INHISSOCIALCAPACITY
CHAPTERI
INTRODUCTION
Theobjectproposedinthefollowingworkisaninvestigationconcerningthatformofpublicorpoliticalsociety，thatsystemofintercourseandreciprocalaction，extendingbeyondtheboundsofasinglefamily，whichshallbefoundmosttoconducetothegeneralbenefit。Howmaythepeculiarandindependentoperationofeachindividualinthesocialstatemosteffectuallybepreserved？Howmaythesecurityeachmanoughttopossess，astohislife，andtheemploymentofhisfacultiesaccordingtothedictatesofhisownunderstanding，bemostcertainlydefendedfrominvasion？Howmaytheindividualsofthehumanspeciesbemadetocontributemostsubstantiallytothegeneralimprovementandhappiness？Theenquiryhereundertakenhasforitsobjecttofacilitatethesolutionoftheseinterestingquestions。
Inenteringuponthisinvestigationnothingcanbemoreusefulthantoexamineintotheextentoftheinfluencethatistobeascribedtopoliticalinstitutions；inotherwords，intothepowersofman，astheyhavemodified，ormayhereaftermodifyhissocialstateofexistence。Uponthissubjecttherehasbeenconsiderabledifferenceofopinion。
Themostusuallyreceivedhypothesisisthatwhichconsiderstheeffectsofgovernmentorsocialinstitutions，whetheractingbyexpressregulationsorotherwise，asratherofanegativethanpositivenature。Nodoubtthepurposesforwhichgovernmentwasestablishedareintheirstrictestsensenegative；tomaintainusinthepossessionofcertainadvantagesagainsttheoccasionalhostilityeitherofdomesticorforeigninvaders。Butdoestheinfluenceofgovernmentstopatthepointforthesakeofwhichmankindwerefirstprevailedontoadoptit？
Thosewhobelievethatitdoesorcanstopatthispointnecessarilyregarditasamatterofsubordinatedisquisition，oratmostonlyco-ordinatewithseveralothers。Theysurveymaninhisindividualcharacter，inhisdomesticconnections，andinthepursuitsandattachmentswhichhisfeelingsmayinclinehimtoadopt。Theseofcoursefilltheprincipalpartofthepicture。Thesearesupposed，bythespeculatorsofwhomwenowspeak，tobeinordinarycasesindependentofallpoliticalsystemsandestablishments。
Itisonlyinpeculiaremergenciesandmattersthatdepartfromtheaccustomedroutineofaffairsthattheyconceiveaprivateindividualtohaveanyoccasiontoremember，ortobeintheleastaffectedbythegovernmentofhiscountry。Ifhecommitorissupposedtocommitanyoffenceagainstthegeneralwelfare，ifhefindhimselfcalledupontorepresstheoffenceofanother，orifanydangerfromforeignhostilitythreatenthecommunityinwhichheresides，inthesecasesandtheseonlyisheobligedtorecollectthathehasacountry。Theseconsiderationsimposeuponhimthefurtherdutyofconsulting，evenwhennoimmediatedangerisnigh，howpoliticallibertymaybestbemaintained，andmaladministrationprevented。
Manyofthebestpatriotsandmostpopularwritersonthesubjectofgovernmentappeartohaveproceededupontheprinciplesheredelineated。
Theyhavetreatedmoralityandpersonalhappinessasonescience，andpoliticsasadifferentone。But，whiletheyhaveconsideredthevirtuesandpleasuresofmankindasessentiallyindependentofcivilpolicy，theyhavejustlyremarked，thatthesecuritywithwhichtheonecanbeexercisedandtheotherenjoyedwillbedecidedbythewisdomofourpublicinstitutionsandtheequitywithwhichtheyareadministered；andhaveearnestlypresseditupontheattentionofmankindnottoforget，intherectitudeorhappinessofthepresentmoment，thoseprecautionsandthat“generousplanofpower“(1*)
whichmaytendtorenderitimpregnabletothestratagemsofcorruptionortheinsolenceoftyranny。(2*)
But，whileweconfessourselvesindebtedtothelaboursofthesewriters，andperhapsstillmoretotheintrepidlanguageandbehaviourofthesepatriots，weareincitedtoenquirewhetherthetopicwhichengagedtheirattentionbenotofhigherandmoreextensiveimportancethantheysuspected。
Perhapsgovernmentisnotmerelyinsomecasesthedefender，andinotherthetreacherousfoeofthedomesticvirtues。Perhapsitinsinuatesitselfintoourpersonaldispositions，andinsensiblycommunicatesitsownspirittoourprivatetransactions。WerenottheinhabitantsofancientGreeceandRomeindebtedinsomedegreetotheirpoliticallibertiesfortheirexcellenceinart，andtheillustrioustheatretheyoccupyinthemoralhistoryofmankind？ArenotthegovernmentsofmodernEuropeaccountablefortheslownessandinconstancyofitsliteraryefforts，andtheunworthyselfishnessthatcharacterizesitsinhabitants？IsitnotowingtothegovernmentsoftheEastthatthatpartoftheworldcanscarcelybesaidtohavemadeanyprogressinintellectorscience？
Whenscepticismoraspiritofinvestigationhasledustostartthesequestions，weshallbeaptnottostopatthem。Awidefieldofspeculationopensitselfbeforeus。Ifgovernmentthusinsinuateitselfinitseffectsintoourmostsecretretirements，whoshalldefinetheextentofitsoperation？
Ifitbetheauthorofthusmuch，whoshallspecifythepointsfromwhichitsinfluenceisexcluded？Mayitnothappenthatthegrandmoralevilsthatexistintheworld，thecalamitiesbywhichwearesogrievouslyoppressed，aretobetracedtopoliticalinstitutionastheirsource，andthattheirremovalisonlytobeexpectedfromitscorrection？Mayitnotbefoundthattheattempttoalterthemoralsofmankindsinglyandindetailisaninjudiciousandfutileundertaking；andthatthechangeoftheirpoliticalinstitutionsmustkeeppacewiththeiradvancementinknowledge，ifweexpecttosecuretothemarealandpermanentimprovement？Toprovetheaffirmativeofthesequestionsshallbethebusinessofthisfirstbook。
Themethodtobepursuedforthatpurposeshallbe，first，totakeaconcisesurveyoftheevilsexistinginpoliticalsociety；(3*)secondly，toshowthattheseevilsaretobeascribedtopublicinstitutions；(4*)
andthirdly，thattheyarenottheinseparableconditionofourexistence，butadmitofremovalandremedy。(5*)
NOTES：
1。Addison：Cato，Activ。
2。TheseremarkswillforthemostpartapplytotheEnglishwritersuponpolitics，fromSydneyandLocketotheauthoroftheRightsofMan。
ThemorecomprehensiveviewhasbeenstrikinglydelineatedbyRousseauandHelvetius。
3。ChaptersII，III。
4。ChapterIV。
5。ChaptersV，VI，VII，VIII。
CHAPTERII
HISTORYOFPOLITICALSOCIETY
Theextentoftheinfluenceofpoliticalsystemswillbeforciblyillustratedbyaconciserecollectionoftherecordsofpoliticalsociety。
Itisanoldobservationthatthehistoryofmankindislittleelsethanarecordofcrimes。Societycomesrecommendedtousbyitstendencytosupplyourwantsandpromoteourwellbeing。Ifweconsiderthehumanspecies，astheywerefoundpreviouslytotheexistenceofpoliticalsociety，itisdifficultnottobeimpressedwithemotionsofmelancholy。But，thoughthechiefpurposeofsocietyistodefendusfromwantandinconvenience，iteffectsthispurposeinaveryimperfectdegree。Wearestillliabletocasualties，disease，infirmityanddeath。Faminedestroysitsthousands，andpestilenceitstenthousands。Anguishvisitsusundereveryvarietyofform，anddayafterdayisspentinlanguoranddissatisfaction。Exquisitepleasureisaguestofveryrareapproach，andnotlessshortcontinuance。
But，thoughtheevilsthatarisetousfromthestructureofthematerialuniverseareneithertrivialnorfew，yetthehistoryofpoliticalsocietysufficientlyshowsthatmanisofallotherbeingsthemostformidableenemytoman。Amongthevariousschemesthathehasformedtodestroyandplaguehiskind，waristhemostterrible。Satiatedwithpettymischiefandretailofinsulatedcrimes，herisesinthisinstancetoaprojectthatlaysnationswaste，andthinsthepopulationoftheworld。Mandirectsthemurderousengineagainstthelifeofhisbrother；heinventswithindefatigablecarerefinementsindestruction；heproceedsinthemidstofgaietyandpomptotheexecutionofhishorridpurpose；wholeranksofsensitivebeings，endowedwiththemostadmirablefaculties，aremoweddowninaninstant；
theyperishbyinchesinthemidstofagonyandneglect，laceratedwitheveryvarietyofmethodthatcangivetorturetotheframe。
Thisisindeedatremendousscene！Arewepermittedtoconsoleourselvesunderthespectacleofitsevilsbytherarenesswithwhichitoccurs，andtheforciblereasonsthatcompelmentohaverecoursetothislastappealofhumansociety？Letusconsideritundereachoftheseheads。
Warhashithertobeenfoundtheinseparableallyofpoliticalinstitution。
Theearliestrecordsoftimearetheannalsofconquerorsandheroes，aBacchus，aSesostris，aSemiramisandaCyrus。Theseprincesledmillionsofmenundertheirstandard，andravagedinnumerableprovinces。Asmallnumberonlyoftheirforceseverreturnedtotheirnativehomes，theresthavingperishedbydiseases，hardshipandmisery。Theevilstheyinflicted，andthemortalityintroducedinthecountriesagainstwhichtheirexpeditionsweredirected，werecertainlynotlessseverethanthosewhichtheircountrymensuffered。
Nosoonerdoeshistorybecomemoreprecisethanwearepresentedwiththefourgreatmonarchies，thatis，withfoursuccessfulprojects，bymeansofbloodshed，violenceandmurder，ofenslavingmankind。TheexpeditionsofCambysesagainstEgypt，ofDariusagainsttheScythians，andofXerxesagainsttheGreeks，seemalmosttosetcredibilityatdefiancebythefatalconsequenceswithwhichtheywereattended。TheconquestsofAlexandercostinnumerablelives，andtheimmortalityofCaesariscomputedtohavebeenpurchasedbythedeathofonemilliontwohundredthousandmen。
IndeedtheRomans，bythelongdurationoftheirwars，andtheirinflexibleadherencetotheirpurpose，aretoberankedamongtheforemostdestroyersofthehumanspecies。TheirwarsinItalycontinuedformorethanfourhundredyears，andtheircontestforsupremacywiththeCarthaginianstwohundred。TheMithridaticwarbeganwithamassacreofonehundredandfiftythousandRomans，andinthreesingleactionsfivehundredthousandmenwerelostbytheEasternmonarch。Sylla，hisferociousconqueror，nextturnedhisarmsagainsthiscountry，andthestrugglebetweenhimandMariuswasattendedwithproscriptions，butcheriesandmurdersthatknewnorestraintfromhumanityorshame。TheRomans，atlength，sufferedtheevilstheyhadbeensoprompttoinflictuponothers；andtheworldwasvexedforthreehundredyearsbytheirruptionsofGoths，Vandals，Ostrogoths，Hunsandinnumerablehordesofbarbarians。
IforbeartodetailthevictoriousprogressofMahometandthepiousexpeditionsofCharlemagne。Iwillnotenumeratethecrusadesagainsttheinfidels，theexploitsofTamerlane，GengiskanandAurungzebe，ortheextensivemurdersoftheSpaniardsinthenewworld。LetusexamineEurope，themostcivilizedandfavouredquarteroftheworld，oreventhosecountriesofEuropewhicharethoughtthemostenlightened。
Francewaswastedbysuccessivebattlesduringawholecentury，forthequestionoftheSaliclaw，andtheclaimofthePlantagenets。Scarcelywasthiscontestterminated，beforethereligiouswarsbrokeout，someideaofwhichwemayformfromthesiegeofRochelle，where，offifteenthousandpersonsshutup，eleventhousandperishedofhungerandmisery；
andfromthemassacreofSaintBartholomew，inwhichthenumbersassassinatedwerefortythousand。ThisquarrelwasappeasedbyHenrythefourth，andsucceededbythethirtyyearswarinGermanyforsuperioritywiththehouseofAustria，andafterwardsbythemilitarytransactionsofLouisthefourteenth。
InEnglandthewarofCressyandAgincourtonlygaveplacetothecivilwarofYorkandLancaster，andagainafteranintervaltothewarofCharlesthefirstandhisparliament。NosoonerwastheconstitutionsettledbytherevolutionthanwewereengagedinawidefieldofcontinentalhostilitiesbykingWilliam，thedukeofMarlborough，MariaTheresaandthekingofPrussia。
Andwhatareinmostcasesthepretencesuponwhichwarisundertaken？
WhatrationalmancouldpossiblyhavegivenhimselftheleastdisturbanceforthesakeofchoosingwhetherHenrythesixthorEdwardthefourthshouldhavethestyleofkingofEngland？WhatEnglishmancouldreasonablyhavedrawnhisswordforthepurposeofrenderinghiscountryaninferiordependencyofFrance，asitmustnecessarilyhavebeeniftheambitionofthePlantagenetshadsucceeded？WhatcanbemoredeplorablethantoseeusfirstengageeightyearsinwarratherthansufferthehaughtyMariaTheresatolivewithadiminishedsovereigntyorinaprivatestation；andtheneightyearsmoretosupportthefree-booterwhohadtakenadvantageofherhelplesscondition？
TheusualcausesofwarareexcellentlydescribedbySwift。“Sometimesthequarrelbetweentwoprincesistodecidewhichofthemshalldispossessathirdofhisdominions，whereneitherofthempretendstoanyright。
Sometimesoneprincequarrelswithanother，forfeartheothershouldquarrelwithhim。Sometimesawarisentereduponbecausetheenemyistoostrong；
andsometimesbecauseheistooweak。Sometimesourneighbourswantthethingswhichwehave，orhavethethingswhichwewant；andwebothfight，tilltheytakeours，orgiveustheirs。Itisaveryjustifiablecauseofwartoinvadeacountryafterthepeoplehavebeenwastedbyfamine，destroyedbypestilence，orembroiledbyfactionsamongthemselves。Itisjustifiabletoenterintoawaragainstournearestally，whenoneofhistownsliesconvenientforus，oraterritoryoflandthatwouldrenderourdominionsroundandcompact。Ifaprincesendsforcesintoanationwherethepeoplearepoorandignorant，hemaylawfullyputthehalfofthemtodeath，andmakeslavesoftherest，inordertocivilizeandreducethemfromtheirbarbarouswayofliving。Itisaverykingly，honourableandfrequentpractice，whenoneprincedesirestheassistanceofanothertosecurehimagainstaninvasion，thattheassistant，whenhehasdrivenouttheinvader，shouldseizeonthedominionshimself，andkill，imprisonorbanishtheprincehecametorelieve。”(1*)
Ifweturnfromtheforeigntransactionsofstateswitheachothertotheprinciplesoftheirdomesticpolicy，weshallnotfindmuchgreaterreasontobesatisfied。Anumerousclassofmankindarehelddowninastateofabjectpenury，andarecontinuallypromptedbydisappointmentanddistresstocommitviolenceupontheirmorefortunateneighbours。Theonlymodewhichisemployedtorepressthisviolence，andtomaintaintheorderandpeaceofsociety，ispunishment。Whips，axesandgibbets，dungeons，chainsandracksarethemostapprovedandestablishedmethodsofpersuadingmentoobedience，andimpressingupontheirmindsthelessonsofreason。
Therearefewsubjectsuponwhichhumaningenuityhasbeenmorefullydisplayedthanininventinginstrumentsoftorture。Thelashofthewhipathousandtimesrepeatedandflagrantonthebackofthedefencelessvictim，thebastinadoonthesolesofthefeet，thedislocationoflimbs，thefractureofbones，thefaggotandthestake，thecross，impaling，andthemodeofdriftingpiratesontheVolga，makebutasmallpartofthecatalogue。
WhenDamiens，themaniac，wasarraignedforhisabortiveattemptonthelifeofLouisXVofFrance，acouncilofanatomistswassummonedtodeliberatehowahumanbeingmightbedestroyedwiththelongestprotractedandmostdiversifiedagony。Hundredsofvictimsareannuallysacrificedattheshrineofpositivelawandpoliticalinstitution。
Addtothisthespeciesofgovernmentwhichprevailsoverninetenthsoftheglobe，whichisdespotism：agovernment，asLockejustlyobserves，altogether“vileandmiserable。”and“moretobedeprecatedthananarchyitself。”(2*)
Certainlyeverymanwhotakesadispassionatesurveyofthispicturewillfeelhimselfinclinedtopauserespectingthenecessityofthehavocwhichisthusmadeofhisspecies，andtoquestionwhethertheestablishedmethodsforprotectingmankindagainstthecapricesofeachotherarethebestthatcanbedevised。Hewillbeatalosswhichofthetwotopronouncemostworthyofregret，themiserythatisinflicted，orthedepravitybywhichitisproduced。Ifthisbetheunalterableallotmentofournature，theeminenceofourrationalfacultiesmustbeconsideredasratheranabortionthanasubstantialbenefit；andweshallnotfailtolamentthat，whileinsomerespectsweareelevatedabovethebrutes，weareinsomanyimportantonesdestinedforevertoremaintheirinferiors。
NOTES：
1。Gulliver’sTravels，PartIV，ChapterV。
2。LockeonGovernment，BookI，Chapteri，section1；andBookII，Chaptervii。，section91。
MostoftheaboveargumentsmaybefoundmuchmoreatlargeinBurke’sVindicationofNaturalSociety；atreatiseinwhichtheevilsoftheexistingpoliticalinstitutionsaredisplayedwithincomparableforceofreasoningandlustreofeloquence，whiletheintentionoftheauthorwastoshowthattheseevilsweretobeconsideredastrivial。
CHAPTERIII
SPIRITOFPOLITICALINSTITUTIONS。
Additionalperspicuitywillbecommunicatedtoourviewoftheevilsofpoliticalsocietyifwereflectwithfurtherandcloserattentionuponwhatmaybecalleditsinterioranddomestichistory。
Twoofthegreatestabusesrelativetotheinteriorpolicyofnations，whichatthistimeprevailintheworld，consistintheirregulartransferofproperty，eitherfirstbyviolence，orsecondlybyfraud。Ifamongtheinhabitantsofanycountrythereexistednodesireinoneindividualtopossesshimselfofthesubstanceofanother，ornodesiresovehementandrestlessastoprompthimtoacquireitbymeansinconsistentwithorderandjustice，undoubtedlyinthatcountryguiltcouldscarcelybeknownbutbyreport。Ifeverymancouldwithperfectfacilityobtainthenecessariesoflife，and，obtainingthem，feelnouneasycravingafteritssuperfluities，temptationwouldloseitspower。Privateinterestwouldvisiblyaccordwithpublicgood；andcivilsocietybecomewhatpoetryhasfeignedofthegoldenage。Letusenquireintotheprinciplestowhichtheseabusesareindebtedfortheirexistence。
Firstthenitistobeobservedthat，inthemostrefinedstatesofEurope，theinequalityofpropertyhasrisentoanalarmingheight。Vastnumbersoftheirinhabitantsaredeprivedofalmosteveryaccommodationthatcanrenderlifetolerableorsecure。Theirutmostindustryscarcelysufficesfortheirsupport。Thewomenandchildrenleanwithaninsupportableweightupontheeffortsoftheman，sothatalargefamilyhasinthelowerordersoflifebecomeaproverbialexpressionforanuncommondegreeofpovertyandwretchedness。Ifsickness，orsomeofthosecasualtieswhichareperpetuallyincidenttoanactiveandlaboriouslife，beaddedtotheseburdens，thedistressisyetgreater。
ItseemstobeagreedthatinEnglandthereislesswretchednessanddistressthaninmostofthekingdomsofthecontinent。InEnglandthepoors’ratesamounttothesumoftwomillionssterlingperannum。Ithasbeencalculatedthatonepersoninsevenoftheinhabitantsofthiscountryderivesatsomeperiodofhislifeassistancefromthisfund。Iftothisweaddthepersonswho，frompride，aspiritofindependence，orthewantofalegalsettlement，thoughinequaldistressreceivenosuchassistance，theproportionwillbeconsiderablyincreased。
Ilaynostressupontheaccuracyofthiscalculation；thegeneralfactissufficienttogiveusanideaofthegreatnessoftheabuse。Theconsequencesthatresultareplacedbeyondthereachofcontradiction。Aperpetualstrugglewiththeevilsofpoverty，iffrequentlyineffectual，mustnecessarilyrendermanyofthesufferersdesperate。Apainfulfeelingoftheiroppressedsituationwillitselfdeprivethemofthepowerofsurmountingit。Thesuperiorityoftherich，beingthusunmercifullyexercised，mustinevitablyexposethemtoreprisals；andthepoormanwillbeinducedtoregardthestateofsocietyasastateofwar，anunjustcombination，notforprotectingeverymaninhisrightsandsecuringtohimthemeansofexistence，butforengrossingallitsadvantagestoafewfavouredindividuals，andreservingfortheportionoftherestwant，dependenceandmisery。
Asecondsourceofthosedestructivepassionsbywhichthepeaceofsocietyisinterruptedistobefoundintheluxury，thepageantryandmagnificencewithwhichenormouswealthisusuallyaccompanied。Humanbeingsarecapableofencounteringwithcheerfulnessconsiderablehardshipswhenthosehardshipsareimpartiallysharedwiththerestofthesociety，andtheyarenotinsultedwiththespectacleofindolenceandeaseinothers，nowaydeservingofgreateradvantagesthanthemselves。Butitisabitteraggravationoftheirowncalamity，tohavetheprivilegesofothersforcedontheirobservation，and，whiletheyareperpetuallyandvainlyendeavouringtosecureforthemselvesandtheirfamiliesthepoorestconveniences，tofindothersrevellinginthefruitsoftheirlabours。Thisaggravationisassiduouslyadministeredtothemundermostofthepoliticalestablishmentsatpresentinexistence。Thereisanumerousclassofindividualswho，thoughrich，haveneitherbrillianttalentsnorsublimevirtues；and，howeverhighlytheymayprizetheireducation，theiraffability，theirsuperiorpolishandtheeleganceoftheirmanners，haveasecretconsciousnessthattheypossessnothingbywhichtheycansosecurelyasserttheirpre-eminenceandkeeptheirinferiorsatadistanceasthesplendouroftheirequipage，themagnificenceoftheirretinueandthesumptuousnessoftheirentertainments。
Thepoormanisstruckwiththisexhibition；hefeelshisownmiseries；
heknowshowunweariedarehiseffortstoobtainaslenderpittanceofthisprodigalwaste；andhemistakesopulenceforfelicity。Hecannotpersuadehimselfthatanembroideredgarmentmayfrequentlycoveranachingheart。
Athirddisadvantagethatisapttoconnectpovertywithdiscontentconsistsintheinsolenceandusurpationoftherich。Ifthepoormanwouldinotherrespectscomposehimselfinphilosophicindifference，and，consciousthathepossesseseverythingthatistrulyhonourabletomanasfullyashisrichneighbour，wouldlookupontherestasbeneathhisenvy，hisneighbourwillnotpermithimtodoso。Heseemsasifhecouldneverbesatisfiedwithhispossessionsunlesshecanmakethespectacleofthemgratingtoothers；andthathonestself-esteem，bywhichhisinferiormightotherwiseattaintotranquillity，isrenderedtheinstrumentofgallinghimwithoppressionandinjustice。Inmanycountriesjusticeisavowedlymadeasubjectofsolicitation，andthemanofthehighestrankandmostsplendidconnectionsalmostinfalliblycarrieshiscauseagainsttheunprotectedandfriendless。Incountrieswherethisshamelesspracticeisnotestablished，justiceisfrequentlyamatterofexpensivepurchase，andthemanwiththelongestpurseisproverbiallyvictorious。Aconsciousnessofthesefactsmustbeexpectedtorendertherichlittlecautiousofoffenceinhisdealingswiththepoor，andtoinspirehimwithatemperoverbearing，dictatorialandtyrannical。Nordoesthisindirectoppressionsatisfyhisdespotism。Therichareinallsuchcountriesdirectlyorindirectlythelegislatorsofthestate；andofconsequenceareperpetuallyreducingoppressionintoasystem，anddeprivingthepoorofthatlittlecommonageofnaturewhichmightotherwisestillhaveremainedtothem。
Theopinionsofindividuals，andofconsequencetheirdesires，fordesireisnothingbutopinionmaturingforaction，willalwaysbeinagreatdegreeregulatedbytheopinionsofthecommunity。Butthemannersprevailinginmanycountriesareaccuratelycalculatedtoimpressaconvictionthatintegrity，virtue，understandingandindustryarenothing，andthatopulenceiseverything。Doesamanwhoseexteriordenotesindigenceexpecttobewellreceivedinsociety，andespeciallybythosewhowouldbeunderstoodtodictatetotherest？Doeshefindorimaginehimselfinwantoftheirassistanceandfavour？Heispresentlytaughtthatnomeritcanatoneforameanappearance。Thelessonthatisreadtohimis，“Gohome；enrichyourselfbywhatevermeans；obtainthosesuperfluitieswhicharealoneregardedasestimable；andyoumaythenbesecureofanamicablereception。”
Accordinglypovertyinsuchcountriesisviewedasthegreatestofdemerits。
Itisescapedfromwithaneagernessthathasnoleisureforthescruplesofhonesty。Itisconcealedasthemostindelibledisgrace。Whileonemanchoosesthepathofundistinguishingaccumulation，anotherplungesintoexpenseswhicharetoimposehimupontheworldasmoreopulentthanheis。Hehastenstotherealityofthatpenurytheappearanceofwhichhedreads；and，togetherwithhisproperty，sacrificestheintegrity，veracityandcharacterwhichmighthaveconsoledhiminhisadversity。
Sucharethecausesthat，indifferentdegreesunderthedifferentgovernmentsoftheworld，promptmankindopenlyorsecretlytoencroachuponthepropertyofeachother。Letusconsiderhowfartheyadmiteitherofremedyoraggravationfrompoliticalinstitution。Whatevertendstodecreasetheinjuriesattendantuponpovertydecreasesatthesametimetheinordinatedesireandtheenormousaccumulationofwealth。Wealthisnotpursuedforitsownsake，andseldomforthesensualgratificationsitcanpurchase，butforthesamereasonsthatordinarilypromptmentotheacquisitionoflearning，eloquenceandskill，fortheloveofdistinctionandthefearofcontempt。Howfewwouldprizethepossessionofrichesiftheywerecondemnedtoenjoytheirequipage，theirpalacesandtheirentertainmentsinsolitude，withnoeyetowonderattheirmagnificence，andnosordidobserverreadytoconvertthatwonderintoanadulationoftheowner？Ifadmirationwerenotgenerallydeemedtheexclusivepropertyoftherich，andcontempttheconstantlacqueyofpoverty，theloveofgainwouldceasetobeanuniversalpassion。Letusconsiderinwhatrespectspoliticalinstitutionisrenderedsubservienttothispassion。
Firstthen，legislationisinalmosteverycountrygrosslythefavoureroftherichagainstthepoor。Suchisthecharacterofthegame-laws，bywhichtheindustriousrusticisforbiddentodestroytheanimalthatpreysuponthehopesofhisfuturesubsistence，ortosupplyhimselfwiththefoodthatunsoughtthrustsitselfinhispath。Suchwasthespiritofthelaterevenue-lawsofFrance，whichinseveraloftheirprovisionsfellexclusivelyuponthehumbleandindustrious，andexemptedfromtheiroperationthosewhowerebestabletosupportit。ThusinEnglandtheland-taxatthismomentproduceshalfamillionlessthanitdidacenturyago，whilethetaxesonconsumptionhaveexperiencedanadditionofthirteenmillionsperannumduringthesameperiod。Thisisanattempt，whethereffectualorno，tothrowtheburthenfromtherichuponthepoor，andassuchisanexampleofthespiritoflegislation。Uponthesameprinciplerobberyandotheroffences，whichthewealthierpartofthecommunityhavenotemptationtocommit，aretreatedascapitalcrimes，andattendedwiththemostrigorous，oftenthemostinhumanpunishments。Therichareencouragedtoassociatefortheexecutionofthemostpartialandoppressivepositivelaws；monopoliesandpatentsarelavishlydispensedtosuchasareabletopurchasethem；
whilethemostvigilantpolicyisemployedtopreventcombinationsofthepoortofixthepriceoflabour，andtheyaredeprivedofthebenefitofthatprudenceandjudgementwhichwouldselectthesceneoftheirindustry。
Secondly，theadministrationoflawisnotlessiniquitousthanthespiritinwhichitisframed。UnderthelategovernmentofFrancetheofficeofjudgewasamatterofpurchase，partlybyanopenpriceadvancedtothecrown，andpartlybyasecretdouceurpaidtotheminister。Hewhoknewbesthowtomanagehismarketintheretailtradeofjusticecouldaffordtopurchasethegoodwillofitsfunctionsatthehighestprice。
Totheclientjusticewasavowedlymadeanobjectofpersonalsolicitation；
andapowerfulfriend，ahandsomewoman，oraproperpresentwerearticlesofmuchgreatervaluethanagoodcause。InEnglandthecriminallawisadministeredwithgreaterimpartialitysofarasregardsthetrialitself；
butthenumberofcapitaloffences，andofconsequencethefrequencyofpardons，openawidedoortofavourandabuse。Incausesrelatingtopropertythepracticeoflawisarrivedatsuchapitchastorenderitsnominalimpartialityutterlynugatory。Thelengthofourchancerysuits，themultipliedappealsfromcourttocourt，theenormousfeesofcounsel，attorneys，secretaries，clerks，thedrawingofbriefs，bills，replicationsandrejoinders，andwhathassometimesbeencalledthe“gloriousuncertainty“ofthelaw，renderitfrequentlymoreadvisabletoresignapropertythantocontestit，andparticularlyexcludetheimpoverishedclaimantfromthefaintesthopeofredress。
Thirdly，theinequalityofconditionsusuallymaintainedbypoliticalinstitutioniscalculatedgreatlytoenhancetheimaginedexcellenceofwealth。IntheancientmonarchiesoftheEast，andinTurkeyatthepresentday，aneminentstationcouldscarcelyfailtoexciteimplicitdeference。
Thetimidinhabitanttrembledbeforehissuperior；andwouldhavethoughtitlittlelessthanblasphemytotouchtheveildrawnbytheproudsatrapoverhisingloriousorigin。Thesameprincipleswereextensivelyprevalentunderthefeudalsystem。Thevassal，whowasregardedasasortoflivestockupontheestate，andknewnoappealfromthearbitraryfiatofhislord，wouldscarcelyventuretosuspectthathewasofthesamespecies。
Thishoweverconstitutedanunnaturalandviolentsituation。Thereisapropensityinmantolookfurtherthantheoutside；andtocomewithawritofenquiryintothetitleoftheupstartandthesuccessful。Bytheoperationofthesecausestheinsolenceofwealthhasbeeninsomedegreemoderated。Meantimeitcannotbepretendedthatevenamongourselvestheinequalityisnotstrainedsoastogivebirthtoveryunfortunateconsequences。
If，intheenormousdegreeinwhichitprevailsinsomepartsoftheworld，itwhollydebilitateandemasculatethehumanrace，weshallfeelsomereasontobelievethat，eveninthemilderstateinwhichweareaccustomedtobeholdit，itisstillpregnantwiththemostmischievouseffects。
CHAPTERIV(1*)
THECHARACTERSOFMENORIGINATEINTHEIREXTERNALCIRCUMSTANCES。
Thusfarwehavearguedfromhistoricalfacts，andfromthemhavecollectedaverystrongpresumptiveevidencethatpoliticalinstitutionshaveamorepowerfulandextensiveinfluencethanithasbeengenerallythepracticetoascribetothem。
Butwecanneverarriveatpreciseconceptionsrelativetothispartofthesubjectwithoutenteringintoananalysisofthehumanmind，(2*)
andendeavouringtoascertainthenatureofthecausesbywhichitsoperationsaredirected。UnderthisbranchofthesubjectIshallattempttoprovetwothings：first，thattheactionsanddispositionsofmankindaretheoffspringofcircumstancesandevents，andnotofanyoriginaldeterminationthattheybringintotheworld；and，secondly，thatthegreatstreamofourvoluntaryactionsessentiallydepends，notuponthedirectandimmediateimpulsesofsense，butuponthedecisionsoftheunderstanding。Ifthesepropositionscanbesufficientlyestablished，itwillfollowthatthehappinessmenareabletoattainisproportionedtothejustnessoftheopinionstheytakeasguidesinthepursuit；anditwillonlyremain，forthepurposeofapplyingthesepremisestothepointunderconsideration，thatweshoulddemonstratetheopinionsofmentobe，forthemostpart，undertheabsolutecontrolofpoliticalinstitution。
First，theactionsanddispositionsofmenarenottheoff-springofanyoriginalbiasthattheybringintotheworldinfavourofonesentimentorcharacterratherthananother，butflowentirelyfromtheoperationofcircumstancesandeventsactinguponafacultyofreceivingsensibleimpressions。
Therearethreemodesinwhichthehumanmindhasbeenconceivedtobemodified，independentlyofthecircumstanceswhichoccurtous，andthesensationsexcited：first，innateprinciples；secondly，instincts；
thirdly，theoriginaldifferencesofourstructure，togetherwiththeimpressionswereceiveinthewomb。Letusexamineeachoftheseintheirorder。
First，innateprinciplesofjudgement。Thosebywhomthisdoctrinehasbeenmaintainedhavesupposedthattherewerecertainbranchesofknowledge，andthoseperhapsofallothersthemostimportant，concerningwhichwefeltanirresistiblepersuasion，atthesametimethatwewerewhollyunabletotracethemthroughanychannelsofexternalevidenceandmethodicaldeduction。Theyconceivedthereforethattheywereoriginallywritteninourhearts；orperhaps，moreproperlyspeaking，thattherewasageneralpropensityinthehumanmindsuggestingthemtoourreflections，andfasteningthemuponourconviction。Accordingly，theyestablishedtheuniversalconsentofmankindasoneofthemostinfalliblecriterionsoffundamentaltruth。
Itappearedupontheirsystemthatwewerefurnishedwithasortofsixthsense，theexistenceofwhichwasnotprovedtous，likethatofourothersenses，bydirectandproperevidence，butfromtheconsiderationofcertainphenomenainthehistoryofthehumanmind，whichcannotbeotherwiseaccountedforthanbytheassumptionofthishypothesis。
Thereisanessentialdeficiencyineveryspeculationofthissort。
Itturnsentirelyuponanappealtoourignorance。Itslanguageisasfollows：
“Youcannotaccountforcertaineventsfromtheknownlawsofthesubjectstowhichtheybelong；thereforetheyarenotdeduciblefromthoselaws；
thereforeyoumustadmitanewprincipleintothesystemfortheexpresspurposeofaccountingforthem。”Buttherecannotbeasoundermaximofreasoningthanthatwhichpointsouttoustheerrorofadmittingintoourhypothesesunnecessaryprinciples，orreferringthephenomenathatoccurtoremoteandextraordinarysources，whentheymaywithequalfacilitybereferredtosourceswhichobviouslyexist，andtheresultsofwhichwedailyobserve。Thismaximaloneissufficienttopersuadeustorejectthedoctrineofinnateprinciples。Ifweconsidertheinfinitelyvariouscausesbywhichthehumanmindisperceptiblymodified，andthedifferentprinciples，argument，imitation，inclination，earlyprejudiceandimaginaryinterest，bywhichopinionisgenerated，weshallreadilyperceivethatnothingcanbemoredifficultthantoassignanyopinion，existingamongthehumanspecies，andatthesametimeincapableofbeinggeneratedbyanyofthesecausesandprinciples。
Acarefulenquirerwillbestronglyinclinedtosuspectthesoundnessofopinionswhichrestfortheirsupportonsoambiguousafoundationasthatofinnateimpression。Wecannotreasonablyquestiontheexistenceoffacts；thatis，wecannotdenytheexistenceofoursensations，ortheseriesinwhichtheyoccur。Wecannotdenytheaxiomsofmathematics；fortheyexhibitnothingmorethanaconsistentuseofwords，andaffirmofsomeideathatitisitselfandnotsomethingelse。Wecanentertainlittledoubtofthevalidityofmathematicaldemonstrations，whichappeartobeirresistibleconclusionsdeducedfromidenticalpropositions。Weascribeacertainvalue，sometimesgreaterandsometimesless，toconsiderationsdrawnfromanalogy。Butwhatdegreeofweightshallweattributetoaffirmationswhichpretendtorestuponnoneofthesegrounds？Themostpreposterouspropositions，incapableofanyrationaldefence，haveindifferentagesandcountriesappealedtothisinexplicableauthority，andpassedforinfallibleandinnate。Theenquirerthathasnootherobjectthantruth，thatrefusestobemisled，andisdeterminedtoproceedonlyuponjustandsufficientevidencewillfindlittlereasontobesatisfiedwithdogmaswhichrestuponnootherfoundationthanapretendednecessityimpellingthehumanmindtoyielditsassent。
Butthereisastillmoreirresistibleargumentprovingtoustheabsurdityofthesuppositionofinnateprinciples。Everyprincipleisaproposition：
eitheritaffirms，oritdenies。Everypropositionconsistsintheconnectionofatleasttwodistinctideas，whichareaffirmedtoagreeordisagreewitheachother。Itisimpossiblethatthepropositioncanbeinnate，unlesstheideastowhichitrelatesbealsoinnate。Aconnectionwherethereisnothingtobeconnected，apropositionwherethereisneithersubjectnorconclusion，isthemostincoherentofallsuppositions。Butnothingcanbemoreincontrovertiblethanthatwedonotbringpre-establishedideasintotheworldwithus。
Lettheinnateprinciplebethat“virtueisaruletowhichweareobligedtoconform。”Herearethreeprincipalandleadingideas，nottomentionsubordinateones，whichitisnecessarytoform，beforewecansomuchasunderstandtheproposition。Whatisvirtue？Previouslytoourforminganideacorrespondingtothisgeneralterm，itseemsnecessarythatweshouldhaveobservedtheseveralfeaturesbywhichvirtueisdistinguished，andtheseveralsubordinatearticlesofrightconduct，thattakentogetherconstitutethatmassofpracticaljudgementstowhichwegivethedenominationofvirtue。Thesearesofarfrombeinginnatethatthemostimpartialandlaboriousenquirersarenotyetagreedrespectingthem。Thenextideaincludedintheabovepropositionisthatofaruleorstandard，agenericalmeasurewithwhichindividualsaretobecompared，andtheirconformityordisagreementwithwhichistodeterminetheirvalue。Lastly，thereistheideaofobligation，itsnatureandsource，theobligerandthesanction，thepenaltyandthereward。
Whoisthereinthepresentstateofscientificalimprovementthatwillbelievethatthisvastchainofperceptionsandnotionsissomethingthatwebringintotheworldwithus，amysticalmagazine，shutupinthehumanembryo，whosetreasuresaretobegraduallyunfoldedascircumstancesshallrequire？Whodoesnotperceivethattheyareregularlygeneratedinthemindbyaseriesofimpressions，anddigestedandarrangedbyassociationandreflection？
But，ifwearenotendowedwithinnateprinciplesofjudgement，ithasneverthelessbeensupposedbysomepersonsthatwemighthaveinstinctstoaction，leadingustotheperformanceofcertainusefulandnecessaryfunctions，independentlyofanypreviousreasoningastotheadvantageofthesefunctions。Theseinstincts，liketheinnateprinciplesofjudgementwehavealreadyexamined，areconceivedtobeoriginal，aseparateendowmentannexedtoourbeing，andnotanythingthatirresistiblyflowsfromthemerefacultyofperceptionandthought，asacteduponbythecircumstances，eitherofouranimalframe，oroftheexternalobjects，bywhichweareaffected。Theyareliablethereforetothesameobjectionasthatalreadyurgedagainstinnateprinciples。Thesystembywhichtheyareattemptedtobeestablishedisamereappealtoourignorance，assumingthatwearefullyacquaintedwithallthepossibleoperationsofknownpowers，andimposinguponusanunknownpowerasindispensabletotheaccountingforcertainphenomena。Ifwewerewhollyunabletosolvethesephenomena，itwouldyetbehoveustobeextremelycautiousinaffirmingthatknownprinciplesandcausesareinadequatetotheirsolution。Ifweareableuponstrictandmatureinvestigationtotracethegreaterpartofthemtotheirsource，thisnecessarilyaddsforcetothecautionhererecommended。
Anunknowncauseisexceptionable，inthefirstplace，inasmuchastomultiplycausesiscontrarytotheexperiencedoperationofscientificalimprovement。Itisexceptionable，secondly，becauseitstendencyistobreakthattrainofantecedentsandconsequentsofwhichthehistoryoftheuniverseiscomposed。Itintroducesanactionapparentlyextraneous，insteadofimputingthenatureofwhatfollowstothepropertiesofthatwhichpreceded。Itbarstheprogressofenquirybyintroducingthatwhichisoccult，mysteriousandincapableoffurtherinvestigation。Itallowsnothingtothefutureadvancementofhumanknowledge；butrepresentsthelimitsofwhatisalreadyknown，asthelimitsofhumanunderstanding。
Letusreviewafewofthemostcommonexamplesadducedinfavourofhumaninstincts，andexaminehowfartheyauthorizetheconclusionthatisattemptedtobedrawnfromthem：andfirst，someofthoseactionswhichappeartoriseinthemostinstantaneousandirresistiblemanner。
Acertainirritationofthepalmofthehandwillproducethatcontractionofthefingerswhichaccompaniestheactionofgrasping。Thiscontractionwillatfirsttakeplaceunaccompaniedwithdesign，theobjectwillbegraspedwithoutanyintentiontoretainit，andletgoagainwithoutthoughtorobservation。Afteracertainnumberofrepetitions，thenatureoftheactionwillbeperceived；itwillbeperformedwithaconsciousnessofitstendency；andeventhehandstretchedoutupontheapproachofanyobjectthatisdesired。Presenttothechild，thusfarinstructed，alightedcandle。Thesightofitwillproduceapleasurablestateoftheorgansofperception。Hewillprobablystretchouthishandtotheflame，andwillhavenoapprehensionofthepainofburningtillhehasfeltthesensation。
Attheageofmaturity，theeyelidsinstantaneouslyclosewhenanysubstancefromwhichdangerisapprehendedisadvancedtowardsthem；andthisactionissoconstantastobewithgreatdifficultypreventedbyagrownperson，thoughheshouldexplicitlydesireit。Ininfantsthereisnosuchpropensity；
andanobjectmaybeapproachedtotheirorgans，howevernearandhoweversuddenly，withoutproducingthiseffect。Frownswillbetotallyindifferenttoachild，whohasneverfoundthemassociatedwiththeeffectsofanger。
Fearitselfisaspeciesofforesight，andinnocaseexiststillintroducedbyexperience。
Ithasbeensaidthatthedesireofself-preservationisinnate。Idemandwhatismeantbythisdesire？Mustwenotunderstandbyitapreferenceofexistencetononexistence？Dowepreferanythingbutbecauseitisapprehendedtobegood？Itfollowsthatwecannotpreferexistence，previouslytoourexperienceofthemotivesforpreferenceitpossesses。Indeedtheideasoflifeanddeathareexceedinglycomplicated，andverytardyintheirformation。Achilddesirespleasureandloathespainlongbeforehecanhaveanyimaginationrespectingtheceasingtoexist。
Again，ithasbeensaidthatself-loveisinnate。Buttherecannotbeanerrormoreeasyofdetection。Bytheloveofselfweunderstandtheapprobationofpleasure，anddislikeofpain：butthisisonlythefacultyofperceptionunderanothername。Whoeverdeniedthatmanwasapercipientbeing？Whoeverdreamedthattherewasaparticularinstinctnecessarytorenderhimpercipient？
Pityhassometimesbeensupposedaninstanceofinnateprinciple；particularlyasitseemstoarisewithgreaterfacilityinyoungpersons，andpersonsoflittlerefinement，thaninothers。Butitwasreasonabletoexpectthatthreatsandanger，circumstancesthathavebeenassociatedwithourownsufferings，shouldexcitepainfulfeelingsinusinthecaseofothers，independentlyofanylabouredanalysis。Thecriesofdistress，theappearanceofagonyorcorporalinfliction，irresistiblyrevivethememoryofthepainsaccompaniedbythosesymptomsinourselves。Longerexperienceandobservationenableustoseparatethecalamitiesofothersandourownsafety，theexistenceofpaininonesubjectandofpleasureorbenefitinothers，orinthesameatafutureperiod，moreaccuratelythanwecouldbeexpectedtodopreviouslytothatexperience。
Ifthenitappearthatthehumanmindisunattendedeitherwithinnateprinciplesorinstincts，thereareonlytworemainingcircumstancesthatcanbeimaginedtoanticipatetheeffectsofinstitution，andfixthehumancharacterindependentlyofeveryspeciesofeducation：theseare，thequalitiesthatmaybeproducedinthehumanmindpreviouslytotheeraofourbirth，andthedifferencesthatmayresultfromthedifferentstructureofthegreaterorsubtlerelementsoftheanimalframe。
Toobjectionsderivedfromthesesourcestheanswerwillbeinbothcasessimilar。
First，ideasaretothemindnearlywhatatomsaretothebody。Thewholemassisinaperpetualflux；nothingisstableandpermanent；afterthelapseofagivenperiodnotasingleparticleprobablyremainsthesame。Whoknowsnotthatinthecourseofahumanlifethecharacteroftheindividualfrequentlyundergoestwoorthreerevolutionsofitsfundamentalstamina？Theturbulentmanwillfrequentlybecomecontemplative，thegenerousbechangedintoselfish，andthefrankandgood-humouredintopeevishandmorose。Howoftendoesithappenthat，ifwemeetourbestlovedfriendafteranabsenceoftwentyyears，welookinvaininthemanbeforeusforthequalitiesthatformerlyexcitedoursympathy，and，insteadoftheexquisitedelightwepromisedourselves，reapnothingbutdisappointment？
Ifitisthusinhabitsapparentlythemostrooted，whowillbedisposedtolayanyextraordinarystressupontheimpressionswhichaninfantmayhavereceivedinthewombofhismother？
Hethatconsidershumanlifewithanattentiveeyewillnotfailtoremarkthatthereisscarcelysuchathingincharacterandprinciplesasanirremediableerror。Personsofnarrowandlimitedviewsmayuponmanyoccasionsinclinetositdownindespair；butthosewhoareinspiredwithagenuineenergywillderivenewincentivesfrommiscarriage。Hasanyunfortunateandundesirableimpressionbeenmadeupontheyouthfulmind？Nothingwillbemoreeasythanforajudicioussuperintendent，provideditsnatureisunderstood，anditisundertakensufficientlyearly，toremedyandobliterateit。Hasachildpassedacertainperiodofexistenceinill-judgedindulgenceandhabitsofcommandandcaprice？Theskilfulparent，whenthechildreturnstoitspaternalroof，knowsthatthisevilisnotinvincible，andsetshimselfwithanundoubtingspirittotheremovalofthedepravity。Itoftenhappensthattheveryimpressionwhich，ifnotcounteracted，shalldecideuponthepursuitsandfortuneofanentirelifemightperhapsunderothercircumstancesbereducedtocompleteinefficiencyinhalfanhour。
Itisincorporealstructureasinintellectualimpressions。Thefirstimpressionsofourinfancyaresomuchuponthesurfacethattheireffectsscarcelysurvivetheperiodoftheimpressionitself。Thematuremanseldomretainsthefaintestrecollectionoftheincidentsofthetwofirstyearsofhislife。Isittobesupposedthatthatwhichhasleftnotraceuponthememorycanbeinaneminentdegreepowerfulinitsassociatedeffects？
Justsointhestructureoftheanimalframe。Whatisbornintotheworldisanunfinishedsketch，withoutcharacterordecisivefeatureimpresseduponit。Inthesequelthereisacorrespondencebetweenthephysiognomyandtheintellectualandmoralqualitiesofthemind。Butisitnotreasonabletosupposethatthisisproducedbythecontinualtendencyofthemindtomodifyitsmaterialengineinaparticularway？Thereisforthemostpartnoessentialdifferencebetweenthechildofthelordandoftheporter。
Providedhedonotcomeintotheworldinfectedwithanyruinousdistemper，thechildofthelord，ifchangedinthecradle，wouldscarcelyfindanygreaterdifficultythantheotherinlearningthetradeofhissofterfather，andbecomingacarrierofburthens。Themusclesofthoselimbswhicharemostfrequentlycalledintoplayarealwaysobservedtoacquirepeculiarflexibilityorstrength。Itisnotimprobable，ifitshouldbefoundthatthecapacityoftheskullofawisemanisgreaterthanthatofafool，thatthisenlargementshouldbeproducedbytheincessantlyrepeatedactionoftheintellectualfaculties，especiallyifwerecollectofhowflexiblematerialstheskullsofinfantsarecomposed，andathowearlyanagepersonsofeminentintellectualmeritacquiresomeportionoftheirfuturecharacteristics。
Inthemeantimeitwouldberidiculoustoquestiontherealdifferencesthatexistbetweenchildrenattheperiodoftheirbirth。Herculesandhisbrother，therobustinfantwhomscarcelyanyneglectcandestroy，andtheinfantthatiswithdifficultyreared，areundoubtedlyfromthemomentofparturitionverydifferentbeings。Ifeachofthemcouldreceiveaneducationpreciselyequalandeminentlywise，thechildlabouringunderoriginaldisadvantagewouldbebenefited，butthechildtowhomcircumstanceshadbeenmostfavourableintheoutsetwouldalwaysretainhispriority。
Theseconsiderationshoweverdonotappearmateriallytoaffectthedoctrineofthepresentchapter；andthatforthefollowingreasons。
First，educationnevercanbeequal。Theinequalityofexternalcircumstancesintwobeingswhosesituationsmostnearlyresembleissogreatastobaffleallpowerofcalculation。Inthepresentstateofmankindthisiseminentlythecase。Thereisnofactmorepalpablethanthatchildrenofallsizesandformsindifferentlybecomewise。Itisnotthemanofgreatstatureorvigorousmakethatoutstripshisfellowinunderstanding。Itisnotthemanwhopossessesalltheexternalsensesinthehighestperfection。
Itisnotthemanwhosehealthismostvigorousandinvariable。Thosemoralcausesthatawakenthemind，thatinspiresensibility，imaginationandperseverance，aredistributedwithoutdistinctiontothetallorthedwarfish，thegracefulorthedeformed，thelynx-eyedortheblind。But，ifthemoreobviousdistinctionsofanimalstructureappeartohavelittleshareindecidingupontheirassociatedvarietiesofintellect，itissurelyinthehighestdegreeunjustifiabletoattributethesevarietiestosuchsubtleandimperceptibledifferencesas，beingoutofourpowertoassign，areyetgratuitouslyassumedtoaccountforthemoststupendouseffects。Thismysterioussolutionistherefugeofindolenceortheinstrumentofimposture，butincompatiblewithasoberandperseveringspiritofinvestigation。
Secondly，itissufficienttorecollectthenatureofmoralcausestobesatisfiedthattheirefficiencyisnearlyunlimited。Theessentialdifferencesthataretobefoundbetweenindividualandindividualoriginateintheopinionstheyform，andthecircumstancesbywhichtheyarecontrolled。
Itisimpossibletobelievethatthesamemoraltrainwouldnotmakenearlythesameman。Letussupposeabeingtohaveheardalltheargumentsandbeensubjecttoalltheexcitementsthatwereeveraddressedtoanycelebratedcharacter。Thesamearguments，withalltheirstrengthandalltheirweakness，unaccompaniedwiththesmallestadditionorvariation，andretailedinexactlythesameproportionsfrommonthtomonthandyeartoyear，mustsurelyhaveproducedthesameopinions。Thesameexcitements，withoutreservation，whetherdirectoraccidental，musthavefixedthesamepropensities。Whateverscienceorpursuitwasselectedbythiscelebratedcharactermustbelovedbythepersonrespectingwhomwearesupposingthisidentityofimpressions。
Infine，itisimpressionthatmakestheman，and，comparedwiththeempireofimpression，themeredifferencesofanimalstructureareinexpressiblyunimportantandpowerless。
Thesetruthswillbebroughttoourmindswithmuchadditionalevidenceifwecompareinthisrespectthecaseofbruteswiththatofmen。Amongtheinferioranimals，breedisacircumstanceofconsiderableimportance，andajudiciousmixtureandpreservationinthispointisfoundtobeattendedwiththemostunequivocalresults。Butnothingofthatkindappearstotakeplaceinourownspecies。Agenerousblood，agallantandfearlessspiritisbynomeanspropagatedfromfathertoson。Whenaparticularappellationisgranted，asisusuallypractisedintheexistinggovernmentsofEurope，todesignatethedescendantsofamagnanimousancestry，wedonotfind，evenwithalltheartsofmoderneducation，toassist，thatsuchdescendantsarethelegitimaterepresentativesofdepartedheroism。Whencecomesthisdifference？Probablyfromthemoreirresistibleoperationofmoralcauses。Itisnotimpossiblethatamongsavagesthosedifferenceswouldbeconspicuouswhichwithusareannihilated。Itisnotunlikelythatifmen，likebrutes，werewithheldfromthemoreconsiderablemeansofintellectualimprovement，iftheyderivednothingfromthediscoveriesandsagacityoftheirancestors，ifeachindividualhadtobeginabsolutelydenovointhedisciplineandarrangementofhisideas，bloodorwhateverothercircumstancesdistinguishonemanfromanotherattheperiodofhisnativitywouldproduceasmemorableeffectsinmanastheynowdointhoseclassesofanimalsthataredeprivedofouradvantages。Eveninthecaseofbrutes，educationandcareonthepartofthemanseemtobenearlyindispensable，ifwewouldnothavethefoalofthefinestracerdegeneratetothelevelofthecart-horse。Inplantsthepeculiaritiesofsoildecideinagreatdegreeuponthefuturepropertiesofeach。Butwhowouldthinkofformingthecharacterofahumanbeingbytheoperationsofheatandcold，drynessandmoistureupontheanimalframe？Withusmoralconsiderationsswallowuptheeffectsofeveryotheraccident。Presentapursuittothemind，conveytoittheapprehensionofcalamityoradvantage，exciteitbymotivesofaversionormotivesofaffection，andtheslowandsilentinfluenceofmaterialcausesperisheslikedewsattherisingofthesun。
Theresultoftheseconsiderationsisthatatthemomentofbirthmanhasreallyacertaincharacter，andeachmanacharacterdifferentfromhisfellows。Theaccidentswhichpassduringthemonthsofpercipiencyinthewombofthemotherproducearealeffect。Variousexternalaccidents，unlimitedastotheperiodoftheircommencement，modifyindifferentwaystheelementsoftheanimalframe。Everythingintheuniverseislinkedandunitedtogether。Noevent，howeverminuteandimperceptible，isbarrenofatrainofconsequences，howevercomparativelyevanescentthoseconsequencesmayinsomeinstancesbefound。Iftherehavebeenphilosophersthathaveassertedotherwise，andtaughtthatallmindsfromtheperiodofbirthwerepreciselyalike，theyhavereflecteddiscreditbysuchanincautiousstatementuponthetruththeyproposedtodefend。
But，thoughtheoriginaldifferencesofmanandmanbearithmeticallyspeakingsomething，speakinginthewayofageneralandcomprehensiveestimatetheymaybesaidtobealmostnothing。Iftheearlyimpressionsofourchildhoodmaybyaskilfulobserverbeasitwereobliteratedalmostassoonasmade，howmuchlesscantheconfusedandunpronouncedimpressionsofthewombbeexpectedtoresistthemultiplicityofideasthatsuccessivelycontributetowearouttheirtraces？Ifthetemperofthemanappearinmanyinstancestobetotallychanged，howcanitbesupposedthatthereisanythingpermanentandinflexibleinthepropensitiesofanew-borninfant？and，ifnotinthecharacterofthedisposition，howmuchlessinthatoftheunderstanding？
Speakthelanguageoftruthandreasontoyourchild，andbeundernoapprehensionfortheresult。Showhimthatwhatyourecommendisvaluableanddesirable，andfearnotbuthewilldesireit。Convincehisunderstanding，andyouenlistallhispowersanimalandintellectualinyourservice。
Howlonghasthegeniusofeducationbeendisheartenedandunnervedbythepretencethatmanisbornallthatitispossibleforhimtobecome？
Howlonghasthejargonimposedupontheworldwhichwouldpersuadeusthatininstructingamanyoudonotaddto，butunfoldhisstores？Themiscarriagesofeducationdonotproceedfromtheboundednessofitspowers，butfromthemistakeswithwhichitisaccompanied。Weofteninspiredisgust，wherewemeantoinfusedesire。Wearewrappedupinourselves，anddonotobserve，asweought，stepbystepthesensationsthatpassinthemindofourhearer。Wemistakecompulsionforpersuasion，anddeludeourselvesintothebeliefthatdespotismistheroadtotheheart。
Educationwillproceedwithafirmstepandwithgenuinelustrewhenthosewhoconductitshallknowwhatavastfielditembraces；whentheyshallbeawarethattheeffect，thequestionwhetherthepupilshallbeamanofperseveranceandenterpriseorastupidandinanimatedolt，dependsuponthepowersofthoseunderwhosedirectionheisplacedandtheskillwithwhichthosepowersshallbeapplied。Industrywillbeexertedwithtenfoldalacritywhenitshallbegenerallyconfessedthattherearenoobstaclestoourimprovementwhichdonotyieldtothepowersofindustry。
Multitudeswillneverexerttheenergynecessarytoextraordinarysuccess，tilltheyshalldismisstheprejudicesthatfetterthem，getridofthechillingsystemofoccultandinexplicablecauses，andconsiderthehumanmindasanintelligentagent，guidedbymotivesandprospectspresentedtotheunderstanding，andnotbycausesofwhichwehavenopropercognisanceandcanformnocalculation。
Applytheseconsiderationstothesubjectofpolitics，andtheywillauthorizeustoinferthattheexcellenciesanddefectsofthehumancharacterarenotderivedfromcausesbeyondthereachofingenuitytomodifyandcorrect。Ifweentertainfalseviewsandbeinvolvedinperniciousmistakes，thisdisadvantageisnottheoffspringofanirresistibledestiny。Wehavebeenignorant，wehavebeenhasty，orwehavebeenmisled。Removethecausesofthisignoranceorthismiscalculation，andtheeffectswillcease。Showmeintheclearestandmostunambiguousmannerthatacertainmodeofproceedingismostreasonableinitselformostconducivetomyinterest，andIshallinfalliblypursuethatmode，aslongastheviewsyousuggestedtomecontinuepresenttomymind。Theconductofhumanbeingsineverysituationisgovernedbythejudgementstheymakeandthesensationsthatarecommunicatedtothem。
Ithasappearedthatthecharactersofmenaredeterminedinalltheirmostessentialcircumstancesbyeducation。ByeducationinthisplaceI
wouldbeunderstoodtoconveythemostcomprehensivesensethatcanpossiblybeannexedtothatword，includingeveryincidentthatproducesanideainthemind，andcangivebirthtoatrainofreflections。Itmaybeofuseforaclearerunderstandingofthesubjectwehereexaminetoconsidereducationunderthreeheads：theeducationofaccident，orthoseimpressionswereceiveindependentlyofanydesignonthepartofthepreceptor；educationcommonlysocalled，ortheimpressionswhichheintentionallycommunicates；
andpoliticaleducation，orthemodificationourideasreceivefromtheformofgovernmentunderwhichwelive。Inthecourseofthissuccessivereviewweshallbeenabledinsomedegreetoascertaintherespectiveinfluencewhichistobeattributedtoeach。
Itisnotunusualtohearpersonsdwellwithemphasisonthewidedifferenceoftheresultsintwoyoungpersonswhohavebeeneducatedtogether；andthishasbeenproducedasadecisiveargumentinfavouroftheessentialdifferenceswearesupposedtobringintotheworldwithus。Butthiscouldscarcelyhavehappenedbutfromextremeinattentioninthepersonswhohavesoargued。Innumerableideas，orchangesinthestateofthepercipientbeing，probablyoccurineverymomentoftime。Howmanyoftheseenterintotheplanofthepreceptor？Twochildrenwalkouttogether。Onebusieshimselfinpluckingflowersorrunningafterbutterflies，theotherwalksinthehandoftheirconductor。Twomenviewapicture。Theyneverseeitfromthesamepointofview，andthereforestrictlyspeakingneverseethesamepicture。Iftheysitdowntohearalectureoranypieceofinstruction，theyneversitdownwiththesamedegreeofattention，seriousnessorgoodhumour。Thepreviousstateofmindisdifferent，andthereforetheimpressionreceivedcannotbethesame。Ithasbeenfoundinthehistoryofseveraleminentmen，andprobablywouldhavebeenfoundmuchoftenerhadtheirjuvenileadventuresbeenmoreaccuratelyrecorded，thatthemosttrivialcircumstancehassometimesfurnishedtheoriginaloccasionofawakeningtheardouroftheirmindsanddeterminingthebentoftheirstudies。
Itmayhoweverreasonablybesuspectedwhethertheeducationofdesignbenot，intrinsicallyconsidered，morepowerfulthantheeducationofaccident。
Ifatanytimeitappearimpotent，thisisprobablyowingtomistakeintheproject。Theinstructorcontinuallyfailsinwisdomofcontrivance，orconciliationofmanner，orboth。Itmayoftenhappen，eitherfromthepedantryofhishabits，ortheimpatienceofhistemper，thathisrecommendationshalloperateratherasanantidotethananattraction。Preceptorsareapttopiquethemselvesupondisclosingpartandconcealingpartofthetruth，uponasortofcommonplace，cantexhortationtobeaddressedtoyouth，whichitwouldbeaninsulttooffertotheunderstandingsofmen。
Butchildrenarenotinclinedtoconsiderhimentirelyastheirfriendwhomtheydetectinanattempttoimposeuponthem。Wereitotherwise，werewesufficientlyfrankandsufficientlyskilful，didweapplyourselvestoexcitethesympathyoftheyoungandtogaintheirconfidence，itisnottobebelievedbutthatthesystematicalmeasuresofthepreceptorwouldhaveadecisiveadvantageoverthedesultoryinfluenceofaccidentalimpression。Childrenareasortofrawmaterialputintoourhands，aductileandyieldingsubstance，which，ifwedonotultimatelymouldinconformitytoourwishes，itisbecausewethrowawaythepowercommittedtous，bythefollywithwhichweareaccustomedtoexertit。Butthereisanothererrornotlessdecisive。Theobjectwechooseisanimproperone。Ourlabourisexpended，notinteachingtruth，butinteachingfalsehood。Whenthatisthecase，educationisnecessarilyandhappilymaimedofhalfitspowers。
Thesuccessofanattempttomisleadcanneverbecomplete。Wecontinuallycommunicateinspiteofourselvesthematerialsofjustreasoning；reasonisthegenuineexercise，andtruththenativeelementofanintellectualnature；itisnowonderthereforethat，withacrudeandabortiveplantogovernhisefforts，thepreceptorisperpetuallybaffled，andthepupil，whohasbeenthusstoredwithsystematicdelusions，andpartial，obscure，anddisfiguredtruths，shouldcomeoutanythingratherthanthatwhichhisinstructorintendedhim。
Itremainstobeconsideredwhatsharepoliticalinstitutionandformsofgovernmentoccupyintheeducationofeveryhumanbeing。Theirdegreeofinfluencedependsupontwoessentialcircumstances。
First，itisnearlyimpossibletoopposetheeducationofthepreceptor，andtheeducationwederivefromtheformsofgovernmentunderwhichwelive，toeachother；andtherefore，howeverpowerfultheformerofthesemaybe，absolutelyconsidered，itcanneverenterthelistswiththelatteruponequalterms。Shouldanyonetalktousofrescuingayoungpersonfromthesinisterinfluenceofacorruptgovernmentbythepowerofeducation，itwillbefairtoaskwhoisthepreceptorbywhomthistalkistobeeffected？Ishebornintheordinarymodeofgeneration，ordoeshedescendamongusfromtheskies？Hashischaracterbeeninnodegreemodifiedbythatveryinfluenceheundertakestocounteract？Itisbeyondallcontroversythatmenwholiveinastateofequality，orthatapproachesequality，willbefrank，ingenuousandintrepidintheircarriage；whilethosewhoinhabitwhereagreatdisparityofrankshasprevailedwillbedistinguishedbycoldness，irresoluteness，timidityandcaution。Willthepreceptorinquestionbealtogethersuperiortothesequalities？Whichofusistherewhouttershisthoughtsinthefearlessandexplicitmannerthattruewisdomwouldprescribe？Who，thatissufficientlycriticalandsevere，doesnotdetecthimselfeveryhourinsomeactoffalsehoodorequivocationthatexampleandearlyhabitshaveplantedtoodeeplytobeeradicated？Butthequestionisnotwhatextraordinarypersonscanbefoundwhomayshineillustriousexceptionstotheprevailingdegeneracyoftheirneighbours。
Aslongasparentsandteachersingeneralshallfallundertheestablishedrule，itisclearthatpoliticsandmodesofgovernmentwilleducateandinfectusall。Theypoisonourmindsbeforewecanresist，orsomuchassuspecttheirmalignity。LikethebarbarousdirectorsoftheEasternseraglios，theydepriveusofourvirility，andfitusfortheirdespicableemploymentfromthecradle。Sofalseistheopinionthathastoogenerallyprevailedthatpoliticsisanaffairwithwhichordinarymenhavelittleconcern。
Secondly，supposingthepreceptorhadallthequalificationsthatcanreasonablybeimputed，letusrecollectforamomentwhataretheinfluenceswithwhichhewouldhavetostruggle。Politicalinstitution，bytheconsequenceswithwhichitispregnant，stronglysuggeststoeveryonewhoenterswithinitsspherewhatisthepathheshouldavoid，aswellaswhatheshouldpursue。Underagovernmentfundamentallyerroneous，hewillseeintrepidvirtueproscribed，andaservileandcorruptspirituniformlyencouraged。
Butmoralityitselfisnothingbutacalculationofconsequences。Whatstrangeconfusionwillthespectacleofthatknaverywhichisuniversallypractisedthroughalltheexistingclassesofsocietyproduceinthemind？
Thepreceptorcannotgooutoftheworld，orpreventtheintercourseofhispupilwithhumanbeingsofacharacterdifferentfromhisown。Attemptsofthiskindaregenerallyunhappy，stampedwiththeimpressionofartifice，intoleranceandusurpation。Fromearliestinfancythereforetherewillbetwoprinciplescontendingforempire，thepeculiarandelevatedsystemofthepreceptor，andthegrovellingviewsofthegreatmassofmankind。
Thesewillgenerateconfusion，uncertaintyandirresolution。Atnoperiodoflifewilltheeffectcorrespondtowhatitwouldhavebeenifthecommunitywerevirtuousandwise。Butitseffect，obscureandimperceptibleforatime，maybeexpectedtoburstintoexplosionattheperiodofpuberty。
Whenthepupilfirstbecomesmasterofhisownactions，andchooseshisavocationsandhisassociates，hewillnecessarilybeacquaintedwithmanythingsofwhichbeforehehadveryslendernotions。Atthistimethefolliesoftheworldweartheirmostalluringface。Hecanscarcelyavoidimaginingthathehashithertolabouredundersomespeciesofdelusion。Delusion，whendetected，causeshimuponwhomitwaspractisedtobeindignantandrestive。Theonlychancewhichremainsisthat，afteratime，heshouldberecalledandawakened：andagainstthischancetherearetheprogressiveenticementsofsociety；sensuality，ambition，sordidinterest，falseridiculeandtheincessantdecayofthatunblemishedpuritywhichattendedhiminhisoutset。Thebestthatcanbeexpectedisthatheshouldreturnatlasttosobrietyandtruth，withaminddebilitatedandrelaxedbyrepeatederrors，andamoralconstitutioninwhichtheseedsofdegeneracyhavebeendeeplyandextensivelysown。
NOTES：
1。Intheplanofthisworkitwasoriginallyconceivedthatitwasadvisablenottopressmattersofcloseandlaboriousspeculationintheoutset。Itappearedasifmoralandpoliticalphilosophymightassumesomethingmorethanhadbeenusualofapopularform，withoutdeductingfromthejustnessanddepthofitsinvestigation。Uponrevisalhowever，itwasfoundthattheinferencesoftheFirstBookhadbeenmateriallyinjuredbyanoverscrupulousnessinthatpoint。Thefruitofthediscoverywasthisandthefollowingchapter，astheynowstand。Itisrecommended，tothereaderwhofindshimselfdeterredbytheirapparentdifficulty，topassontotheremainingdivisionsoftheenquiry。
2。Somepersonshaveoflatesuggesteddoubtsconcerningtheproprietyoftheuseofthewordmind。Anaccuratephilosophyhasledmodernenquirerstoquestiontheexistenceoftwoclassesofsubstancesintheuniverse，torejectthemetaphysicaldenominationsofspiritandsoul，andeventodoubtwhetherhumanbeingshaveanysatisfactoryacquaintancewiththepropertiesofmatter。Thesameaccuracy，ithasbeensaid，oughttoteachustodiscardthetermmind。Butthisobjectionseemstobepremature。
Weareindeedwhollyuncertainwhetherthecausesofoursensations，heat，colour，hardnessandextension(thetwoformerofthesepropertieshavebeenquestionedinaveryforciblemannerbyLocke，HumanUnderstanding，thetwolatterbyBerkeleyandHume)beinanyrespectsimilartotheideastheyproduce。Weknownothingofthesubstanceorsubstratumofmatter，orofthatwhichistherecipientofthoughtandperception。Wedonotevenknowthattheideaannexedtothewordsubstanceiscorrect，orhasanycounterpartintherealityofexistence。But，iftherebeanyonethingthatweknowmorecertainlythananother，itistheexistenceofourownthoughts，ideas，perceptionsorsensations(bywhatevertermwemaychoosetoexpressthem)，andthattheyareordinarilylinkedtogethersoastoproducethecomplexnotionofunityorpersonalidentity。Nowitisthisseriesofthoughtsthuslinkedtogether，withoutconsideringwhethertheyresideinanyorwhatsubstratum，thatismostaptlyexpressedbythetermmind；andinthissensethetermisintendedtobeusedthroughoutthefollowingwork。
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