CHAPTERV

THEVOLUNTARYACTIONSOFMENORIGINATEINTHEIROPINIONS

Ifbythereasonsalreadygiven，wehaveremovedthesuppositionofanyoriginalbiasinthemindthatisinaccessibletohumanskill，andshownthatthedefectstowhichwearenowsubjectarenotirrevocablyentaileduponus，thereisanotherquestionofnolessimportancetobedecided，beforethegroundcanappeartobesufficientlyclearedforpoliticalmelioration。Thereisadoctrinetheadvocatesofwhichhavenotbeenlessnumerousthanthoseforinnateprinciplesandinstincts，teaching“thattheconductofhumanbeingsinmanyimportantparticularsisnotdetermineduponanygroundsofreasoningandcomparison，butbyimmediateandirresistibleimpression，indefianceoftheconclusionsandconvictionoftheunderstandingManisacompoundbeing。”saythefavourersofthishypothesis，“madeupofpowersofreasoningandpowersofsensation。Thesetwoprinciplesareinperpetualhostility；and，asreasonwillinsomecasessubduealltheallurementsofsense，sothereareothersillwhichtheheadlongimpulsesofsensewillforeverdefeatthetardydecisionsofjudgement。Hethatshouldattempttoregulatemanentirelybyhisunderstanding，andsupersedetheirregularinfluencesofmaterialexcitement；orthatshouldimagineitpracticablebyanyprocessandinanylengthoftimetoreducethehumanspeciesundertheinfluenceofgeneraltruth；(1*)wouldshowhimselfprofoundlyignorantofsomeofthefirstlawsofournature。”

Thisdoctrine，whichinmanycaseshaspassedsocurrentastobethoughtscarcelyatopicforexamination，ishighlyworthyofaminuteanalysis。

Iftrue，itnolessthanthedoctrineofinnateprinciplesopposesabartotheeffortsofphilanthropy，andtheimprovementofsocialinstitutions。

Certainitisthatourprospectsofmeliorationdependupontheprogressofenquiryandthegeneraladvancementofknowledge。Ifthereforetherebepoints，andthoseimportantones，inwhich，sotoexpressmyself，knowledgeandthethinkingprincipleinmancannotbebroughtintocontact，if，howevergreatbetheimprovementofhisreason，hewillnotthelesscertainlyinmanycasesactinawayirrationalandabsurd，thisconsiderationmustgreatlyovercloudtheprospectofthemoralreformer。

Thereisanotherconsequencethatwillflowfromthevulgarlyreceiveddoctrineuponthissubject。Ifmanbe，bytheveryconstitutionofhisnature，thesubjectofopinion，andiftruthandreasonwhenproperlydisplayedgiveusacompleteholduponhischoice，thenthesearchofthepoliticalenquirerwillbemuchsimplified。Thenwehaveonlytodiscoverwhatformofcivilsocietyismostconformabletoreason，andwemayrestassuredthat，assoonasmenshallbepersuadedfromconvictiontoadoptthatform，theywillhaveacquiredtothemselvesaninvaluablebenefit。But，ifreasonbefrequentlyinadequatetoitstask，iftherebeanoppositeprincipleinmanrestinguponitsownground，andmaintainingaseparatejurisdiction，themostrationalprinciplesofsocietymayberenderedabortive，itmaybenecessarytocallinmeresensiblecausestoencountercausesofthesamenature，follymaybethefittestinstrumenttoeffectthepurposesofwisdom，andvicetodisseminateandestablishthepublicbenefit。Inthatcasethesalutaryprejudicesandusefuldelusions(astheyhavebeencalled)ofaristocracy，theglitteringdiadem，themagnificentcanopy，theribands，starsandtitlesofanillustriousrank，mayatlastbefoundthefittestinstrumentsforguidingandalluringtohisproperendsthesavage，man。(2*)

Suchisthenatureofthequestiontobeexamined，andsuchitsconnectionwiththeenquiryconcerningtheinfluenceofpoliticalinstitutions。

Themoreaccuratelytoconceivethetopicbeforeus，itisnecessarytoobservethatitrelatestothevoluntaryactionsofman。

Thedistinctionbetweenvoluntaryandinvoluntaryaction，ifproperlystated，isexceedinglysimple。Thatactionisinvoluntarywhichtakesplaceinuseitherwithoutforesightonourpart，orcontrarytothefullbentofourinclinations。Thus，ifachildorapersonofmatureageburstintotearsinamannerunexpectedorunforeseenbyhimself，orifheburstintotearsthoughhisprideoranyotherprinciplemakehimexerteveryefforttorestrainthem，thisactionisinvoluntary。Voluntaryactioniswheretheeventisforeseenpreviouslytoitsoccurrence，andthehopeorfearofthateventformstheexcitement，or，asitismostfrequentlytermed，themotive，(3*)inducingus，ifhopebethepassion，toendeavourtoforward，and，iffear，toendeavourtopreventit。Itisthismotion，inthismannergenerated，towhichweannextheideaofvoluntariness。Letitbeobservedthatthewordactionishereusedinthesenseofnaturalphilosophers，asdescriptiveofachargetakingplaceinanypartoftheuniverse，withoutenteringintothequestionwhetherthatchangebenecessaryorfree。

Nowletusconsiderwhataretheinferencesthatimmediatelyresultfromtheabovesimpleandunquestionableexplanationofvoluntaryaction。

’Voluntaryactionisaccompaniedwithforesight；thehopeorfearofacertaineventisitsmotive。’Butforesightisnotanaffairofsimpleandimmediateimpulse：itimpliesaseriesofobservationssoextensiveastoenableusfromlikeantecedentstoinferlikeconsequents。Voluntaryactionisoccasionedbytheideaofconsequencestoresult。Wineissetbeforeme，andIfillmyglass。IdothiseitherbecauseIforeseethattheflavourwillbeagreeabletomypalate，orthatitseffectwillbetoproducegaietyandexhilaration，orthatmydrinkingitwillprovethekindnessandgoodhumourIfeeltowardsthecompanywithwhichIamengaged。

Ifinanycasemyactioninfillingdwindleintomechanicalorsemi-mechanical，donewithlittleornoadvertingofthemindtoitsperformance，itsofarbecomesaninvoluntaryaction。But，ifeveryvoluntaryactionbeperformedforthesakeofitsconsequences，thenineveryvoluntaryactionthereiscomparisonandjudgement。Everysuchactionproceedsupontheapprehendedtruthofsomeproposition。Theminddecides“thisisgood“or“desirable；“

andimmediatelyuponthatdecision，ifaccompaniedwithapersuasionthatwearecompetenttoaccomplishthisgoodordesirablething，thelimbsproceedtotheiroffice。Theminddecides“thisisbetterthansomethingelse；“eitherwineandcordialsarebeforeme，andIchoosethewineratherthanthecordials；orthewineonlyispresentedorthoughtof，andIdecidethattotakethewineisbetterthantoabstainfromit。Thusitappearsthatineveryvoluntaryactionthereispreferenceorchoice，whichindeedaresynonymousterms。

Thisfullelucidationofthenatureofvoluntaryactionenablesustoproceedastepfurther。Henceitappearsthatthevoluntaryactionsofmeninallcasesoriginateintheiropinions。Theactionsofmen，itwillreadilybeadmitted，originateinthestateoftheirmindsimmediatelyprevioustothoseactions。Actionsthereforewhichareprecededbyajudgement“thisisgood。”or“thisisdesirable。”originateinthestateofjudgementoropinionuponthatsubject。Itmayhappenthattheopinionmaybeexceedinglyfugitive；itmayhavebeenprecededbyaversionandfollowedbyremorse；

butitwasunquestionablytheopinionofthemindattheinstantinwhichtheactioncommenced。

Itisbynomeansuninstructivetoremarkhowthosepersonswhoseemmosttohavediscardedtheuseoftheirreasonhavefrequentlyfallenbyaccident，asitwere，uponimportanttruths。TherehasbeenasectofChristianswhotaughtthattheonlypointwhichwastodeterminethefutureeverlastinghappinessormiseryofmankindwastheirfaith。Beingpressedwiththeshockingimmoralityoftheirdoctrine，andthecruelandtyrannicalcharacteritimputedtotheauthoroftheuniverse，someofthemostingeniousofthemhaveexplainedthemselvesthus。

“Manismadeupoftwoparts，hisinternalsentimentsandhisexternalconduct。Betweenthesetwothereisacloseandindissolubleconnection；

asarehissentimentssoishisconduct。Faith，thatfaithwhichaloneentitlestosalvation，isindeedaman’sopinion，butnoteveryopinionhemayhappenopenlytoprofess，noteveryopinionwhichfloatsidlyinhisbrain，andisonlyrecollectedwhenheisgravelyquestioneduponthesubject。Faithistheopinionthatisalwayspresenttothemind，thatlivesinthememory，oratleastinfalliblysuggestsitselfwhenanyarticleofconductisconsideredwithwhichitismateriallyconnected。Faithisthatstrong，permanentandlivelypersuasionoftheunderstandingwithwhichnodelusivetemptationswilleverbeablesuccessfullytocontend。

Faithmodifiestheconduct，givesanewdirectiontothedispositions，andrendersthewholecharacterpureandheavenly。Butheavenlydispositionsonlycanfitamanfortheenjoymentofheaven。Heaveninrealityisnotsoproperlyaplaceasastateofthemind；and，ifawickedmancouldbeintroducedintothesocietyof’saintsmadeperfect，’hewouldbemiserable。

Godtherefore，whenherequiresfaithaloneasaqualificationforheaven，issofarfrombeingarbitrarythathemerelyexecutesthelawsofreason，anddoestheonlythingitwaspossibleforhimtodo。”

Inthissystemthereareenormousabsurdities，buttheviewitexhibitsofthesourceofvoluntaryaction，sufficientlycorrespondswiththeanalysiswehavegivenofthesubject。

TheauthoroftheCharacteristicshasillustratedthisbranchofthenatureofmaninaverymasterlymanner。Heobserves：“Therearefewwhothinkalwaysconsistently，oraccordingtoonecertainhypothesisuponanysubjectsoabstruseandintricateasthecauseofallthingsandtheeconomyorgovernmentoftheuniverse。Foritisevidentinthecaseofthemostdevoutpeople，evenbytheirownconfession，thattherearetimeswhentheirfaithhardlycansupporttheminthebeliefofasupreme，wisdom；

andthattheyareoftentemptedtojudgedisadvantageouslyofaprovidenceandjustadministrationinthewhole。

“Thatalonethereforeistobecalledaman’sopinion，whichisofanyotherthemosthabitualtohim，andoccursuponmostoccasions。Sothatitishardtopronouncecertainlyofanyman，thatheisanatheist；because，unlesshiswholethoughtsareatallseasonsandonalloccasionssteadilybentagainstallsuppositionorimaginationofdesigninthings，heisnoperfectatheist。Inthesamemanner，ifaman’sthoughtsarenotatalltimessteadyandresoluteagainstallimaginationofchance，fortune，orilldesigninthings，heisnoperfecttheist。But，ifanyonebelievesmoreofchanceandconfusionthanofdesign，heistobeesteemedmoreanatheistthanatheist(thisissurelynotaveryaccurateorliberalviewoftheatheisticalsystem)fromthatwhichmostpredominates，orhastheascendant。And，incasehebelievesmoreoftheprevalencyofanilldesigningprinciplethanofagoodone，heisratherademonist，andmaybejustlysocalled，fromthesidetowhichthebalanceorhisjudgementmostinclines。’(4*)

Fromthisviewofthesubjectweshalleasilybeledtoperceivehowlittlethefactofthevariablenessandinconstancyofhumanconductisincompatiblewiththeprincipleheredelivered，thatthevoluntaryactionsofmeninallcasesoriginateintheiropinions。Thepersuasionthatexistsinthemindofthedrunkardincommittinghisfirstactofintoxication，thatinsodoinghecomplieswiththemostcogentandirresistiblereasoncapableofbeingassigneduponthesubject，maybeexceedinglytemporary；

butitistheclearandunequivocalpersuasionofhismindatthemomentthathedeterminesupontheaction。Thethoughtsofthemurdererwillfrequentlybeinastateofthemosttempestuousfluctuation；hemaymakeandunmakehisdiabolicalpurposefiftytimesinanhour；hismindmaybetornathousandwaysbyterrorandfury，malignityandremorse。But，wheneverhisresolutionisformed，itisformeduponthesuggestionsoftherationalfaculty；and，whenheultimatelyworksuphismindtotheperpetration，heisthenmoststronglyimpressedwiththesuperiorrecommendationsoftheconducthepursues。Oneofthefallaciesbywhichwearemostfrequentlyinducedtoaconductwhichourhabitualjudgementdisapprovesisthatourattentionbecomessoengrossedbyaparticularviewofthesubjectaswhollytoforget，forthemoment，thoseconsiderationswhichatothertimeswereaccustomedtodetermineouropinion。Insuchcasesitfrequentlyhappensthattheneglectedconsiderationrecurstheinstantthehurryofactionhassubsided，andwestandastonishedatourowninfatuationandfolly。

Thisreasoning，howeverclearandirresistibleitmayappear，isyetexposedtooneverystrikingobjection。“Accordingtotheideasheredelivered，menalwaysproceedintheirvoluntaryactionsuponjudgementsextanttotheirunderstanding。Suchjudgementsmustbeattendedwithconsciousness；

and，werethishypothesisasoundone，nothingcouldbemoreeasythanforamaninallcasestoassigntheprecisereasonthatinducedhimtoanyparticularaction。Thehumanmindwouldthenbeaverysimplemachine，alwaysawareofthegroundsuponwhichitproceeded，andself-deceptionwouldbeimpossible。Butthisstatementiscompletelyinoppositiontoexperienceandhistory。Askamanthereasonwhyheputsonhisclothes，whyheeatshisdinner，orperformsanyotherordinaryactionofhislife。

Heimmediatelyhesitates，endeavourstorecollecthimself，andoftenassignsareasonthemostremotefromwhatthetruephilosophyofmotivewouldhaveledustoexpect。Nothingismoredearthanthatofthemovingcauseofthisactionwasnotexpresslypresenttohisapprehensionatthetimeheperformedit。Self-deceptionissofarfromimpossiblethatitisoneofthemostordinaryphenomenawithwhichweareacquainted。Nothingismoreusualthanforamantoimputehisactionstohonourablemotives，whenitisnearlydemonstrablethattheyflowedfromsomecorruptandcontemptiblesource。Ontheotherhandmanypersonssupposethemselvestobeworsethananimpartialspectatorwillfindanygoodreasontobelievethem。Apenetratingobserverwillfrequentlybeabletoconvincehisneighbourthatuponsuchanoccasionhewasactuatedbymotivesverydifferentfromwhatheimagined。

Philosopherstothishourdisputewhetherhumanbeingsintheirmostvirtuousexertionsareunderthepowerofdisinterestedbenevolence，ormerelyofanenlightenedself-interest。Herethenwearepresented，inoneorotherofthesesetsofphilosophers，withastrikinginstanceofmen’sactingfrommotivesdiametricallyoppositetothosewhichtheysupposetobetheguidesoftheirconduct。Self-examinationistoaproverboneofthemostarduousofthosetaskswhichtruevirtueimposes。Arenotthesefactsinexpresscontradictiontothedoctrinethatthevoluntaryactionsofmeninallcasesoriginateinthejudgementsoftheunderstanding？“

Undoubtedlythefactswhichhavebeenhereenumeratedappeartobestrictlytrue。Todeterminehowfartheyaffectthedoctrineofthepresentchapter，itisnecessarytoreturntoouranalysisofthephenomenaofthehumanmind。Hithertowehaveconsideredtheactionsofhumanbeingsonlyundertwoclasses，voluntaryandinvoluntary。Instrictnesshoweverthereisathirdclass，whichbelongstoneither，yetpartakesofthenatureofboth。

Wehavealreadydefinedvoluntaryactiontobethatofwhichcertainconsequences，foreseen，andconsideredeitherasobjectsofdesireoraversion，arethemotive。Foresightandvolitionareinseparable。Butwhatisforeseenmust，bytheveryterms，bepresenttotheunderstanding。Everyactiontherefore，sofarasitisperfectlyvoluntary，flowssolelyfromthedecisionofthejudgement。Buttheactionsabovecited，suchasrelatetoourgarmentsandourfood，areonlyimperfectlyvoluntary。(5*)

Inrespectofvolitionthereappeartobetwostagesinthehistoryofthehumanmind。Foresightistheresultofexperience；thereforeforesight，andbyparityofreasoningvolition，cannotenterintotheearliestactionsofahumanbeing。Assoonhoweverastheinfantperceivestheconnectionbetweencertainattitudesandgesturesandthecircumstanceofreceivingsuch，forexample，heisbroughttodesirethosepreliminariesforthesakeofthatresult。Here，sofarasrelatestovolitionandthejudgementoftheunderstanding，theactionisassimpleascanwellbeimagined。

Yet，eveninthisinstance，themotivemaybesaidtobecomplex。Habit，orcustom，hasitsshare。Thishabitisfoundedinactionsoriginallyinvoluntaryandmechanical，andmodifiesaftervariousmethodssuchofouractionsasarevoluntary。

Buttherearehabitsofasecondsort。Inproportionasourexperienceenlarges，thesubjectsofvoluntaryactionbecomemorenumerous。Inthisstateofthehumanbeing，hesooncomestoperceiveaconsiderablesimilaritybetweensituationandsituation。Inconsequencehefeelsinclinedtoabridgetheprocessofdeliberation，andtoacttodayconformablytothedeterminationofyesterday。Thustheunderstandingfixesforitselfrestingplaces，isnolongeranovice，andisnotatthetroublecontinuallytogobackandrevisetheoriginalreasonswhichdeterminedittoacourseofaction。

Thusthemanacquirehabitsfromwhichitisverydifficulttoweanhim，andwhichheobeyswithoutbeingabletoassigneithertohimselforothersanyexplicitreasonforhisproceeding。Thisisthehistoryofprepossessionandprejudice。

Letusconsiderhowmuchthereisofvoluntary，andhowmuchofinvoluntaryinthisspeciesofaction。Lettheinstancebeofamangoingtochurchtoday。Hehasbeenaccustomed，suppose，toacertainroutineofthiskindfromhischildhood。Mostundoubtedlythen，inperformingthisfunctiontoday，hismotivedoesnotsinglyconsistofinducementspresenttohisunderstanding。Hisfeelingsarenotofthesamenatureasthoseofamanwhoshouldbepersuadedbyatrainofreasoningtoperformthatfunctionforthefirsttimeinhislife。Hiscaseispartlysimilartothatofascholarwhohasgonethroughacourseofgeometry，andwhonowbelievesthetruthofthepropositionsuponthetestimonyofhismemory，thoughtheproofsarebynomeanspresenttohisunderstanding。Thusthepersoninquestion，ispartlyinducedtogotochurchbyreasonswhichonceappearedsufficienttohisunderstanding，andtheeffectsofwhichremain，thoughthereasonsarenowforgotten，oratleastarenotcontinuallyrecollected。

Hegoespartlyforthesakeofdecorum，character，andtosecurethegoodwillofhisneighbours。Apartofhisinducementalsoperhapsisthathisparentsaccustomedhimtogotochurchatfirst，fromthemereforceofauthority，andthattheomissionofahabittowhichwehavebeenformedisapttofitawkwardlyanduneasilyuponthehumanmind。Thusithappensthatamanwhoshouldscrupulouslyexaminehisownconductingoingtochurchwouldfindgreatdifficultyinsatisfyinghismindastotheprecisemotive，orproportioncontributedbydifferentmotives，whichmaintainedhisadherencetothatpractice。

Itisprobablehoweverthat，whenhegoestochurch，hedeterminesthatthisactionisright，properorexpedient，referringforthereasonswhichprovethisrectitudeorexpediencytothecompleximpressionwhichremainsinhismind，fromtheinducementsthatatdifferenttimesinclinedhimtothatpractice。Itisstillmorereasonabletobelievethat，whenhesetsout，thereisanexpressvolition，foresightorapprehendedmotiveinducinghimtothatparticularaction，andthatheproceedsinsuchadirectionbecauseheknowsitleadstothechurch。Now，somuchofthisactionasproceedsfromactuallyexistingforesightandapprehendedmotive，itispropertocallperfectlyvoluntary。Somuchasproceedsuponamotive，outofsight，andtheoperationofwhichdependsuponhabit，isimperfectlyvoluntary。

Thissortofhabithowevermustbeadmittedtoretainsomethingofthenatureofvoluntarinessfortworeasons。First，itproceedsuponjudgement，orapprehendedmotives，thoughthereasonsofthatjudgementbeoutofsightandforgotten；atthetimetheindividualperformedthefirstactionofthekind，hisproceedingwasperfectlyvoluntary。Secondly，thecustomoflanguageauthorizesusindenominatingeveryactionasinsomedegreevoluntarywhichavolition，foresightorapprehendedmotiveincontrarydirectionmighthavepreventedfromtakingplace。

Perhapsnoactionofamanarrivedatyearsofmaturityis，inthesenseabovedefined，perfectlyvoluntary；asthereisnodemonstrationinthehigherbranchesofthemathematicswhichcontainsthewholeofitsproofwithinitself，anddoesnotdependuponformerpropositions，theproofsofwhicharenotpresenttothemindofthelearner。Thesubtletyofthehumanmindinthisrespectisincredible。Manysingleactions，ifcarefullyanalysedandtracedtotheirremotestsource，wouldbefoundtobethecomplexresultofdifferentmotives，totheamountperhapsofsomehundreds。

Inthemeantimeitisobvioustoremarkthattheperfectionofthehumancharacterconsistsinapproachingasnearlyaspossibletotheperfectlyvoluntarystate。Weoughttobeuponalloccasionspreparedtorenderareasonofouractions。Weshouldremoveourselvestothefurthestdistancefromthestateofmereinanimatemachines，acteduponbycausesofwhichtheyhavenounderstanding。Weshouldbecautiousofthinkingitasufficientreasonforanactionthatweareaccustomedtoperformit，andthatweoncethoughtitright。Thehumanunderstandinghassopowerfulatendencytoimprovementthatitismorethanprobablethat，inmanyinstances，theargumentswhichonceappearedtoussufficientwoulduponre-examinationappearinadequateandfutile。Weshouldthereforesubjectthemtoperpetualrevisal。Inourspeculativeopinionsandourpracticalprinciplesweshouldneverconsiderthebookofenquiryasshut。Weshouldaccustomourselvesnottoforgetthereasonsthatproducedourdetermination，butbereadyuponalloccasionsclearlytoannounceandfullytoenumeratethem。

Havingthusexplainedthenatureofhumanactions，involuntary，imperfectlyvoluntaryandvoluntary，letusconsiderhowfarthisexplanationaffectsthedoctrineofthepresentchapter。Nowitshouldseemthatthegreatpracticalpoliticalprincipleremainsasentireasever。Stillvolitionandforesight，intheirstrictandaccurateconstruction，areinseparable。

Allthemostimportantoccasionsofourlivesarecapableofbeingsubjectedatpleasuretoadecision，asnearlyaspossible，perfectlyvoluntary。

Stillitremainstruethat，whentheunderstandingclearlyperceivesrectitude，proprietyandeligibilitytobelongtoacertainconduct，andsolongasithasthatperception，thatconductwillinfalliblybeadopted。Aperceptionoftruthwillinevitablybeproducedbyaclearevidencebroughthometotheunderstanding，andtheconstancyoftheperceptionwillbeproportionedtotheapprehendedvalueofthethingperceived。Reasonthereforeandconvictionstillappeartobetheproperinstrument，andthesufficientinstrumentforregulatingtheactionsofmankind。

Havingsufficientlyestablishedtheprinciplethatinallcasesofvolitionweact，notfromimpulse，butopinion，thereisafurtherobstacletoberemovedbeforethisreasoningcanbeusefullyappliedtothesubjectofpoliticalmelioration。Itmaybeobjected，byapersonwhoshouldadmittheforceoftheabovearguments，“thatlittlewasgainedbythisexpositiontothecauseitwasintendedtopromote。Whetherornotheactionsofmenfrequentlyarise，assomeauthorshaveasserted，fromimmediateimpression，itcannothoweverbedeniedthattheperturbationsofsensefrequentlyseducethejudgement，andthattheideasandtemporarynotionstheyproducearetoostrongforanyforcethatcanbebroughtagainstthem。But，whatmanisnowinthisrespecthewillalwaystoacertaindegreeremain。Hewillalwayshavesenses，and，inspiteofalltheattemptswhichcanbemadetomortifythem，theirpleasureswillalwaysbeaccompaniedwithirritationandallurement。Henceitappearsthatallideasofvastandextraordinaryimprovementinmanarevisionary，thathewillalwaysremaininsomedegreethedupeofillusion，andthatreason，andabsolute，impartialtruth，canneverhopetopossesshimentire。”

Thefirstobservationthatsuggestsitselfuponthisstatementisthatthepointsalreadyestablishedtendinsomedegreetosetthisnewquestioninaclearerlight。Fromthemitmaybeinferredthatthecontendingforcesofreasonandsense，inthepowertheyexerciseoverourconduct，atleastpassthroughthesamemedium，andassumethesameform。Itisopinioncontendingwithopinion，andjudgementwithjudgement；andthisconsiderationisnotunattendedwithencouragement。Whenwediscourseofthecomparativepowersofappetiteandreason，wespeakofthoseactionswhichhavetheconsentofthemind，andpartakeofthenatureofvoluntary。Thequestionneitherisnordeservestoberespectingcaseswherenochoiceisexerted，andnopreferenceshown。Everymanisawarethatthecasesintowhichvolitionenterseitherforapartorthewholearesufficientlynumeroustodecideuponallthatismostimportantintheeventsofourlife。Itfollowsthereforethat，inthecontentionofsenseandreason，itcannotbeimprobabletohopethattheopinionwhichisintrinsicallythebestfoundedshallultimatelyprevail。

Butletusexaminealittleminutelythesepleasuresofsense，theattractionsofwhicharesupposedtobesoirresistible。Inrealitytheyareinnowayenabledtomaintaintheirholduponusbutbymeansoftheadscititiousornamentswithwhichtheyareassiduouslyconnected。Reducethemtotheirtruenakedness，andtheywouldbegenerallydespised。Wherealmostisthemanwhowouldsitdownwithimpatienteagernesstothemostsplendidfeast，themostexquisiteviandsandhighlyflavouredwines，“tasteaftertasteupheldwithkindliestchange。”(6*)ifhemustsitdownalone，anditwerenotrelievedandassistedbythemoreexaltedcharmsofsociety，conversationandmutualbenevolence？Stripthecommerceofthesexesofallitsattendantcircumstances；andtheeffectwouldbesimilar。Tellamanthatallwomen，sofarassenseisconcerned，arenearlyalike。Bidhimthereforetakeapartnerwithoutanyattentiontothesymmetryofherperson，hervivacity，thevoluptuoussoftnessofhertemper，theaffectionatekindnessofherfeelings，herimaginationorherwit。Youwouldprobablyinstantlyconvincehimthatthecommerceitself，whichbysuperficialobserversisputforthewhole，istheleastimportantbranchofthecomplicatedconsiderationtowhichitbelongs。ItisprobablethathewhoshouldformhimselfwiththegreatestcareuponasystemofsolitarysensualismwouldcomeatlasttoadecisionnotverydifferentfromthatwhichEpicurusissaidtohaveadoptedinfavouroffreshherbsandwaterfromthespring。

“Butletitbeconfessedthatthepleasuresofsenseareunimportantandtrivial。Itisnexttobeaskedwhether，triflingastheyare，theymaynotneverthelesspossessadelusiveandtreacherouspowerbymeansofwhichtheymayoftenbeenabledtoovercomeeveryopposition？“

Thebettertodeterminethisquestion，letussupposeamantobeengagedintheprogressivevoluptuousnessofthemostsensualscene。Here，ifever，wemayexpectsensationtobetriumphant。Passionisinthiscaseinitsfullcareer。Heimpatientlyshutsouteveryconsiderationthatmaydisturbhisenjoyment；moralviewsanddissuasivescannolongerobtrudethemselvesintohismind；heresignshimself，withoutpowerofresistance，tohispredominantidea。Alas，inthissituation，nothingissoeasyastoextinguishhissensuality！Tellhimatthismomentthathisfatherisdead，thathehaslostorgainedaconsiderablesumofmoney，oreventhathisfavouritehorseisstolenfromthemeadow，andhiswholepassionshallbeinstantlyannihilated：sovastisthepowerwhichamerepropositionpossessesoverthemindofman。Soconsciousareweoftheprecariousnessofthefascinationofthesensesthatuponsuchoccasionsweprovideagainsttheslightestinterruption。Ifourlittlefingerached，wemightprobablyimmediatelybidadieutotheempireofthissupposedalmightypower。Itissaidtobeanexperimentsuccessfullymadebysailorsandpersonsinthatclassofsociety，tolayawagerwiththeircomradesthatthesexualintercourseshallnottakeplacebetweenthemandtheirbedfellowtheensuingnight，andtotrusttotheirveracityforaconfessionoftheevent。Theonlymeansprobablybywhichanymaneversucceedsinindulgingthepleasuresofsense，incontradictiontothehabitualpersuasionofhisjudgement，isbycontrivingtoforgeteverythingthatcanbeofferedagainstthem。

If，notwithstandingallhisendeavours，theunwishedforideaintrudes，theindulgenceinstantlybecomesimpossible。Isittobesupposedthatthepowerofsensualallurement，whichmustbecarefullykeptalive，andwhichtheslightestaccidentoverthrows，canbeinvincibleonlytotheartilleryofreason，andthatthemostirresistibleconsiderationsofjustice，interestandhappinesswillneverbeablehabituallytocontrolit？

Toconsiderthesubjectinanotherpointofview。Itseemstobeastrangeabsurditytohearmenassertthattheattractionsofsensualpleasureareirresistible，incontradictiontothemultipliedexperienceofallagesandcountries。Areallgoodstoriesofournaturefalse？Didnomaneverresisttemptation？Onthecontrary，havenotalltheconsiderationswhichhavepoweroverourhopes，ourfears，orourweaknessesbeen，incompetitionwithafirmandmanlyvirtue，employedinvain？Butwhathasbeendonemaybedoneagain。Whathasbeendonebyindividualscannotbeimpossible，inawidelydifferentstateofsociety，tobedonebythewholespecies。

Thesystemweareherecombating，oftheirresistiblepowerofsensualallurements，hasbeennumerouslysupported，andavarietyofargumentshasbeenadducedinitsbehalf。Amongotherthingsithasbeenremarked“that，asthehumanmindhasnoinnateandoriginalprinciples，soalltheinformationithasisderivedfromsensation；andeverythingthatpasseswithinitiseitherdirectimpressionuponourexternalorgans，orthesubstanceofsuchimpressionsmodifiedandrefinedthroughcertainintellectualstrainersandalembics。Itisthereforereasonabletoconcludethattheoriginalsubstanceshouldbemostpowerfulinitsproperties，andthepleasuresofexternalsensemoregenuinethananyotherpleasure。Everysensationis，byitsverynature，accompaniedwiththeideaofpleasureorpaininavigorousorfeebledegree。Theonlythingwhichcanoroughttoexcitedesireishappinessoragreeablesensation。Itisimpossiblethatthehandcanbestretchedouttoobtainanythingexceptsofarasitisconsideredasdesirable；andtobedesirableisthesamethingastohaveatendencytocommunicatepleasure。Thus，afterallthecomplexitiesofphilosophy，wearebroughtbacktothissimpleandirresistibleproposition，thatmanisananimalpurelysensual。Henceitfollowsthatinallhistransactionsmuchmustdependuponimmediateimpression，andlittleistobeattributedtothegeneralitiesofratiocination。”

Allthepremisesintheobjectionherestatedareunquestionablytrue。

Manisjustsuchananimalastheobjectiondescribes。Everythingwithinhimthathasatendencytovoluntaryactionisanaffairofexternalorinternalsense，andhasrelationtopleasureorpain。Butitdoesnotfollowfromhencethatthepleasuresofourexternalorgansaremoreexquisitethananyotherpleasures。Itisbynomeansunexampledfortheresultofacombinationofmaterialstobemoreexcellentthanthematerialsthemselves。

Letusconsiderthematerialsbymeansofwhichanadmirablepoem，or，ifyouwill，theauthorofanadmirablepoem，isconstructed，andweshallimmediatelyacknowledgethistobethecase。Inrealitythepleasuresofasavage，or，whichismuchthesamething，ofabrute，arefeebleindeedcomparedwiththoseofthemanofcivilizationandrefinement。Oursensualpleasures，commonlysocalled，wouldbealmostuniversallydespisedhadwenotthearttocombinethemwiththepleasuresofintellectandcultivation。

Nomaneverperformedanactofexaltedbenevolencewithouthavingsufficientreasontoknow，atleastsolongasthesensationwaspresenttohismind，thatallthegratificationsofappetitewerecontemptibleinthecomparison。

Thatwhichgivesthelastzesttoourenjoymentsistheapprobationofourownminds，theconsciousnessthattheexertionwehavemadewassuchaswascalledforbyimpartialjusticeandreason；andthisconsciousnesswillbeclearandsatisfyinginproportionasourdecisioninthatrespectisunmixedwitherror。Ourperceptionscanneverbesoluminousandaccurateinthebeliefoffalsehoodasoftruth。

Thegreatadvantagepossessedbytheallurementsofsenseis“thattheideassuggestedbythemaredefiniteandprecise，whilethosewhichdealingeneralitiesareapttobefaintandobscure。Thedifferenceislikethatbetweenthingsabsentandpresent；oftherecommendationspossessedbythelatterwehaveamorevividperception，andseemtohaveabetterassuranceoftheprobabilityoftheirattainment。Thesecircumstancesmustnecessarily，inthecomparisoninstitutedbythemindinallsimilarcases，toacertaindegreeinclinethebalancetowardsthatside。Addtowhich，thatwhatispresentforcesitselfuponourattention，whilethatwhichisabsentdependsforitsrecurrenceuponthecapriciousnessofmemory。”

Buttheseadvantagesareseenupontheveryfaceofthemtobeofaprecariousnature。Ifmyideasofvirtue，benevolenceandjustice，orwhateveritisthatoughttorestrainmefromanimproperleaningtothepleasuresofsense，benowlessdefiniteandprecise，theymaybegraduallyandunlimitedlyimproved。IfIdonotnowsufficientlyperceivealltherecommendationstheypossess，andtheirclearsuperiorityovertheallurementsofsense，thereissurelynonaturalimpossibilityinmybeingmadetounderstandadistinctproposition，orinmybeingfullyconvincedbyanunanswerableargument。Astorecollection，thatiscertainlyafacultyofthemindwhichiscapableofimprovement；andthepoint，ofwhichIhavebeenonceintimatelyconvincedandhavehadalivelyandprofoundimpression，willnoteasilybeforgottenwhentheperiodofactionshallarrive。

Ithasbeensaid“thatarainydaywillfrequentlyconvertamanofvalourintoacoward。”Ifthatshouldbethecase，thereisnopresumptioninaffirmingthathiscouragewasproducedbyveryslightandinadequatemotives。Howlongwouldasensationofthiskindbeabletoholdoutagainsttheideaofthebenefitstoarisefromhisvalour，safetytohisfamilyandchildren，defeattoanunjustandformidableassailant，andfreedomandfelicitytobesecuredtohiscountry？Inreality，theatmosphere，insteadofconsiderablyaffectingthemassofmankind，affectsinaneminentdegreeonlyasmallpartofthatmass。Themajorityareeitheraboveorbelowit；areeithertoogrosstofeelstronglytheseminutevariations，ortoobusytoattendtothem。Thecaseistoaconsiderabledegreethesamewiththerestofouranimalsensations。“Indigestion。”ithasbeensaid，“perhapsafitofthetoothache，rendersamanincapableofstrongthinkingandspiritedexertion。”Howfarwouldtheybeabletomaintaintheirgroundagainstanunexpectedpieceofintelligenceofthemostdelightfulnature？Painisprobablymoreformidableinitsattacksuponus，andmoreexquisitelyfeltthananyspeciesofbodilypleasure。Yetallhistoryaffordsusexampleswherepainhasbeencontemnedanddefiedbytheenergiesofintellectualresolution。DowenotreadofMutiusScaevolawhosufferedhishandtobedestroyedbyfirewithoutbetrayinganysymptomofemotion，andarchbishopCranmerwhoenduredthesametrialtwohundredyearsagoinourowncountry？IsitnotrecordedofAnaxarchusthat，whilesufferingthemostexcruciatingtortures，heexclaimed，“Beaton，tyrant！ThoumayestdestroytheshellofAnaxarchus，butthoucanstnottouchAnaxarchushimself？“

TheverysavageIndianssingamidstthewantontorturesthatareinflictedonthem，andtauntinglyprovoketheirtormentorstomoreingeniouscruelty。

Whenwereadsuchstories，werecognizeinthemthegenuinecharacteristicsofman。Manisnotavegetabletobegovernedbysensationsofheatandcold，drynessandmoisture。Heisareasonablecreature，capableofperceivingwhatiseligibleandright，offixingindeliblycertainprinciplesuponhismind，andadheringinflexiblytotheresolutionshehasmade。

Letusattendforamomenttothegeneralresultoftheprecedingdiscussions。

Thetendencyofthewholeistoascertainanimportantprincipleinthescienceofthehumanmind。Iftheargumentshereadducedtobeadmittedtobevalid，itnecessarilyfollowsthatwhatevercanbeadequatelybroughthometotheconvictionoftheunderstandingmaybedependeduponasaffordingasecureholdupontheconduct。Wearenolongeratlibertytoconsidermanasdividedbetweentwoindependentprinciples，ortoimaginethathisinclinationsareinanycaseinaccessiblethroughthemediumofhisreason。

Wefindtheprinciplewithinustobeuniformandsimple；inconsequenceofwhichweareentitledtoconclude，thatitisineveryrespectthepropersubjectofeducationandpersuasion，andissusceptibleofunlimitedimprovement。

Thereisnoconduct，initselfreasonable，whichtherefutationoferror，anddissipatingofuncertainty，willnotmakeappeartobesuch。Thereisnoconductwhichcanbeshowntobereasonable，thereasonsofwhichmaynotsoonerorlaterbemadeimpressive，irresistibleandmatterofhabitualrecollection。Lastly，thereisnoconduct，thereasonsofwhicharethusconclusiveandthuscommunicated，whichwillnotinfalliblyanduniformlybeadoptedbythemantowhomtheyarecommunicated。

Itmaynotbeimpropertoattendalittletothelightwhichmaybederivedfromthesespeculationsuponcertainmaxims，almostuniversallyreceived，butwhich，astheyconveynodistinctideas，maybeproductiveofmischief，andcanscarcelybeproductiveofgood。

Thefirstoftheseisthatthepassionsoughttobepurified，butnottobeeradicated。Another，conveyingnearlythesamelesson，butindifferentwords，isthatpassionisnottobeconqueredbyreason，butbybringingsomeotherpassionintocontentionwithit。

Thewordpassionisatermextremelyvagueinitssignification。Itisusedprincipallyinthreesenses。Iteitherrepresentstheardourandvehemenceofmindwithwhichanyobjectispurified；orsecondly，thattemporarypersuasionofexcellenceanddesirablenesswhichaccompaniesanyactionperformedbyuscontrarytoourmorecustomaryandusualhabitsofthinking；orlastly，thoseexternalmodesornecessitiestowhichthewholehumanspeciesisalikesubject，suchashunger，thepassionbetweenthesexes，andothers。Inwhichofthesesensesisthewordtobeunderstoodinthemaximsabovestated？

Inthefirstsense，ithassufficientlyappearedthatnoneofoursensations，or，whichisthesamething，noneofourideas，areunaccompaniedwithaconsciousnessofpleasureorpain；consequentlyallourvolitionsareattendedwithcomplacenceoraversion。Inthissensewithoutdoubtpassioncannotbeeradicated；butinthissensealsopassionissofarfrombeingincompatiblewithreasonthatitisinseparablefromit。Virtue，sincerity，justiceandallthoseprincipleswhicharebegottenandcherishedinusbyadueexerciseofreasonwillneverbeverystrenuouslyespousedtilltheyareardentlyloved；thatis，tilltheirvalueisclearlyperceivedandadequatelyunderstood。Inthissensenothingisnecessarybuttoshowusthatathingistrulygoodandworthytobedesired，inordertoexciteinusapassionforitsattainment。Ifthereforethisbethemeaningofpassionintheaboveproposition，itistruethatpassionoughtnottobeeradicated，butitisequallytruethatitcannotbeeradicated：itistruethattheonlywaytoconqueronepassionisbytheintroductionofanother；butitisequallytruethat，ifweemployourrationalfaculties，wecannotfailofthusconqueringourerroneouspropensities。Themaximsthereforearenugatory。

Inthesecondsense，ourpassionsareambition，avarice，theloveofpower，theloveoffame，envy，revengeandinnumerableothers。Miserableindeedwouldbeourconditionifwecouldonlyexpelonebadpassionbyanotherofthesamekind，andtherewasnowayofrootingoutdelusionfromthemindbutbysubstitutinganotherdelusioninitsplace。Butithasbeendemonstratedatlargethatthisisnotthecase。Truthisnotlesspowerful，orlessfriendlytoardentexertion，thanerror，andneedsnotfearitsencounter。Falsehoodisnot，assuchaprinciplewouldsuppose，theonlyelementinwhichthehumanmindcanexist，sothat，ifthespacewhichthemindoccupiesbetoomuchrarefiedandcleared，itsexistenceorhealthwillbeinsomedegreeinjured。Onthecontrary，weneednotfearanysinisterconsequencesfromthesubversionoferror，andintroducingasmuchtruthintothemindaswecanpossiblyaccumulate。Allthosenotionsbywhichweareaccustomedtoascribetoanythingavaluewhichitdoesnotreallypossessshouldbeeradicatedwithoutmercy；andtruth，asoundandjustestimateofthings，whichisnotlessfavourabletozealoractivity，shouldbeearnestlyandincessantlycultivated。

Inthethirdsenseofthewordpassion，asitdescribestheresultofthosecircumstanceswhicharecommontothewholespecies，suchashungerandthepropensitytotheintercourseofthesexes，itseemssufficientlyreasonabletosaythatnoattemptoughttobemadetoeradicatethem。Butthissentimentwashardlyworththeformalityofamaxim。Sofarasthesepropensitiesoughttobeconqueredorrestrained，thereisnoreasonwhythisshouldnotheeffectedbythedueexerciseoftheunderstanding。Fromtheseillustrationsitissufficientlyapparentthatthecarerecommendedtousnottoextinguishorseektoextinguishourpassionsisfoundedinaconfusedormistakenviewofthesubject。

Anothermaximnotinferiorinreputationtothoseaboverecitedisthatoffollowingnature。Butthetermnaturehereisstillmorelooseandunintelligiblethanthetermpassionwasbefore。Ifitbemeantthatweoughttoaccommodateourselvestohungerandtheotherappetiteswhicharecommontoourspecies，thisisprobablytrue。Buttheseappetites，someoftheminparticular，leadtoexcess，andthemischiefwithwhichtheyarepregnantistobecorrected，notbyconsultingourappetites，butourreason。Ifitbemeantthatweshouldfollowinstinct，ithasbeenprovedthatwehavenoinstincts。

Theadvocatesofthismaximareapttoconsiderwhatevernowexistsamongmankindasinherentandperpetual，andtoconcludethatthisistobemaintained，notinproportionasitcanbeshowntobereasonable，butbecauseitisnatural。Thusithasbeensaidthatmanisnaturallyareligiousanimal，andforthisreason，andnotinproportiontoourpowerofdemonstratingthebeingofaGodorthetruthofChristianity，religionistobemaintained。

Thusagainithasbeencallednaturalthatmenshouldformthemselvesintoimmensetribesornations，andgotowarwitheachother。Thuspersonsofnarrowviewsandobservationregardeverythingasnaturalandrightthathappens，howevercapriciouslyorforhowevershortatime，toprevailinthesocietyinwhichtheylive。Theonlythingswhichcanbesaidtocomposethenatureorconstitutionofmanareourexternalstructure，whichitselfiscapableofbeingmodifiedwithindefinitevariety；theappetitesandimpressionsgrowingoutofthatstructure；andthecapacityofcombiningideasandinferringconclusions。Theappetitescommontothespecieswecannotwhollydestroy：thefacultyofreasonitwouldbeabsurdsystematicallytocounteract，sinceitisonlybysomesortofreasoning，badorgood，thatwecansomuchasadoptanysystem。Inthissensethereforenodoubtweoughttofollownature，thatis，toemployourunderstandingsandincreaseourdiscernment。But，byconformingourselvestotheprinciplesofourconstitutioninthisrespect，wemosteffectuallyexcludeallfollowing，orimplicitassent。Ifwewouldfullycomportourselvesinamannercorrespondenttoourpropertiesandpowers，wemustbringeverythingtothestandardofreason。Nothingmustbeadmittedeitherasprincipleorpreceptthatwillnotsupportthistrial。Nothingmustbesustainedbecauseitisancient，becausewehavebeenaccustomedtoregarditassacred，orbecauseithasbeenunusualtobringitsvalidityintoquestion。Finally，ifbyfollowingnaturebeunderstoodthatwemustfixourpreferenceuponthingsthatwillconducetohumanhappiness，inthisthereissometruth。Butthetruthitcontainsisextremelydarkenedbythephraseologyinwhichitiscouched。

Wemustconsiderourexternalstructuresofarasrelatestothemerequestionofourpreservation。Astotherest，whateverwillmakeareasonablenaturehappywillmakeushappy；andourpreferenceoughttobebestoweduponthatspeciesofpleasurewhichhasmostindependenceandmostanimation。

Thecorollariesrespectingpoliticaltruth，deduciblefromthesimpleproposition，whichseemsclearlyestablishedbythereasoningsofthepresentchapter，thatthevoluntaryactionsofmenareinallinstancesconformabletothedeductionsoftheirunderstanding，areofthehighestimportance。

Hencewemayinferwhatarethehopesandprospectsofhumanimprovement。

Thedoctrinewhichmaybefoundedupontheseprinciplesmayperhapsbestbeexpressedinthefivefollowingpropositions：Soundreasoningandtruth，whenadequatelycommunicated，mustalwaysbevictoriousovererror：Soundreasoningandtrutharecapableofbeingsocommunicated：Truthisomnipotent：

Thevicesandmoralweaknessofmanarenotinvincible：Manisperfectible，orinotherwordssusceptibleofperpetualimprovement。

Thesepropositionswillbefoundinpartsynonymouswitheachother。

Butthetimeoftheenquirerwillnotbeunprofitablyspentincopiouslyclearingupthefoundationsofmoralandpoliticalsystem。Itisextremelybeneficialthattruthshouldbeviewedonallsides，andexaminedunderdifferentaspects。Thepropositionsareevenlittlemorethansomanydifferentmodesofstatingtheprincipaltopicofthischapter。But，iftheywillnotadmiteachofadistincttrainofargumentsinitssupport，itmaynothoweverbeuselesstobestowuponeachashortillustration。

Thefirstofthesepropositionsissoevidentthatitneedsonlybestatedinordertothebeinguniversallyadmitted。Isthereanyonewhocanimaginethat，whensoundargumentandsophistryarefairlybroughtintocomparison，thevictorycanbedoubtful？Sophistrymayassumeaplausibleappearance，andcontrivetoacertainextenttobewildertheunderstanding。

Butitisoneoftheprerogativesoftruth，tofollowitinitsmazesandstripitofdisguise。Nordoesanydifficultyfromthisconsiderationinterferewiththeestablishmentofthepresentproposition。Wesupposetruthnotmerelytobeexhibited，butadequatelycommunicated；thatis，inotherwords，distinctlyapprehendedbythepersontowhomitisaddressed。Inthiscasethevictoryistoosuretoadmitofbeingcontrovertedbythemostinveteratescepticism。

Thesecondpropositionisthatsoundreasoningandtrutharecapableofbeingadequatelycommunicatedbyonemantoanother。Thispropositionmaybeunderstoodofsuchcommunication，eitherasitaffectstheindividual，orthespecies。Firstoftheindividual。

Inordertoitsdueapplicationinthispointofview，opportunityforthecommunicationmustnecessarilybesupposed。Theincapacityofhumanintellectatpresentrequiresthatthisopportunityshouldbeoflongdurationorrepeatedrecurrence。Wedonotalwaysknowhowtocommunicatealltheevidencewearecapableofcommunicatinginasingleconversation，andmuchlessinasingleinstant。But，ifthecommunicatorbesufficientlymasterofhissubject，andifthetruthbealtogetheronhisside，hemustultimatelysucceedinhisundertaking。Wesupposehimtohavesufficienturbanitytoconciliatethegoodwill，andsufficientenergytoengagetheattention，ofthepartyconcerned。Inthatcase，thereisnoprejudice，noblindreverenceforestablishedsystems，nofalsefearoftheinferencestobedrawn，thatcanresisthim。Hewillencountertheseoneaftertheother，andhewillencounterthemwithsuccess。Ourprejudices，ourunduereverence，andimaginaryfears，flowoutofsomeviewsthemindhasbeeninducedtoentertain；theyarefoundedinthebeliefofsomepropositions。

Buteveryoneofthesepropositionsiscapableofbeingrefuted。Thechampionwedescribeproceedsfrompointtopoint；ifinanyhissuccesshavebeendoubtful，thathewillretraceandputoutofthereachofmistake；anditisevidentlyimpossiblethatwithsuchqualificationsandsuchperseveranceheshouldnotultimatelyaccomplishhispurpose。

Suchistheappearancewhichthispropositionassumeswhenexaminedinalooseandpracticalview。Instrictconsiderationitwillnotadmitofdebate。Manisarationalbeing。Iftherebeanymanwhoisincapableofmakinginferencesforhimself，orofunderstanding，whenstatedinthemostexplicitterms，theinferencesofanother，himweconsiderasanabortiveproduction，andnotinstrictnessbelongingtothehumanspecies。Itisabsurdthereforetosaythatsoundreasoningandtruthcannotbecommunicatedbyonemantoanother。Wheneverinanycasehefails，itisthatheisnotsufficientlylaborious，patientanddear。Wesupposeofcoursethepersonwhoundertakestocommunicatethetruthreallytopossessit，andbemasterofhissubject；foritisscarcelyworthanobservationtosaythatthatwhichhehasnothimselfhecannotcommunicatetoanother。

Iftruththereforecanbebroughthometotheconvictionoftheindividual，letusseehowitstandswiththepublicortheworld。Nowinthefirstplace，itisextremelyclearthat，ifnoindividualcanresisttheforceoftruth，itcanonlybenecessarytoapplythispropositionfromindividualtoindividual，andweshallatlengthcomprehendthewhole。Thustheaffirmationinitsliteralsenseiscompletelyestablished。

Withrespecttothechanceofsuccess，thiswilldepend，first，upontheprecludingallextraordinaryconvulsionsofnature，andafterthisupontheactivityandenergyofthosetowhosehandsthesacredcauseoftruthmaybeentrusted。Itisapparentthat，ifjusticebedonetoitsmerits，itincludesinittheindestructiblegermofultimatevictory。

Everynewconvertthatismadetoitscause，ifhebetaughtitsexcellenceaswellasitsreality，isafreshapostletoextenditsilluminationsthroughawidersphere。Inthisrespectitresemblesthemotionofafallingbody，whichincreasesitsrapidityinproportiontothesquaresofthedistances。Addtowhich，that，whenaconverttotruthhasbeenadequatelyinformeditisbarelypossiblethatheshouldeverfailinhisadherence；

whereaserrorcontainsinittheprincipleofitsownmortality。Thustheadvocatesoffalsehoodandmistakemustcontinuallydiminish，andthewellinformedadherentsoftruthincessantlymultiply。

Ithassometimesbeenaffirmedthat，wheneveraquestionisablybroughtforwardforexamination，thedecisionofthehumanspeciesmustultimatelybeontherightside。Butthispropositionistobeunderstoodwithallowances。

Civilpolicy，magnificentemoluments，andsinistermotivesmayuponmanyoccasions，bydistractingtheattention，causetheworsereasontopassasifitwerethebetter。Itisnotabsolutelycertainthat，inthecontroversybroughtforwardbyClarkeandWhistonagainstthedoctrineoftheTrinity，orbyCollinsandWoolstonagainsttheChristianrevelation，theinnovatorshadaltogethertheworstoftheargument。Yetfiftyyearsaftertheagitationofthesecontroversies，theireffectscouldscarcelybetraced，andthingsappearedonallsidesasifthecontroversieshadneverexisted。Perhapsitwillbesaidthat，thoughtheeffectsoftruthmaybeobscuredforatime，theywillbreakoutinthesequelwithdoublelustre。Butthisatleastdependsuponcircumstances。Nocometmustcomeinthemeantimeandsweepawaythehumanspecies：noAttilamusthaveitinhispoweronceagaintoleadbackthefloodofbarbarismtodelugethecivilizedworld：

andthedisciples，oratleastthebooksoftheoriginalchampionsmustremain，ortheirdiscoveriesanddemonstrationsmustbenearlylosttotheworld。

Thethirdofthepropositionsenumeratedisthattruthisomnipotent。

Thisproposition，whichisconvenientforitsbrevity，mustbeunderstoodwithlimitations。Itwouldbeabsurdtoaffirmthattruth，unaccompaniedbytheevidencewhichprovesittobesuch，orwhenthatevidenceispartiallyandimperfectlystated，hasanysuchproperty。Butithassufficientlyappearedfromtheargumentsalreadyadducedthattruth，whenadequatelycommunicated，is，sofarasrelatestotheconvictionoftheunderstanding，irresistible。Theremayindeedbepropositionswhich，thoughtrueinthemselves，maybebeyondthesphereofhumanknowledge，orrespectingwhichhumanbeingshavenotyetdiscoveredsufficientargumentsfortheirsupport。

Inthatcase，thoughtrueinthemselves，theyarenottruthstous。Thereasoningbywhichtheyareattemptedtobeestablishedisnotsoundreasoning。

Itmayperhapsbefoundthatthehumanmindisnotcapableofarrivingatabsolutecertaintyuponanysubjectofenquiry；anditmustbeadmittedthathumanscienceisattendedwithalldegreesofcertainty，fromthehighestmoralevidencetotheslightestbalanceofprobability。Buthumanbeingsarecapableofapprehendingandweighingallthesedegrees；andtoknowtheexactquantityofprobabilitywhichIoughttoascribetoanypropositionmaybesaidtobeinonesensethepossessingcertainknowledge。

Itwouldfurtherbeabsurd，ifweregardtruthinrelationtoitsempireoverourconduct，tosupposethatitisnotlimitedinitsoperationsbythefacultiesofourframe。Itmaybecomparedtoaconnoisseurwho，howeverconsummatebehistalents，canextractfromagiveninstrumentonlysuchtonesasthatinstrumentwillafford。But，withintheselimits，thedeductionwhichformstheprincipalsubstanceofthischapterprovestousthatwhateverisbroughthometotheconvictionoftheunderstanding，solongasitispresenttothemind，possessesanundisputedempireovertheconduct。Norwillhewhoissufficientlyconversantwiththescienceofintellectbehastyinassigningtheboundsofourcapacity。Therearesomethingswhichthestructureofourbodieswillrenderusforeverunabletoeffect；butinmanycasesthelineswhichappeartoprescribeatermtooureffortswill，likethemiststhatarisefromalake，retirefurtherandfurther，themorecloselyweendeavourtoapproachthem。

Fourthly，thevicesandmoralweaknessofmanarenotinvincible。Thisistheprecedingpropositionwithaveryslightvariationinthestatement。

Viceandweaknessarefoundeduponignoranceanderror；buttruthismorepowerfulthananychampionthatcanbebroughtintothefieldagainstit；

consequentlytruthhasthefacultyofexpellingweaknessandvice，andplacingnoblerandmorebeneficentprinciplesintheirstead。

Lastly，manisperfectible。Thispropositionneedssomeexplanation。

Byperfectible，itisnotmeantthatheiscapableofbeingbroughttoperfection。Butthewordseemssufficientlyadaptedtoexpressthefacultyofbeingcontinuallymadebetterandreceivingperpetualimprovement；andinthissenseitisheretobeunderstood。Thetermperfectible，thusexplained，notonlydoesnotimplythecapacityofbeingbroughttoperfection，butstandsinexpressoppositiontoit。Ifwecouldarriveatperfection，therewouldbeanendtoourimprovement。Thereishoweveronethingofgreatimportancethatitdoesimply：everyperfectionorexcellencethathumanbeingsarecompetenttoconceive，humanbeings，unlessincasesthatarepalpablyandunequivocallyexcludedbythestructureoftheirframe，arecompetenttoattain。

Thisisaninferencewhichimmediatelyfollowsfromtheomnipotenceoftruth。Everytruththatiscapableofbeingcommunicatediscapableofbeingbroughthometotheconvictionofthemind。Everyprinciplewhichcanbebroughthometotheconvictionofthemindwillinfalliblyproduceacorrespondenteffectupontheconduct。Iftherewerenotsomethinginthenatureofmanincompatiblewithabsoluteperfection，thedoctrineoftheomnipotenceoftruthwouldaffordnosmallprobabilitythathewouldonedayreachit。Whyistheperfectionofmanimpossible？

Theideaofabsoluteperfectionisscarcelywithinthegraspofhumanunderstanding。Ifscienceweremorefamiliarizedtospeculationsofthissort，weshouldperhapsdiscoverthatthenotionitselfwaspregnantwithabsurdityandcontradiction。

Itisnotnecessaryinthisargumenttodwelluponthelimitednatureofthehumanfaculties。Wecanneitherbepresenttoallplacesnortoalltimes。Wecannotpenetrateintotheessencesofthings，orratherwehavenosoundandsatisfactoryknowledgeofthingsexternaltoourselves，butmerelyofourownsensations。Wecannotdiscoverthecausesofthings，orascertainthatintheantecedentwhichconnectsitwiththeconsequent，anddiscernnothingbuttheircontiguity。(7*)Withwhatpretencecanabeingthusshutinonallsideslayclaimtoabsoluteperfection？

But，nottoinsistupontheseconsiderations，thereisoneprincipleinthehumanmindwhichmustforeverexcludeusfromarrivingatacloseofouracquisitionsandconfineustoperpetualprogress。Thehumanmindsofarasweareacquaintedwithit，isnothingelsebutafacultyofperception。

Allourknowledge，allourideaseverythingwepossessasintelligentbeings，comesfromimpression。Allthemindsthatexistsetoutfromabsoluteignorance。

Theyreceivedfirstoneimpression，andthenasecond。Astheimpressionsbecamemorenumerous，andwerestoredbythehelpofmemory，andcombinedbythefacultyofassociation，sotheexperienceincreased，andwiththeexperiencetheknowledge，thewisdom，everythingthatdistinguishesmanfromwhatweunderstandbya“clodofthevalley。”Thisseemstobeasimpleanincontrovertiblehistoryofintellectualbeing；and，ifitbetrue，thenasouraccumulationshavebeenincessantinthetimethatisgone，so，aslongaswecontinuetoperceive，torememberorreflect，theymustperpetuallyincrease。

NOTES：

1。Objectionshavebeenstartedtotheuseofthewordtruthinthisabsoluteconstruction，asifitimpliedinthemindofthewriterthenotionofsomethinghavinganindependentandseparateexistence，whereasnothingcanbemorecertainthanthattruth，thatis，affirmativeandnegativepropositions，hasstrictlynoexistencebutinthemindofhimwhouttersorhearsit。Buttheseobjectionsseemtohavebeentakenuptoohastily。

Itcannotbedeniedthattherearesomepropositionswhicharebelievedforatimeandafterwardsrefuted；andothers，suchasmostofthetheoremsofmathematics，andmanyofthoseofnaturalphilosophy，respectingwhichthereisnoprobabilitythattheyeverwillberefuted。Everysubjectofenquiryissusceptibleofaffirmationandnegation；andthosepropositionsconcerningitwhichdescribetherealrelationsofthingsmayinacertainsense，whetherwebeorbenotawarethattheydoso，besaidtobetrue。

Takeninthissense，truthisimmutable。Hethatspeaksofitsimmutabilitydoesnothingmorethanpredictwithgreaterorlessprobability，andsay，“ThisiswhatIbelieve，andwhatallreasonablebeings，tilltheyshallfallshortofmeintheirdegreeofinformation，willcontinuetobelieve。”

2。BookV，ChapterXV。

3。Thetermmotiveisapplicableinallcaseswheretheregularoperationsofinanimatematteraresupersededbytheinterferenceofintelligence。

Whateversensationorperceptioninthemindiscapableofinfluencingthisinterferenceiscalledmotive。Motivethereforeisapplicabletothecaseofallactionsoriginatinginsensationorperception，whethervoluntaryorinvoluntary。

4。Characteristics；TreatiseIV。，B。I。，Parti。，section2。

5。ThisdistributionisinsubstancethesameasthatofHartley；butishereintroducedwithoutanyattentiontoadoptthepeculiaritiesofhisphraseology。ObservationsonMan，ChapterI，sectioniii。，Prop。21。

6。Milton：ParadiseLost，b。v。

7。BookIV，ChapterVII。

CHAPTERVI

OFTHEINFLUENCEOFCLIMATE

Twopointsfurtherarenecessarytobeillustrated，inordertorenderourviewofmaninhissocialcapacityimpartialandcomplete。Therearecertainphysicalcauseswhichhavecommonlybeensupposedtoopposeanimmovablebarriertothepoliticalimprovementofourspecies：climate，whichisimaginedtorendertheintroductionofliberalprinciplesuponthissubjectinsomecasesimpossible：andluxury，which，inadditiontothisdisqualification，precludestheirrevivalevenincountrieswheretheyhadoncemosteminentlyflourished。

Ananswertoboththeseobjectionsisincludedinwhathasbeenoffereduponthesubjectofthevoluntaryactionsofman。Iftruth，whenproperlydisplayed，beomnipotent，thenneitherclimatenorluxuryareinvincibleobstacles。Butsomuchstresshasbeenlaiduponthesetopics，andtheyhavebeensoeloquentlyenforcedbypoetsandmenlikepoets，thatitseemsnecessarytobestowuponthemadistinctexamination。

“Itisimpossible。”saysome，“toestablishasystemofpoliticallibertyincertainwarmandeffeminateclimates。”Toenableustojudgeofthereasonablenessofthisaffirmation，letusconsiderwhatprocesswouldbenecessaryinordertointroducepoliticallibertyintoanycountry。

Theanswertothisquestionistobefoundintheanswertothatother，whetherfreedomhaveanyrealandsolidadvantagesoverslavery？Ifithave，thenourmodeofproceedingrespectingitoughttobeexactlyparalleltothatweshouldemployinrecommendinganyotherbenefit。IfIwouldpersuadeamantoacceptagreatestate，supposingthatpossessiontobearealadvantage；ifIwouldinducehimtoselectforhiscompanionabeautifulandaccomplishedwoman，orforhisfriendawise，abraveanddisinterestedman；ifIwouldpersuadehimtoprefereasetopain，andgratificationtotorture，whatmoreisnecessarythanthatIshouldinformhisunderstanding，andmakehimseethesethingsintheirtrueandgenuinecolours？ShouldIfinditnecessarytoenquirefirstofwhatclimatehewasanative，andwhetherthatwerefavourabletothepossessionofagreatestate，afinewoman，oragenerousfriend？

Theadvantagesoflibertyoverslaveryarenotlessreal，thoughunfortunatelytheyhavebeenmadelesspalpableintheirapplicationtothewelfareofcommunitiesatlarge，thantheadvantagestoaccrueinthecasesaboveenumerated。Everymanhasaconfusedsenseoftherealstateofthequestion；

buthehasbeentaughttobelievethatmenwouldteareachothertopiecesiftheyhadnotprieststodirecttheirconsciences，lordstoconsultfortheirtranquillity，andkingstopilottheminsafetythroughthedangersofthepoliticalocean。Butwhethertheybemisledbytheseorotherprejudices，whateverbethefanciedterrorthatinducesthemquietlytosubmittohavetheirhandsboundbehindthem，andthescourgevibratedovertheirheads，allthesearequestionsofreason。Truthmaybepresentedtotheminsuchirresistibleevidence，perhapsbysuchjustdegreesfamiliarizedtotheirapprehension，asultimatelytoconquerthemostobstinateprepossessions。

LetthepressfinditswayintoPersiaorIndostan，letthepoliticaltruthsdiscoveredbythebestoftheEuropeansagesbetransfusedintotheirlanguage，anditisimpossiblethatafewsolitaryconvertsshouldnotbemade。Itisthepropertyoftruthtospread；and，exclusivelyofanypowerfulcounteraction，itsadvocatesineachsucceedingyearwillbesomewhatmorenumerousthaninthatwhichwentbefore。Thecauseswhichsuspenditsprogressarise，notfromclimate，butfromthewatchfulandintolerantjealousyofdespoticsovereigns-Whatisherestatedisinfactlittlemorethanabranchoftheprinciplewhichhasbeensogenerallyrecognized，“thatgovernmentisfoundedinopinion。”(1*)

Letussupposethenthatthemajorityofanation，byhoweverslowaprogress，isconvincedofthedesirableness，or，whichamountstothesame，thepracticabilityoffreedom。Thesuppositionwouldbeparallelifweweretoimaginetenthousandmenofsoundintellect，shutupinamadhouse，andsuperintendedbyasetofthreeorfourkeepers。Hithertotheyhavebeenpersuaded，forwhatabsurdityhasbeentoogreatforhumanintellecttoentertain？thattheyweredestituteofreason，andthatthesuperintendenceunderwhichtheywereplacedwasnecessaryfortheirpreservation。Theyhavethereforesubmittedtowhipsandstrawandbreadandwater，andperhapsimaginedthistyrannytobeablessing。Butasuspicionisatlengthbysomemeanspropagatedamongthemthatalltheyhavehithertoenduredhasbeenanimposition。Thesuspicionspreads，theyreflect，theyreason，theideaiscommunicatedfromonetoanotherthroughthechinksoftheircells，andatcertaintimeswhenthevigilanceoftheirkeepershasnotprecludedthemfrommutualsociety。Itbecomestheclearperception，thesettledpersuasionofthemajorityofthepersonsconfined。

Whatwillbetheconsequenceofthisopinion？Willtheinfluenceofclimatepreventthemfromembracingtheobviousmeansoftheirhappiness？

Isthereanyhumanunderstandingthatwillnotperceiveatruthlikethis，whenforciblyandrepeatedlypresented？Isthereamindthatwillconceivenoimpatienceofsohorribleatyranny？Inrealitythechainsfalloffofthemselveswhenthemagicofopinionisdissolved。Whenagreatmajorityofanysocietyarepersuadedtosecureanybenefittothemselves，thereisnoneedoftumultorviolencetoeffectit。Theeffortwouldbetoresistreason，nottoobeyit。Theprisonersarecollectedintheircommonhall，andthekeepersinformthemthatitistimetoreturntotheircells。Theyhavenolongerthepowertoobey。Theylookattheimpotenceoftheirlatemasters，andsmileattheirpresumption。Theyquietlyleavethemansionwheretheywerehithertoimmured，andpartakeoftheblessingsoflightandairlikeothermen。

Itmayperhapsbeusefultoconsiderhowfarthesereasoningsuponthesubjectoflibertyareconfirmedtousbygeneralexperienceastothecomparativeinefficacyofclimate，andthesuperiorinfluenceofcircumstances，politicalandsocial。ThefollowinginstancesareforthemostpartabridgedfromthejudiciouscollectionsofHumeuponthesubject。(2*)

1。Ifthetheoryhereassertedbetrue，wemayexpecttofindtheinhabitantsofneighbouringprovincesindifferentstateswidelydiscriminatedbytheinfluenceofgovernment，andlittleassimilatedbyresemblanceofclimate。

ThustheGasconsarethegayestpeopleinFrance；butthemomentwepassthePyrenees，wefindtheseriousandsaturinecharacteroftheSpaniard。

ThustheAthenianswerelively，penetratingandingenious；buttheThebansunpolished，phlegmaticanddull。2。Itwouldbereasonabletoexpectthatdifferentracesofmen，intermixedwitheachother，butdifferentlygoverned，wouldaffordastrongandvisiblecontrast。ThustheTurksarebrave，openandsincere；butthemodernGreeksmean，cowardlyanddeceitful。3。Wanderingtribescloselyconnectedamongthemselves，andhavinglittlesympathywiththepeoplewithwhomtheyreside，maybeexpectedtohavegreatsimilarityofmanners。Theirsituationrendersthemconspicuous，thefaultsofindividualsreflectdishonouruponthewhole，andtheirmannerswillbeparticularlysoberandreputable，unlesstheyshouldhappentolabourundersopeculiaranodiumastorenderallendeavourafterreputationfruitless。ThustheArmeniansintheEastareasuniversallydistinguishedamongthenationswithwhomtheyresideastheJewsinEurope；buttheArmeniansarenotedforprobity，andtheJewsforextortion。4。WhatresemblanceistherebetweentheancientandthemodernGreeks，betweentheoldRomansandthepresentinhabitantsofItaly，betweentheGaulsandtheFrench？DiodorusSiculusdescribestheGaulsasparticularlygiventotaciturnity，andAristotleaffirmsthattheyaretheonlywarlikenationwhoarenegligentofwomen。

Ifonthecontraryclimatewereprincipallyconcernedinformingthecharactersofnations，wemightexpecttofindthatheatandcoldproducinganextraordinaryeffectuponmen，astheydouponplantsandinferioranimals。

Butthereverseofthisappearstobethefact。Isitsupposedthattheneighbourhoodofthesunrendersmengay，fantasticandingenious？WhiletheFrench，theGreeksandthePersianshavebeenremarkablefortheirgaiety，theSpaniards，theTurksandtheChinesearenotlessdistinguishedbytheseriousnessoftheirdeportment。Itwastheopinionoftheancientsthatthenorthernnationswereincapableofcivilizationandimprovement；

butthemodernshavefoundthattheEnglisharenotinferiorinliteraryeminencetoanynationintheworld。Isitassertedthatthenorthernnationsaremorehardyandcourageous，andthatconquesthasusuallytravelledfromthattotheoppositequarter？Itwouldhavebeentruertosaythatconquestisusuallymadebypovertyuponplenty。TheTurks，whofromthedesertsofTartaryinvadedthefertileprovincesoftheRomanempire，mettheSaracenshalfway，whowereadvancingwithsimilarviewsfromthenolessdrearydesertsofArabia。Intheirextremeperhapsheatandcoldmaydeterminethecharactersofnations，ofthenegroesforexampleononeside，andtheLaplandersontheother。Notbutthat，inthisveryinstance，muchmaybeascribedtothewretchednessofasterileclimateontheonehand，andtotheindolenceconsequentuponaspontaneousfertilityontheother。Astowhatismorethanthis，theremedyhasnotyetbeendiscovered。

Physicalcauseshavealreadyappearedtobepowerfultillmoralonescanbebroughtintooperation。

Hasitbeenallegedthatcarnivorousnationsareendowedwiththegreatestcourage？TheSwedes，whosenutrimentismeagreandsparing，haverankedwiththemostdistinguishedmodernnationsintheoperationsofwar。

Itisusuallysaidthatnorthernnationsaremostaddictedtowine，andsoutherntowomen。Admittingthisobservationinitsfullforce，itwouldonlyprovethatclimatemayoperateuponthegrosserparticlesofourframe，notthatitinfluencesthosefinerorgansuponwhichtheoperationsofintellectdepend。Butthetruthofthefirstoftheseremarksmaywellbedoubted。TheGreeksappeartohavebeensufficientlyaddictedtothepleasuresofthebottle。AmongthePersiansnocharacterwasmorecovetedthanthatofaharddrinker。Itiseasytoobtainanythingofthenegroes，eventheirwivesandchildren，inexchangeforliquor。

Astowomenthecircumstancesmaybeaccountedforfrommoralcauses。

Theheatoftheclimateobligesbothsexestogohalfnaked。Theanimalarrivessooneratmaturityinhotcountries。Andboththesecircumstancesproducevigilanceandjealousy，causeswhichinevitablytendtoinflamethepassions。

Theresultofthesereasoningsisoftheutmostimportancetohimwhospeculatesuponprinciplesofgovernment。Therehavebeenwritersonthissubjectwho，admittingandevenoccasionallydeclaimingwithenthusiasmupontheadvantagesoflibertyandtheequalclaimsofmankindtoeverysocialbenefit，haveyetconcluded“thatthecorruptionsofdespotism，andtheusurpationsofaristocracy，werecongenialtocertainagesanddivisionsoftheworld，andunderproperlimitationsentitledtoourapprobation。”

Butthishypothesiswillbefoundunabletoendurethetestofseriousreflection。Thereisnostateofmankindthatrendersthemincapableoftheexerciseofreason。Thereisnoperiodinwhichitisnecessarytoholdthehumanspeciesinaconditionofpupillage。Iftherewere，itwouldseembutreasonablethattheirsuperintendentsandguardians，asinthecaseofinfantsofanothersort，shouldprovideforthemeansoftheirsubsistencewithoutcallinguponthemfortheexertionsoftheirownunderstanding。

Wherevermenarecompetenttolookthefirstdutiesofhumanityintheface，andtoprovidefortheirdefenceagainsttheinvasionsofhungerandtheinclemenciesofthesky，itcanscarcelybethoughtthattheyarenotequallycapableofeveryotherexertionthatmaybeessentialtotheirsecurityandwelfare。

Therealenemiesoflibertyinanycountryarenotthepeople，butthosehigherorderswhofindtheirimaginaryprofitinacontrarysystem。Infusejustviewsofsocietyintoacertainnumberoftheliberallyeducatedandreflectingmembers；givetothepeopleguidesandinstructors；andthebusinessisdone。Thishoweverisnottobeaccomplishedbutinagradualmanner，aswillmorefullyappearinthesequel。Theerrorlies，notintoleratingtheworstformsofgovernmentforatime，butinsupportingachangeimpracticable，andnotincessantlylookingforwardtoitsaccomplishment。

NOTES：

1。Hume’sEssays，PartI。，Essayiv。

2。Essays；PartI。，Essayxxi。

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