，andthenwiththenumberofmarriagessubsistingamongthem，(forIsupposerecapitulationsofeverykind，)fromwhichIdiscoverthefertilityofmarriage，andthesuccessofmultiplicationinthispart。Whenthestateofthequestionisexamined，classbyclass，Icandecidewheremarriagesucceeds，andwhereitdoesnot。Ihavesaid，thatIimagineitanadvantagethateveryclassshouldsupportatleastitsownnumbers；andwhenitdoesmore，I

shouldwish(wereitpossible)thatthehigherclassesmightberecruitedfromthelower，ratherthanthelowerfromthehigher；

theoneseemsamarkofprosperity，theotherofdecay:butI

mustconfessthatthefirstisbyfarthemostdifficulttobeobtained。

Accordingthereforetocircumstances，andinconsistencewiththeseprinciples，Iwouldencouragemarriagebytakingthechildrenoffthehandsoftheirparents。Wheremarriagesucceedstheworst，ifithappenstobeinaverylowclass，greatencouragementshouldbegiventoit；perhapsthewholechildrenshouldbetakencareof。Certaintradesmaybeleftwiththecareofonechild，otherswithtwo，andsoprogressively。Butofthis，moreinanotherplace。IbegitmaynotherebeimaginedthatI

propose，thatthewholeofthelowerclassesofpeopleshouldmarryandpropagate，andthatthestateshouldfeedalltheiroffspring。Myviewextendsnofarther，thantobeassuredofhavingsuchanumberofchildrenyearlytakencareofasshallanswerthemultiplicationproposed，andthatthesebeproportionallyraisedfromeachclass，andfromeachpartofthecountry，andproducedfrommarriagesprotectedbythestate，distinguishedfromtheothers，whichunderafreegovernmentnevercanbeprevented，butwhichmustalwaysbefoundexposedtotheinconveniencesofwantandmisery。Toguardagainstsuchevilsoughttobeanotherobjectofpubliccare。Hospitalsforfoundlingsareanadmirableinstitution；andcoloniesareanoutletforsuperfluousinhabitants。ButIinsensiblyenterintoadetailwhichexceedsmyplan。Tolaydownascheme，youmustsupposeaparticularstatetobeperfectlyknown。Thisliesbeyondmyreach，andthereforeIshallgonofarther，butillustratewhatIhavesaid，bysomeobservationsandreflectionswhichseemanalogoustothesubject。

IhavenothereproposedplansofmultiplicationinconsistentwiththespiritofthenationswithwhichIamalittleacquainted；norwiththereligionprofessedinEurope，formanyreasons，obvioustoanyrationalman。Butprincipally，because，I

believe，itwillbefound，thatasufficientabundanceofchildrenarebornalready；andthatwehaveneitheroccasionforconcubinage，orpolygamy，toincreasetheirnumbers。Butwewantarightmethodoftakingcareofthosewehave，inordertoproduceamultiplicationproportionedtothepossibilityofourprovidingnourishmentandemployment。Ihavethereforeproposed，thatastatesman，wellinformedofthesituationofhispeople，thestateofeveryclass，thenumberofmarriagesfoundineach，shouldsay，letaparticularencouragementbegiventosomanymarriagesamongthelowerclassesandletthesebedistributedinacertainproportionforeveryparish，city，borough，&c。inthecountry；letrulesbelaiddowntodirectapreference，incaseofacompetition，betweendifferentcouples；andlettheconsequenceofthisapprobationbe，torelievetheparentsofallchildrenabovewhattheycanmaintain，ashasbeensaid。I

proposenonewlimitationsuponmarriage，becauseIamafriendtoliberty，andbecausesuchlimitationswouldshockthespiritofthetimes。Ithereforewouldstronglyrecommendhospitalsforfoundlingsoverallthecountry；andstillmorestronglythefrugalmaintenanceofchildreninsuchhospitals，andtheirbeingbredupearlytofillandrecruitthelowestclassesofthepeople。

Fromwhathasbeenthrowoutinthischapter，letnooneconclude，thatsuchoeconomicalprincipleswouldleadtoregulationsmuchtoominutetobeconsistentwithajustspiritofmanlyfreedomandself-governmentinthecommonaffairsoflife。TheregulationsIhavebeenrecommending，regardthoseonlywhocannotsupporttheirfamilieswithouttheassistanceofthestate。Invaindowelookforself-governmentormanlyfreedomamongsuchclassesofinhabitants。

Chap。XIII

ContinuationofthesameSubject，withregardtotheNecessityofhavingexactListsofBirths，Deaths，andMarriages，foreveryClassofInhabitantsinamodernSocietyMrDerhamhasfurnishedsometables，whichshewtheproportionbetweenmarriagesandbirthsinEngland，tobeas1to4；thatofbirthstoburialsas112/100to1:fromwhichitappearsthatmultiplicationtheregoeson，thoughslowly:amarkofyouthandvigour。DrDavenantvaluesthisaugmentationat9000

ayear。Couldmattersbekeptatthatstandard，Ishouldpreferitbyfartoamorerapidmultiplication:itamountstoaboutamillioninacentury(withoutenteringintoaccumulationsorexactcalculations)，andthelongeryouthispreservedsomuchthebetter。Arapidmultiplicationwillstopatsomeperiod，andthisstop，whichmarksdistress，mustproducegreatinconveniences。

Thesecalculations，foundedonveryprecarioussuppositions，shewhownecessaryitistohaveauthenticrecapitulations:

since，precariousastheyare，itisfromtheseandthelike，thatDrHalley，andothers，havecalculatedthevalueofannuities，which(atatimewhenallthestatesofEuropeareborrowingmoneyattheexpenceofeveryman’sprivateindustryorproperty)oughttobevaluedattheirrealworth。Now，inallthesecalculationsofmortality，itappearsthatwhatwehavecalledtheabuseofmarriageormereprocreationisincluded。

Ifitbetrue，asIthinkitis，fromwhatIhaveseenandobserved，thatnumbers，especiallyofchildren，amongthelowerclasses，perishfromtheeffectsofindigence；eitherdirectlybywantoffood，orbydiseasescontractedgraduallyfromthewantofconvenientease；andthatothersperishforwantofcare，whentheslightestassistanceofasurgeontoletthemblood，wouldbesufficienttopreservethemagainsttheinflammatorydistemperstowhichtheyarechieflyexposed:Ifthesethingsbeso，mustwenotinfer，thatcalculationsformeduponaconclusiondrawnfromthebirthsanddeathsofmankindingeneral，cannotpossiblybesoexactasifthelikeweredrawnfromthoseofeveryclassofinhabitantstakenseparately。

Itmayherebeanswered，thatamongtherichandeasy，therearefounddiseaseswhichsweepoffnumbers，inasgreataproportionasotherdistempersdoamongthepoor:thatweseeverylargefamiliesbroughtupamongthelowestclasses，whileagreatmanhasallthepainsintheworldtopreserveoneboyfromthewreckofanumberofchildren。

AllthisIagreemaybetrue；butIshouldbegladtoseeinwhatproportionitisso，andtobemadecertainofthefact。I

wanttoknowthediseasesoftherichandofthepoor；Iwanttohaveasparticulardetailsofthebirthsanddeathsofeveryclass，asIcanhaveofthoseofthecitiesofParis，London，orBreslaw。IwanttoknowfromwhatparentsaresprungthosemultitudesofpoorwhichIfindeverywhere；andmostofalltohavesuchaccountsfromdifferentcountries，wheredifferentmannersprevail。Fornojustconclusioncanbedrawnfromthecomparisonoffacts，withoutexaminingcircumstances。Themostbarrenclassinonecountry，maybethemostfruitfulinanother。

Asanexampleofthis，letanyonecomparethestateofmarriageamongthefootmenofLondonwheremostofthemaresingle，andofPariswheremostofthemhavefamilies。

Ifinderrorconcealedeverywhereundergeneralpropositions。Thechildrenofthepoor，saysone，thrivebetterthanthoseoftherich。Ifitbeso，itoughtnottobesoincommonreason。Butthesamepersonwilltellyou，Ihavemademysonamerchant；hewillbearichmanWhy？Because(AB)wasamerchant，who，fromnothing，diedworthahundredthousandpounds。Butifyougothroughallthelettersofthealphabetfollowing(AB)，amongthosewhosetoutashedid，youwillfind，thatperhapseveryoneofthemdiedabankrupt。Thosewhoprovesuccessfulareremarkable:thosewhomiscarryareneverheardof。Itisjustsowithrespecttothequestionbeforeus。

Buttoreturntoourtables，andwhatarecalledcalculations。

InEngland，onemarriageproducesfourchildrenatamedium。

Ifyoureckon6，000，000ofpeopleinthatcountry，andthat1/30

partdiesannually，thentokeepupthestockitissufficientthat200，000beannuallyborn；addtothistheyearlyincreaseof9000，thetotalofbirthswillthenbe209，000:forif200，000

diethisyear，andif209，000beborn，thismustcertainlyimplyanincreaseof9000，providedwesupposetheacquisitionofforeignerstobeequaltotheexportationofthenatives。Asthisismeantasanillustrationonly，Ineednotexaminethematteroffact。Thenextquestionis，Howmanymarriages，properlycontractedorencouragedasabove，willgivethisincrease？Forwemayknowthatthesesubsistinginthatkingdom，joinedwiththeeffectsofextramatrimonialconjunctions，isjustsufficienttoproduceit。Iimaginethatnothingbutexperimentcangivethesolutionofthisquestion。MrKingsupposesevery104thpersoninEnglandtomarryyearly，thatis，57，682persons，or28，841

couples。Ifthisnumberofmarriagesbesupposedtosubsistwithfertilityforsevenyears，producingachildeveryyear，thenumberof200，000birthswouldbeprocured；butIapprehendthatmarriages，rightlycontracted，subsistmuchlongeringeneralthansevenyears，evenwithfertility，thoughnotinproportiontoachildeveryyear:consequentlythenumberofmarriagesconstantlysubsistingwithfertilityinEngland，whereitissupposedthat28，841areyearlycontracted，mustbemuchgreaterthanseventimesthatnumber，orthan201，887。Ifwesupposethewholeofthe209，000birthstobeproducedbymarriages，atthreemarriagestoeverychildannuallyproduced，thenthenumberofmarriagessubsistingwillbe627，000。Fromthesespeculations(forIdonotpretendtocallthemcalculations)Iconclude，thatthemorefruitfulmarriagesarerendered，(notwithregardtoprocreation，merely，buttomultiplication，whichIhaveabovedistinguished，)thefewerbecomenecessary；andthefewerunnecessarymarriagesarecontracted，thebetterforthestate，andthelessmiseryforthosewhocontractthem。Ishallherestop，andleavetothereadertodrawhisconclusions，puttinghiminmindofthewidedifferencethatisalwaysfoundbetweentheoryandpractice。

FromthisreasoningIinfer，thatnoexactjudgementcanbeformed，astothenumbersinanysociety，fromthesingledatumoftheannualnumberofdeathsamongthem；andalthoughthejustproportionbetweennumbersanddeathsmayexactlybedeterminedinoneparticularplace，yetthatproportionwillnotserveasageneralstandard，andbeingtakenforgrantedmayleadtoerror。

Herearethereasonsformyopinion:

Werenobodytomarrybutsuchascouldmaintaintheirchildren，thebillsofbirthsandburialswould，Iapprehend，diminish，andyetnumbersmightremainasbefore；andwereeverybodytomarrywhocouldprocreate，theycertainlywouldincrease，butstillnumberswouldneverexceedtheproportionofSubsistence。CouldwebutseebillsofbirthsanddeathsforthecityofRome，whileinallitsgloryorindeedforthesugar-coloniesinAmerica，whereslavesareimported，addingthenumberofthoseimportedtothatofbirths，andsuppossingthecolonyneitheruponthegrowingorthedeclininghand，thenthedeathsandbirthswouldbeequal；buttheproportionofthemtoallinthecolony，Iapprehend，wouldbefarlessthaninanystateinEurope，whereslaverydoesnotprevail。

Itmaybeallegedthat，werealltomarry，theconsequencewouldbeagreatmultiplication。Isaynot；orifitwere，whatsortofmultiplicationwoulditbe？Amultitudeofchildrenwhonevercouldcometomanhood；orwhowouldstarvetheirparents，andincreasemiserybeyondexpression。Allthereforethatcanbelearnedfrombillsofmortality，&c。is，thatifthebirthsexceedthedeaths，andthatallremaininthecountry，numbersareincreasing；thatifthedeathsexceedthebirths，numbersarediminishing；but，whiletheystandatpar，noconclusioncanbedrawnastonumbersingeneral:thesewillbeinalessproportionasabusiveprocreationgoesforward:and，viceversa，theywillbeinagreater。

Therestillhangsaclouduponthissubject:letmethereforereasonuponanexample。Supposetheinhabitantsofacountrytostandat6，000，000；onethirtiethtodieeveryyear，andasmanytobeborn，thatis，thebirthsandburialstostandat200，000；

thateverythreemarriagessubsistingproduceonechildeveryyear，thatis600，000marriages；letthequantityoffoodbesupposedthesame，withoutapossibilityofbeingaugmented。

Wouldnottheconsequencebe，thatnumberscouldnotincrease？

Nowletmesupposemarriagescarriedto1，000，000，Isaytheeffectwouldbe，eitherthattheywouldbecomeingenerallessfruitful，oriftheysufferednodiminutioninthisparticular，thatthebillsofbirthsanddeathswouldriseto333，333；thatistosay，theywouldbetothenumberofinhabitantsas1to18，insteadofbeingas1to30。Nowthisincreaseofmortalityproceedingfromwantoffood，eithertheoldwouldstarvetheyoung，ortheyoungwouldstarvetheold；orathirdcase，moreprobablethaneither，wouldhappen；thosewhocouldpurchasesubsistence，wouldstarvethosewhocouldnot。Whatwouldbetheconsequencesinallthesethreesuppositions？Inthefirst，thenumberof6，000，000wouldbefoundtodiminish；becausetheproportionoflargeconsumerswouldrise，andmortalitywouldincreaseamongthechildren。Inthesecond，thestandardnumberwouldaugment，becausetheproportionofsmallconsumerswouldrise，andmortalitywouldincreaseamongtheparents。Inthethird，miseryanddistresswouldlayallthelowerclasseswaste。

Itiscomputedthatonehalfofmankinddiebeforetheageofpubertyincountrieswherenumbersdonotaugment；fromthisI

conclude，thattoomanyareborn。Ifmethodsthereforearefallenupontorendercertaindiseaseslessmortaltochildren，allthegoodthatwillbegotbyit，ingeneral，willbetorenderoldpeopleofthelowerclassesmorewretched；forifthefirstarebroughttolive，thelastmustdie。

FromthesespeculationsIcannothelpwishingtoseebillsofmortalitymadeoutfordifferentclasses，aswellasfordifferentages。Werethisexecuted，itwouldbeaneasymattertoperceive，whetherthemortalityamongchildrenproceedsfromdiseasestowhichinfancyisnecessarilyexposed，orfromabusiveprocreation。Iamprettymuchconvinced，beforeIseetheexperiment，thatitproceedsfromthelatter；butshouldexperienceproveit，theprinciplesIhavelaiddownwouldacquireanadditionalforce。Inthemeantime，Imustconclude，thatitisnotforwantofmarryingthatapeopledoesnotincrease，butfromthewantofsubsistence；anditismiserableandabusiveprocreationwhichstarvessomany，andisthefountainofsomuchwretchedness。

Uponthewhole，Imaysay，thatwereitpossibletogetaviewofthegeneralstateofbirthsandburialsineveryclassoftheinhabitantsofacountry，marriagemightsurelybeputuponabetterfootingthaneverithasbeen，forprovidingeveryyearadeterminatenumberofgoodandwholesomerecruitstowardssupportingnationalmultiplication。Thisiswalkinginthelight，andisameansofprocuringwhateveraugmentationofhandsyouwishfor。Whatdifficultiesmaybefoundintheexecution，nothingbutexperiencecanshew。andthis，toajudiciouseye，willpointouttheremedy。This，inmyopinion，willbefarbetterthanageneralnaturalization，whichItaketobealeapinthedark。For，howevereasyitmaybetonaturalizemen，I

believenothingissodifficultastonaturalizecustomsandforeignhabits；andthegreatestblessinganynationcanenjoy，isanuniformityofopinionuponeverypointwhichconcernspublicaffairsandtheadministrationofthem。

WhenGodblessesapeople，hemakesthemunanimous，andbestowsuponthemagovernorwholovesthem，andwhoisbeloved，honoured，andrespectedbythem；this，andthisonly，cancreateunanimity。

Letthissufficeatpresent，astothedistribution，employment，andincreaseofapeople。Upontheproperemploymentofthefreehands，theprosperityofeverystatemustdepend:

consequentlytheprincipalcareofastatesmanshouldbe，tokeepallemployed，andforthispurposehemustacquireanexactknowledgeofthestateofeverydenomination，inordertopreventanyonefromrisingabove，orsinkingbelowthatstandardwhichisbestproportionedtothedemandmadefortheirparticularindustry。Asthebadconsequencesresultingfromthelossofthisexactbalancearenotimmediate，amoderateattention，withthehelpoftheproperrecapitulations，willbesufficienttodirecthim。

Thisandthetwoprecedingchaptershaveinamannerwhollytreatedoftheemploymentofthefreehands:Imustnowconsidertheeffectsofanoverchargeofthoseemployedinagriculture。

Hereweshallstilldiscoverinconveniences，resultingfromthewantofthatjustproportioninthedistributionofclasses，whichgiveshealthandvigourtoastate；andweshallseehowitmayhappen，thatevenanoverchargeofinhabitantsingeneralmaybecomeapoliticaldisease；asanabundanceofblood，howeverrichandgood，mayaffectthehealthofthehumanbody。

Chap。XIV

OftheAbuseofAgricultureandPopulationIhavetakenaboveoftwoperformances，whereintheauthorswithequalability，havetreatedofthenumbersofmanors，withnoticeasubjectwhichhasaverycloseconnectionwithpoliticaloeconomy。

Although(asIhavesaid)Idonotpretendtodecidebetweenthemastothepointindispute，IfindthatinthischapterI

shallbenaturallyledintoachainofreasoningveryunfavourabletothatofMrWallace，whichisathingIshouldhavedispensedwith，didnotthemeritofhisperformanceintheeyesofthelearnedworldappearsufficienttodrawmyattention。

Agricultureis，withoutalldoubt，thefoundationofmultiplication，whichmusteverbeinproportiontoit；thatis，totheearth’sproductions，ashasbeensaid。Butitdoesnotfollow，thatinproportiontomultiplicationthoseproducedmustofcoursebecomeusefultooneanother，andusefultothesocietyingeneral。NowIconsidermultiplicationasnootherwiseusefultoastate，thansofarastheadditionalnumberbecomessotothosewhoarealreadyexisting，whomIconsiderasthebody-politicofthesociety。Whenitthereforehappens，thatanadditionalnumberproduceddonomorethanfeedthemselves，thenIperceivenoadvantagegainedtothesocietybytheirproduction。If，withoutrenderinganyequivalentservice，theyarefedbyothers，thereisaloss。

Agriculturemaybesaidtobecarriedtoitsutmostextent，whentheearthissolabouredastoproducethegreatestquantityoffruitspossiblefortheuseofman；andinjudgingoftheimprovementoftwospotsofgroundofthesameextent，thatmaybesaidtobemostimprovedwhichproducesthegreatestquantityoffood:butastopopulation，thequestiondoesnotstophere；

forletthequantitybeequalonboth，yetiftheinhabitantsoftheonebemorefrugalliversthanthoseoftheother，thiscircumstancealonewillmakeaninequality。Ifagriculturethereforebeconsideredwithrespecttopopulationonly，wemustconsiderthatcountryasthebestpeopled，whereproductionsarethemostabundant，andwheretheinhabitantsarethemostsober。

Thusmuchwithregardtotheextentofagricultureandpopulation:wecomenowtoconsidertheinconvenienceswhichmayresulttoasocietyfromanover-stretch，orfromwhatIcallanabuseofeithertheoneortheother。

Icalleverythinganabuseinsocietywhichimpliesacontradictiontothespiritofit，orwhichdrawsalongwithitaninconveniencetocertainclasses，whichisnotcompensatedbythegeneralwelfare。

Thepoliticaloeconomyofgovernmentisbroughttoperfection，wheneveryclassingeneral，andeveryindividualinparticular，ismadetobeaidingandassistingtothecommunity，inproportiontotheassistancehereceivesfromit。Thisconveysmyideaofafreeandperfectsociety，whichis，ageneraltacitcontract，fromwhichreciprocalandproportionalservicesresultuniversallybetweenallthosewhocomposeit。

Wheneverthereforeanyoneisfound，uponwhomnobodydepends，andwhodependsuponeveryone，asisthecasewithhimwhoiswillingtoworkforhisbread，butwhocanfindnoemployment，thereisabreachofthecontract，andanabuse。Forthesamereason，ifwecansupposeanypersonentirelytakenupinfeedinghimself，dependinguponnoone，andhavingnobodydependingonhim，welosetheideaofsociety，becausetherearenoreciprocalobligationsbetweensuchapersonandtheothermembersofthesociety。

Thosewhoareforemployingthewholeofapeopleinagriculturemayanswer，thatalltheirtimecannotbeemployedinthisoccupation，andthatintheintervalstheymayapplythemselvestosupplyreciprocalwants。

Iveryreadilyagree，thatanyperson，whowouldcalculatehislabourinagriculture，purelyforhisownsubsistence，wouldfindabundanceofidlehours。Butthequestionis，whetheringoodoeconomysuchapersonwouldnotbebetteremployedinprovidingnourishmentforothers，thaninproddingforanyotherwant。Whenheprovidesfood，hesurelyprovidesforawant；andexperienceshews，thatitisbetterforamantoapplyclosetoonetrade，thantoturnhimselftoseveral。

HenceIconclude，thatthebestwayofbindingafreesocietytogetherisbymultiplyingreciprocalobligations，andcreatingageneraldependencebetweenallitsmembers。Thiscannotbebettereffected，thanbyappropriatingacertainnumberofinhabitants，fortheproductionofthequantityoffoodrequiredforall，andbydistributingtheremainderintoproperclassesforsupplyingeveryotherwant。Isayfarther，thatthisdistributionisnotonlythemostrational，butthatmankindfallnaturallyintoit；

andmiseryattendsandhaseverattendedthosewhohavebeenfoundwithoutaparticularemployment。

Itmustnotbeconcludedfromthisreasoningthatabuseisalwaysimpliedwhenwefindanyoftheclassesofthefreehandsofastatecasuallyemployedinagriculture。

Thereissuchavarietyofcircumstancesineverycountry，thatwithoutapeculiartalentoflayingprinciplestogether，soastoanswereverycombination，themostperfecttheorywhichcanbeproposedmustappeardefective。

Incountriesill-improved，whereindustrybeginsonlytotakeroot，wearenottoconclude，thatgoodpolicyrequiresasuddenandimmediateseparationbetweenthedwellingsofthehusbandmenandfreehands。Suddenrevolutionsareconstantlyhurtful，andagoodstatesmanoughttolaydownhisplanforarrivingatperfectionbygradualsteps。

Ifhefind，asisthecaseofrudeanduncivilizedsocieties，thatmanyareoccupied，partly，inprovidingsubsistencefortheirownfamily，partly，inotherusefulpursuits，hemaybydegreesattachasmanyashecantoagriculturealone。Themostwealthyarethemostpropertocarrythisbranchtoanydegreeofperfection。Thelandedmenoughttobeencouragedbyeverymeanstoapplytothestudyoffarming。Thisemploymenthasbeenconsideredashonourableinallagesoftheworld，andverywellsuitstherank，theinterest，andtheamusementofgentlemen。

Thenextstepistointroducemanufacturesintothecountry，andtoprovideareadymarketabroadforeverysuperfluouspartofthem。Theallurementofgainwillsoonengageeveryonetopursuethatbranchofindustrywhichsucceedsbestinhishands。

Bythesemeansmanywillfollowmanufacturesandabandonagriculture；otherswillprosecutetheirmanufacturesinthecountry，andavailthemselves，atthesametime，ofsmallportionsofland，properforgardens，grassforcows，andevenforproducingcertainkindsoffruitnecessaryfortheirownmaintenance。

ThisIdonotconsiderasaspeciesoffarming。Itismoreproperly，inapoliticallight，asortofvillage-life；thevillagehereappearsdispersedonlyoveralargeextent；andI

callitavillage-life，becauseheretheoccupationoftheinhabitantsisprincipallydirectedtowardstheprosecutionoftheirtrades:agricultureisbutasubalternconsideration，andwillbecarriedonsofaronly，asitoccasionsnogreatavocationfromthemainobject。Itwillhowever，havetheeffecttoparceloutasmallpartofthelandsintosmallpossessions:asystemadmirablycalculatedfortheimprovementofabarrensoil，andadvantageoustoindustryisnottherebychecked。Thisispopulation，whenthespiritofnotthecasewhenthepossessorsofsmalllotsapplytotallytoagriculture，andcontentthemselveswithabaresubsistencefromit，withoutindustry，orforminganyplanwhichprosecutinganyotherbranchofmayenablethemselvesortheirchildrentoemergefromsocircumscribedasphereoflife:fromthisaloneproceeds，inmostcountries，theinconvenienceofaminutesubdivisionofland-property。

Weshallpresentlysee，byvariousexamples，thetruthofthisproposition；and，fromwhatobservationsIhavebeenabletomake，itappears，thatagreatinconvenienceflowsfromit；thepropertyofthelands，andnotthebarepossessionofthem，isvestedinthelowerclasses。Whiletheyremainastenantsonly，theinterestoftheproprietor，ononehand，willleadhimtoincorporatethesesmallpossessionsintolargerfarms，themomentthepossessorsarenolongerabletopayarentabovethevalueofthegroundswhenletinfarms；andtheinterestofthesetenants，ontheotherhand，willfrequentlyleadthemtoabandonsuchsmallpossessions，whentheprosecutionoftheirtrades，whichoughttobetheirprincipaloccupation，demandsachangeofhabitation。Thustheinterestofagriculturewillgohandinhandwiththatofindustry，andclasseswillseparatetheirhabitationsaccordingastheirrespectiveinterestsrequire。

Itiscertainlytheinterestofeverylandlordwhoselandsareillimproved，tomultiplythehabitationsonthem；providedthepossessorscanbemadetolivebysomeotherbranchofindustrythanbareagriculture:andinmanycases，itmaybehisadvantagetoincorporatesuchsmallpossessionsintofarms，assoonastheyhavebeensufficientlyimprovedbythepossessors；

whosehabitationsmaythenberemovedtootherbarrenlands。Byfollowingthisplanhewillimprovehisestate；hewillmultiplytheusefulinhabitants；andhewill，atthesametime，sharetheprofitsoftheirindustrybeyondthevaluewhichanyfarmercanpayforthelandswhichhegivesthemtopossess。

BythesemeanshasthewoollenmanufactureinEngland，andthelineninIrelandandScotlandbeengreatlyaugmented。Butastheimprovementoflandgoeson，thisoeconomywilldecline:

townswillswellinconsequenceoftheprincipleswearenowgoingtodeduce；thelandswillbecomemorethinlyinhabited；andfarmswillbydegreesgrowmoreextensive。Iappealtoexperienceforthejustnessofthisobservation。

Henceitplainlyappears，that，ineverylightthismattercanberepresented，westillfinditimpossibleusefullytoemployinagricultureaboveacertainpartofapeople。Thenextquestionis，howtodeterminethejustproportion。Forthispurposewemusthaverecoursetofacts，nottotheory。Wehave，inaformerchapter，examinedthestateofthisquestionwithregardtoonecountry。Ishallhereonlyadd，that，inproportiontothecultureofthesoil，andtothenumberofcropsitismadetoproduce，agreaterorlessnumberwillberequired；andinproportiontothesurplusoffoodabovewhatisnecessarytomaintainthelabourers，willanumberoffreehandsbeprovidedfor。Ifthereforeaspeciesofagriculturecanbefoundestablished，whichproduceslittleornosurplus，therelittleornoindustrycanbeexercised；fewwantscanbesupplied:thiswillproduceawonderfulsimplicityofmanners，willruinthesystemofmodernpolicy，andproducewhatImustcallanabuse。

Letmelookforsomeexamplesofthis，inordertosetthequestioninaclearerlight。

Inthewine-provincesofFrance，wefindthelandswhichlieroundthevillagesdividedintoverysmalllots，andtherecultivationiscarriedtoaveryextraordinaryheight。Theselandsbelong，inproperty，(notbylease，)tothepeasantswhocultivatethevines。Nofrugalitycanbegreaterthanintheconsumptionofthisproduce，andthesmallestweedwhichcomesupamongthegrain，isturnedtoaccount，forthefoodofanimals。

Theproduceofsuchlands，Imaysay，isentirelyconsumedbytheproprietorandhisfamily，whoareallemployedinthecultivation，andthereisnosuperfluousquantityhereproducedforthemaintenanceofothers。DoesnotthisresemblethedistributionoflandsmadebytheRomansinfavourof5000Sabinefamilies，whereeachreceivedtwoplethraofground。(SeeNumbersofMankind，p。117)Nowletmeexaminethepoliticalstateofagriculture，andofotherlabourperformedbymyFrenchvine-dresser。

Bythesuppositionweimply，thatthebitoflandissufficientformaintainingthemanandhisfamily，andnothingmore；hehasnograintosell，nofoodcanbyhimbesuppliedtoanyotherpersonwhatever；butthestateofotherlandscapableofyieldingasurplus，suchasthevineyard，producesademandforhislabour。Thislabour，consideredwithrespecttothevine-dresser，isafundforprovidingallhiswantsinmanufactures，salt，&c。andwhatisovermustbeconsideredashisprofits，outofwhichhepaystheroyalimpositions。Thesamelabour，consideredwithregardtotheproprietorofthevineyard，entersintothatnecessarydeductionoutofthefruits，which，whendeducted，leavestheremainder，whichwecallsurplus，orwhatanswerstotheland-rent。Thisbelongstotheproprietor，andbecomesafundforsupplyingallhiswants。

Herewehaveanideaofsociety。Thevine-dresserdependsupontheproprietorforthepriceofhislabour，theproprietoruponthevinedresserforhissurplus。Butdidwesupposeallthekingdomparcelledout，andlaboured，asthespotwhichliesroundthevillage，whatwouldbecomeofthevine-dresserwithregardtoallhisotherwants；therewouldbenovinestodress，nosurplusnourishmentanywheretobefound，consequentlynoemployment，notevenlife，forthosewhohadnoland。Fromthisexamplewediscoverthedifferencebetweenagricultureexercisedasatradeandasadirectmeansofsubsisting:adistinctiontobeattendedto，asitwillveryfrequentlyoccurintheprosecutionofoursubject。Wehavethetwospeciesinthevine-dresser:helaboursthevineyardasatrade，andhisspotofgroundforsubsistence。

Wemayfartherconclude，that，astothelastpart，heisusefultohimselfonly；but，astothefirst，heisusefultothesociety，andbecomesamemberofit:consequently，wereitnotforhistrade，thestatewouldlosenothing，thoughthevine-dresserandhislandwerebothswallowedupbyanearthquake。Thefoodandtheconsumerswouldbothdisappeartogether，withouttheleastpoliticalharmtoanybody:

consequently，suchaspeciesofagricultureisnobenefittoastate；andconsequently，neitheristhatspeciesofmultiplication，impliedbysuchadistributionofproperty，anybenefit。Thusanover-extensionofagricultureandsubdivisionoflandsbecomeanabuse，andso，consequently，doesanover-multiplicationoffarmers。

HereIamobligedtoconclude，thatthosepassagesofRomanauthorswhichmentionthefrugalityofthatpeople，andthesmallextentoftheirpossessions，cannotberightlyunderstood，withouttheknowledgeofmanycircumstancesrelativetothemannersofthosetimes。ForifyouunderstandsuchadistributionoflandstohaveextendedoveralltheRomanterritory，thenumberofthecitizenswouldhavefarexceededwhattheyappeartohavebeenbytheCensus，andevensurpassallbelief。Butfarther，Imaybeallowedtoask，whetherornoitbesupposedthatthesefrugalRomanslabouredthissmallportionoflandswiththeirownhandsandconsumedtheproduceofit？IfIamansweredintheaffirmative(whichisnecessarytoprovetheadvantagesofagriculture’sbeingexercisedbyalltheclassesofapeople)，thenIask，fromwhenceweretheinhabitantsofRome，andothercities，subsisted？whofedthearmieswheninthefield？Ifthesewerefedbyforeigngrainimportedorplunderedfromtheirneighbours，wherewastheadvantageofthissub-divisionoflands，andofthisextensiveagriculture，whichcouldnotfeedtheinhabitantsofthestate？Ifitbesaid，thatnotwithstandingthisfrugaldistributionofpropertyamongthecitizens，therewerestillfoundsurplusenoughtosupplybothRomeandthearmies，willitnotthenfollow，thattherewasnonecessityforemployingallthepeopleinagriculture，sincethelabourofapartmighthavesufficed？

Thatnumberofhusbandmen，therefore，isthebest，whichcanprovidefoodforallthestate；andthatnumberofinhabitantsisthebest，whichiscompatiblewiththefullemploymentofeveryoneofthem。

Idlemouthsareusefultothemselvesonly，nottothestate；

consequently，arenotanobjectofthecareofthestate，anyfartherthantoprovideemploymentforthem；andtheirwelfare(whiletheyremainuselesstoothers)is，inafreecountry，purelyamatterofprivateconcern。Letmetakeanotherexampleforthefartherillustrationofthismatter。

ThosewhotravelintothesouthernprovincesofSpain，findlargetractsoflandquiteuncultivated，producingonlyascantypastureforherdsofthelessercattle。Hereandtherearefoundinterspersedsomespotsofwateredlands，which，fromtheprofusionofeverygiftwhichnaturecanbestow，strikeanortherntravellerwithanideaofparadise。Insuchplacesvillagesarefound，andnumbersofinhabitants。Itmustbeallowedthatindustryandlabourdonotheregoforwardasinothercountries；buttosupplythiswantcharitystepsin。

CharityinSpain(inproportiontoitsextent)isaspowerfulaprincipletowardsmultiplicationasindustryandlabour。Whatevergivesfoodgivesnumbers:butcharitycannotextendbeyondsuperfluity，andthismusteverbeinproportiontoindustry。

Thesewateredlandsarewelllabouredandimproved。Thevalueofthem，inonesense，isinproportiontotheirfertility，andthesurplusofthelabourersshouldnaturallybegivenforanequivalentinmoneyorwork:Butthisequivalentcannotbefound；

becausethepoorofthevillagehaveneithertheoneortheothertogive；andthecharitablefarmerconsidersittobehisduty，tobestowonthemgratiswhateverhecanspare。IftheSpaniardsthereforewerenotthemostcharitablepeopleuponearth，itisveryplainthatthelabouringofthosewateredspotswoulddiminishuntilitcameuponalevelwiththedemandofsuchpeopleofthevillageonly，ascouldpurchasethefarmer’ssurplus。Buthereitisotherwise；labourgoesonmechanically；

thefarmernevercomplainsoftheburdenofgiving，charity；andthepoorliveineaseinproportiontoplentyoftheyear。

Herethenisathirdprincipleofmultiplication。Thefirstisslavery，oraviolentmethodofmakingmankindlabour；thesecondisindustry，whichisarationalexcitementtoit；thethirdischarity，whichresemblesthemannainthedesert，thegiftofGoduponaveryextraordinaryoccasion，andwhennothingelsecouldhavepreservedthelivesofhispeople。Whether，inallcases，thisprincipleofchristianityadvancestheprosperityofamodernsociety(whencompliedwithfromobediencetoprecept，withoutconsultingreasonastothecircumstancesoftimesandsituations)，isaquestionwhichliesoutofmyroadtoexamine。Theaction，consideredintheintentionoftheagent，mustineverycaseappearhighlybeautiful；andweplainlyseehowfaritcontributestomultiplication，thoughwedonotsoplainlyperceivehowsuchakindofmultiplicationcanbeadvantageoustosociety。

NowifweexaminethestateofagricultureinthisSpanishvillage，consideredasonelargefamily，wefind，uponthewhole，nomoresurplusoffruitsthanupontheFrenchvine-dresser’sportionofland；consequently，ifallSpainwaslabouredandinhabitedlikethisvillageanditssmallgarden，asitiscalled，itwouldbethemostpopulouscountryintheworld，themostsimpleinthemannerofliving；butitnevercouldcommunicatetheideaofavigorousoraflourishingstate。Itistheemploymentaloneoftheinhabitantswhichcanimpressthischaracter。

Nowinthislastexample，whatanumberoffreehandsdowefind！Arenotallthepoorofthisclass？Woulditnotbebetterifallthesebytheirlabourcouldpurchasetheirsubsistence，thanbeobligedtoreceiveitintheprecariousmannertheydo？

Canonesupposeallthesepeopleindustrious，withoutimplyingwhatIcallsuperfluityoflabour？anddoesnotsuperfluityoflabourimplyluxury，accordingtomydefinitionofit？WherewouldbetheharmiftheSpanishfarmer，whogivesathirdofhiscropincharity，shouldinreturnreceivesomechangesofraiment，someconvenientfurnitureforhishouse，someembellishmenttohishabitation:thesethingswouldcosthimnothing；hewouldreceivetheminexchangeforwhathenowgivesfromaprincipleofcharity，andthosewhohaveaprecarious，wouldhaveacertainlivelihood。Letustravelalittlefartherinsearchoftheabuseofpopulation。

InGermany，wefindmanysmalltowns，formedintocorporations，whichenjoycertainprivileges。Thefreedomofsuchtownsisnoteasilypurchased；andone，uponconsideringoutwardcircumstances，mustbenotalittlesurprizedtohearofthesumsrefused，whenoffered，toobtainit。Roundthesetownsthereisasmallterritorydividedintoverysmallportions，andnotabletomaintaintheinhabitants:theselandsthereforeareinfinitelyover-stockedwithhusbandmen；foreveryproprietor，lessormore，concernshimselfwiththecultivation。Here，onewhoshouldaspiretoextendhispossession，would，accordingtothesentimentofManiusCuriusDentatus，certainlybeconsideredasadangerouscitizen，andahurtfulmemberofthesociety。Theselotsaredividedamongthechildrenoftheproprietors，whoarefreeofthetown，bywhichmeanstheyareconstantlysplittingbymultiplication，andconsolidatingbydeath，andbymarriage:

thesenearlybalanceoneanother，andpropertyremainsdividedasbefore。Astrangerisatalosstofindoutthereason，whythelibertyofsopooralittletownshouldbesovaluable。Hereitis；firsttherearecertainadvantagesenjoyedincommon，suchastheprivilegeofpastureonthetown-lands，andothersofalikenature；butIfindthatthechargeswhichtheburgessesareobligedtopay，maymorethancompensatethem。Theprincipalreasonappearstobe，thatnoonewhohasnotthelibertyofatown，cansettleinawayofindustrysoastomarryandhaveafamily:becausewithoutthis，hislabourcanbedirectedtowardsfurnishingthewantsofpeasantsonly，wholiveinvillages；

thesearefew，andlittleingenuityisrequiredforit。Intownsthereisfoundagreaterdiversityofwants，andthepeopletherehavefoundoutmechanically，thatifstrangerswereallowedtostepinandsupplythem，theirownchildrenwouldstarve；

thereforetheheadsofthecorporation，whohaveaninteresttokeepupthepriceofwork，havealsoaninteresttoholdthelibertyoftheirtownatahighvalue。ThisappearstomeaprettyjustrepresentationofthepresentstateofsometownsI

haveseen，relativetothepresentobjectofinquiry。

Butasindustrybecomesextended，andtradeandmanufacturesareestablished，thispoliticaloeconomymustdisappear。

Suchachange，however，willnotprobablyhappenwithouttheinterpositionofthesovereign，andanewplanofadministration；

whatelsecangiveaturntothisspiritofidleness，orrather，asImaycallit，ofthistriflingindustry？Agriculturenevercanbeaproperoccupationforthosewholiveintowns:thisthereforeisanabuseofit，orratherindeedanabuseofemployment。

Easeandplentynevercanenteralittletown，butbythemeansofwealth；wealthnevercancomeinbutbytheproduceoflabourgoingout；andwhenpeoplelabourpurelyfortheirownsubsistence，theymakethelittlemoneyonlytheyhavetocirculate，butcanacquirenothingnewandthosewhowithdifficultycanmaintainthemselves，nevercanhopetoincreasetheirnumbers。

Ifinspiteofthelittleindustrysetonfootinsuchtowns，thegenerativefacultyshallworkitseffectandincreasenumbers，thiswillmakethepoorparentsstilldivide，andmiserywillensue；thismayexcitecompassion，andthisagainwillopenthechestsofthosewhohaveacharitabledisposition:hospitalsarefoundedforthereliefofthepoor，theyarequicklyfilled，andasmanynecessitousremainasever。Thereasonisplain；thehospitalappliesapalliativefortheabuse，butoffersnocure。

Atreeisnosoonerdischargedofitsbranchesthanitpushesnewones。Ithasbeensaid，thatnumbersareinproportiontofood；

consequently，poorareinproportiontocharity。LettheKinggivehisrevenueincharity，hewillsoonfindpoorenoughtoconsumeit。Letarichmanspend100，000l。ayearuponatable，hewillfindguests(thebestinthekingdom)foreverycover。

Thesethings，inmywayofconsideringthem，areallanalogous，andflowfromthesameprinciple。AndthemiseryfoundintheselittleGermantowns，isanothermodificationoftheabuseofpopulation。Theseexamplesshewtheinconveniencesandabuseswhichresultfromamisapplicationofagriculture，whichproducesapopulationmoreburthensomethanbeneficialtoamodernstate。

Ifthesimplicityoftheancientsbeworthyofimitation，orifitappearpreferabletothepresentsystem，whichitisnotmybusinesstodecide，theneitherslaverymustbeintroducedtomakethosesubsistwhodonotlabour，ortheymustbefeduponcharity。Labourandindustrycannever，Ithink，berecommendedononehand，andtheeffectsofthemproscribedontheother。Ifagreatbodyofwarlikemen(aswasthecaseinSparta)beconsideredasessentialtothewell-beingofthestate；ifalltradeandallsuperfluitybeforbidamongstthem，andnoemploymentbutmilitaryexercisesallowed；ifallthesewarriorsbefedatpublictables，mustyounoteitherhaveasetofHelotestoplowthegroundforthem，oraparcelofcharitableSpanishfarmerstofeedthemgratis。

ThusmuchIhavethoughtmightbeofusetosaytoillustratetheprinciplesIhavelaiddown。IfinditveryunfavourabletothereasoningwhichrunsthroughthewholeoftheperformancewhichImentionedabove，andwhichIhavehadinmyeye。Amoreparticularexaminationofitmightbeuseful，andevenamusing；

butitwouldengagemeintoolongadisquisitionforthenatureofthiswork。Icannothoweverhelp，inthisplace，addingoneobservationmore，inconsequenceofourprinciples，whichseemscontrarytothestrainofouringeniousauthor’sreasoning。Isayseems，becausealldifferencealmostofopinionuponsuchsubjectsproceedsfromthedefectoflanguageinclearlytransmittingourideas，whencomplexorabstract。

Theeffectofdiseaseswhichsweepoffnumbersofpeopledoesnotessentiallydiminishpopulation，exceptwhentheycomesuddenlyorirregularly，anymorethanitwouldnecessarilydispeopletheworldifallmankindweretobesweptoffthestageattheageofforty-sixyears。Iapprehendthatinman，asineveryotheranimal，thegenerativefacultyismorethanabletorepairalllossesoccasionedbyregulardiseases；andIhaveshewn，Ithink，morethanonce，thatmultiplicationnevercanstopbutforwantoffood。Aslongthenasthelabourofmancancontinueannuallytoproducethesamequantityoffoodasatpresent，andthatmotivesarefoundtomakehimlabour，thesamenumbersmaybefed，andthegenerativefaculty，whichfromonepairhasproducedsomanymillions，wouldcertainlydomorethankeepupthestock，althoughnopersonweretopasstheageabovementioned。Hereistheproof；werethelifeofmanconfinedtoforty-sixyears，thestateofmortalitywouldbeincreasedintheproportionwhichthosewhodieaboveforty-sixbeartothosewhodieunderthisage。Thisproportionis，Ibelieve，as1to10；

consequently，mortalitywouldincrease1/10，consequently，numberswouldbekeptupby1/10uponbirths；andsurelythegenerativefacultyofmanfarexceedsthisproportion，whentheotherrequisitesforpropagation，towit，food，&c。aretobefound，asbythesupposition。

【推荐阅读】幽幽深宫，醒来一梦似千年，重生于下堂妃身躯中的她，将如何手刃仇人? 点击阅读