CHAPTERVII

OFTHEINFLUENCEOFLUXURY

Thesecondobjectiontotheprinciplesalreadyestablished，isderivedfromtheinfluenceofluxury，andaffirms“thatnations，likeindividuals，aresubjecttothephenomenaofyouthandoldage，andthat，whenapeoplebyeffeminacyanddepravationofmannershavesunkintodecrepitude，itisnotwithinthecompassofhumanabilitytorestorethemtovigourandinnocence。”

Thisideahasbeenpartlyfoundedupontheromanticnotionsofpastorallifeandthegoldenage。Innocenceisnotvirtue。Virtuedemandstheactiveemploymentofanardentmindinthepromotionofthegeneralgood。Nomancanbeeminentlyvirtuouswhoisnotaccustomedtoanextensiverangeofreflection。Hemustseeallthebenefitstoarisefromadisinterestedproceeding，andmustunderstandthepropermethodofproducingthosebenefits。

Ignorance，theslothfulhabitsandlimitedviewsofuncultivatedlife，havenotinthemmoreoftruevirtue，thoughtheymaybemoreharmless，thanluxury，vanityandextravagance。Individualsofexquisitefeeling，whosedisgusthasbeenexcitedbythehardenedselfishnessortheunblushingcorruptionwhichhaveprevailedintheirowntimes，haverecurredinimaginationtotheforestsofNorwayorthebleakanduncomfortableHighlandsofScotlandinsearchofapurerraceofmankind。Thisimaginationhasbeentheoffspringofdisappointment，notthedictateofreasonandphilosophy。

Itmaybetrue，thatignoranceisnearerthanprejudicetothereceptionofwisdom，andthattheabsenceofvirtueisaconditionmoreauspiciousthanthepresenceofitsopposite。Inthiscaseitwouldhavebeenjustertocompareanationsunkinluxurytoanindividualwithconfirmedhabitsofwrong，thantoanindividualwhomadebilitatedconstitutionwasbringingfasttothegrave。Butneitherwouldthatcomparisonhavebeenfairandequitable。

Theconditionofnationsismorefluctuating，andwillbefoundlessobstinateinitsresistancetoaconsistentendeavourfortheirimprovement，thanthatofindividuals。Innationssomeoftheirmemberswillbelessconfirmedinerrorthanothers。Acertainnumberwillbeonlyinaverysmalldegreeindisposedtolistentothevoiceoftruth。Thisnumber，fromtheverynatureofjustsentiments，mustintheordinarycourseofthingsperpetuallyincrease。Everynewconvertwillbethemeansofconvertingothers。Inproportionasthebodyofdisciplesisaugmented，themodesofattackupontheprejudicesofotherswillbevaried，andsuitedtothevarietyofmen’stempersandprepossessions。

Addtothisthatgenerationsofmenareperpetuallygoingoffthestage，whileothergenerationssucceed。Thenextgenerationwillnothavesomanyprejudicestosubdue。Supposeadespoticnationbysomerevolutioninitsaffairstobecomepossessedoftheadvantagesoffreedom。Thechildrenofthepresentracewillbebredinmorefirmandindependenthabitsofthinking；thesuppleness，thetimidity，andtheviciousdexterityoftheirfathers，willgiveplacetoanerectmienandaclearanddecisivejudgement。

Thepartialandimperfectchangeofcharacterwhichwasintroducedatfirstwillinthesucceedingagebecomemoreunalloyedandcomplete。

Lastly，thepowerofreasonableandjustideasinchangingthecharacterofnationsisinonerespectinfinitelygreaterthananypowerwhichcanbebroughttobearuponasolitaryindividual。Thecaseisnotofthatcustomarysort，wheretheforceoftheoryaloneistriedincuringanypersonofhiserrors；butisasifheshouldbeplacedinanentirelynewsituation。Hishabitsarebrokenthrough，andhismotivesofactionchanged。

Insteadofbeingperpetuallyrecalledtoviciouspracticesbytherecurrenceofhisformerconnections，thewholesocietyreceivesanimpulsefromthesamecausethatactsupontheindividual。Newideasaresuggested，andthelanguorandimbecilitywhichmightbeincidenttoeacharecounteractedbythespectacleofgeneralenthusiasmandconcert。

Butithasbeenfurtheralleged，“that，evenshouldaluxuriousnationbeinduced，byintolerablegrievances，andnotorioususurpation，toembracejustprinciplesofhumansociety，theywouldbeunabletoperpetuatethem，andwouldsoonbeledbackbytheirevilhabitstotheirformervicesandcorruption：“thatis，theywouldbecapableoftheheroicenergythatshouldexpeltheusurper，butnotofthemoderateresolutionthatshouldpreventhisreturn。Theywouldrousethemselvessofarfromtheirlethargyastoassumeanewcharacterandenterintodifferentviews；but，afterhavingforsometimeactedupontheirconvictions，theywouldsuddenlybecomeincapableofunderstandingthetruthoftheirprinciplesandfeelingtheirinfluence。

Menalwaysactupontheirapprehensionsofpreferableness。Therearefewerrorsofwhichtheyareguiltywhichmaynotberesolvedintoanarrowandinadequateviewofthealternativepresentedfortheirchoice。Presentpleasuremayappearmorecertainandeligiblethandistantgood。Buttheyneverchooseevilasapprehendedtobeevil。Whereveraclearandunanswerablenotionofanysubjectispresentedtotheirview，acorrespondentactionorcourseofactionsinevitablyfollows。Havingthusgainedonestepintheacquisitionoftruth，itcannoteasilybeconceivedaslost。Abodyofmen，havingdetectedtheinjuriousconsequencesofanevilunderwhichtheyhavelonglaboured，andhavingshakenitoff，willscarcelyvoluntarilyrestorethemischieftheyhaveannihilated。Norecollectionofpasterrorcanreasonablybesupposedtohavestrengthenoughtoleadback，intoabsurdityanduncompensatedsubjection，menwhohaveoncebeenthoroughlyawakenedtotheperceptionoftruth。

CHAPTERVIII

HUMANINVENTIONSSUSCEPTIBLEOFPERPETUALIMPROVEMENT

Beforeweproceedtothedirectsubjectofthepresentenquiry，itmaynotbeimpropertoresumethesubjectofhumanimprovableness，andconsideritinasomewhatgreaterdetail。Anopinionhasbeenextensivelyentertained“thatthedifferencesofthehumanspeciesindifferentagesandcountries，particularlysofarasrelatestomoralprinciplesofconduct，areextremelyinsignificantandtrifling；thatwearedeceivedinthisrespectbydistanceandconfoundedbyglare；butthatinrealitythevirtuesandvicesofmen，collectivelytaken，alwayshaveremained，andofconsequence。”itissaid，“alwayswillremain，nearlyatthesamepoint。”

Theerroneousnessofthisopinionwillperhapsbemorecompletelyexposed，byasummaryrecollectionoftheactualhistoryofourspecies，thanbytheclosestdeductionsofabstractreason。Wewillinthisplacesimplyremindthereaderofthegreatchangeswhichmanhasundergoneasanintellectualbeing，entitlingustoinfertheprobabilityofimprovementsnotlessessential，toberealizedinfuture。Theconclusiontobededucedfromthisdelineation，thathismoralimprovementswillinsomedegreekeeppacewithhisintellectual，andhisactionscorrespondwithhisopinions，mustdependforitsforceuponthetrainofreasoningwhichhasalreadybeenbroughtforwardunderthathead。(1*)

Letuscarrybackourmindstomaninhisoriginalstate，abeingcapableofimpressionsandknowledgetoanunboundedextent，butnothavingasyetreceivedtheoneorcultivatedtheother；letuscontrastthisbeingwithallthatscienceandgeniushaveeffected；andfromhencewemayformsomeideawhatitisofwhichhumannatureiscapable。Itistoberememberedthatthisbeingdidnot，asnow，deriveassistancefromthecommunicationsofhisfellows，norhadhisfeebleandcrudeconceptionsamendedbytheexperienceofsuccessivecenturies；butthatinthestatewearefiguringallmenwereequallyignorant。Thefieldofimprovementwasbeforethem~

butforeverystepinadvancetheyweretobeindebtedtotheiruntutoredefforts。Norisitofconsequencewhethersuchwasactuallytheprogressofmind，orwhether，asothersteach，theprogresswasabridged，andmanwasimmediatelyadvancedhalfwaytotheendofhiscareerbytheinterpositionoftheauthorofhisnature。Inanycaseitisanallowable，andwillbefoundnounimprovingspeculation，toconsidermindasitisinitself，andtoenquirewhatwouldhavebeenitshistoryif，immediatelyuponitsproduction，ithadbeenlefttobeacteduponbythoseordinarylawsoftheuniversewithwhoseoperationweareacquainted。

Oneoftheacquisitionsmostevidentlyrequisiteasapreliminarytoourpresentimprovementsisthatoflanguage。Butitisimpossibletoconceiveanacquisitionthatmusthavebeeninitsoriginmoredifferentfromwhatatpresentitisfound，orthatlesspromisedthatcopiousnessandrefinementithassinceexhibited。

Itsbeginningwasprobablyfromthoseinvoluntarycrieswhichinfants，forexample，arefoundtoutterintheearlieststagesoftheirexistence，andwhich，previouslytotheideaofexcitingpityorprocuringassistance，spontaneouslyarisefromtheoperationofpainuponouranimalframe。Thesecries，whenactuallyuttered，becomeasubjectofperceptiontohimbywhomtheyareuttered；and，beingobservedtobeconstantlyassociatedwithcertainantecedentimpressionsandtoexcitetheideaofthoseimpressionsinthehearer，mayafterwardsberepeatedfromreflectionandthedesireofrelief。Eagerdesiretocommunicateanyinformationtoanotherwillalsopromptustouttersomesimplesoundforthepurposeofexcitingattention：

thissoundwillprobablyfrequentlyrecurtoorgansunpractisedtovariety，andwillatlengthstandasitwerebyconventionfortheinformationintendedtobeconveyed。Butthedistanceisextremefromthesesimplemodesofcommunication，whichwepossessincommonwithsomeoftheinferioranimals，toalltheanalysisandabstractionwhichlanguagesrequire。

Abstractionindeed，though，asitiscommonlyunderstood，itbeoneofthesublimestoperationsofmind，isinsomesortcoevalwithandinseparablefromtheexistenceofmind。(2*)Thenextsteptosimpleperceptionisthatofcomparison，orthecouplingtogetheroftwoideasandtheperceptionoftheirresemblancesanddifferences。Withoutcomparisontherecanbenopreference，andwithoutpreferencenovoluntaryaction：thoughitmustbeacknowledged，thatthiscomparisonisanoperationwhichmaybeperformedbythemindwithoutadvertingtoitsnature，andthatneitherthebrutenorthesavagehasaconsciousnessoftheseveralstepsoftheintellectualprogress。Comparisonimmediatelyleadstoimperfectabstraction。Thesensationofto-dayisclassed，ifsimilar，withthesensationofyesterday，andaninferenceismaderespectingtheconducttobeadopted。Withoutthisdegreeofabstraction，thefaintdawningsoflanguagealreadydescribed，couldneverhaveexisted。Abstraction，whichwasnecessarytothefirstexistenceoflanguage，isagainassistedinitsoperationsbylanguage。

Thatgeneralization，whichisimpliedintheverynotionofathinkingbeing，beingthusembodiedandrenderedamatterofsensibleimpression，makesthemindacquaintedwithitsownpowers，andcreatesarestlessdesireafterfurtherprogress。

But，thoughitbebynomeansimpossibletotracethecausesthatconcurredtotheproductionoflanguage，andtoprovethemadequatetotheireffect，itdoesnotthelessappearthatthisisanacquisitionofslowgrowthandinestimablevalue。Theverysteps，werewetopursuethem，wouldappearlikeanendlesslabyrinth。Thedistanceisimmeasurablebetweenthethreeorfourvagueandinarticulatesoundsutteredbyanimals，andthecopiousnessoflexicographyortheregularityofgrammar。Thegeneralandspecialnamesbywhichthingsareatfirstcomplicatedandafterwardsdivided，thenamesbywhichpropertiesareseparatedfromtheirsubstances，andpowersfromboth，thecomprehensivedistributionofpartsofspeech，verbs，adjectivesandparticles，theinflectionsofwordsbywhichthechangeoftheirterminationschangestheirmeaningthroughavarietyofshadings，theirconcordsandtheirgovernments，allofthempresentuswithsuchaboundlesscatalogueofsciencethathewhoontheonehanddidnotknowthatthetaskhadbeenactuallyperformed，orwhoontheotherwasnotintimatelyacquaintedwiththeprogressivenatureofmind，wouldpronouncetheaccomplishmentofthemimpossible。

Asecondinvention，wellcalculatedtoimpressuswithasenseoftheprogressivenatureofman，isthatofalphabeticalwriting。Hieroglyphicalorpicture-writingappearsatsometimetohavebeenuniversal，andthedifficultyofconceivingthegradationfromthistoalphabeticalissogreatastohaveinducedHartley，oneofthemostacutephilosophicalwriters，tohaverecoursetomiraculousinterpositionastheonlyadequatesolution。

Inrealitynoproblemcanbeimaginedmoreoperosethanthatofdecomposingthesoundsofwordsintofourandtwentysimpleelementsorletters，andagainfindingtheseelementsinallotherwords。Whenwehaveexaminedthesubjectalittlemoreclosely，andperceivedthestepsbywhichthislabourwasaccomplished，perhapstheimmensityofthelabourwillrathergainuponus，ashethatshallhavecountedamillionofunitswillhaveavasterideauponthesubjectthanhethatonlyconsiderstheminthegross。

InChinahieroglyphicalwritinghasneverbeensupersededbyalphabetical，andthisfromtheverynatureoftheirlanguage，whichisconsiderablymonosyllabic，thesamesoundbeingmadetosignifyagreatvarietyofobjects，bymeansofcertainshadingsoftonetoodelicateforanalphabettorepresent。

Theyhavehowevertwokindsofwriting，oneforthelearned，andanotherforthevulgar。Thelearnedadherecloselytotheirhieroglyphicalwriting，representingeverywordbyitscorrespondingpicture；butthevulgararefrequentintheirdeviationsfromit。

Hieroglyphicalwritingandspeechmayindeedbeconsideredinthefirstinstanceastwolanguagesrunningparalleltoeachother，butwithnonecessaryconnection。Thepictureandtheword，eachofthem，representtheidea，oneasimmediatelyastheother。But，thoughindependent，theywillbecomeaccidentallyassociated；thepictureatfirstimperfectly，andafterwardsmoreconstantlysuggestingtheideaofitscorrespondentsound。ItisinthismannerthatthemercantileclassesofChinabegantocorrupt，asitisstyled，theirhieroglyphicalwriting。Theyhadawordsupposeoftwosyllablestowrite。Thecharacterappropriatetothatwordtheywerenotacquaintedwith，oritfailedtosuggestitselftotheirmemory。Eachofthesyllableshoweverwasadistinctwordinthelanguage，andthecharactersbelongingtothemperfectlyfamiliar。Theexpedientthatsuggesteditselfwastowritethesetwocharacterswithamarksignifyingtheirunion，thoughinrealitythecharactershadhithertobeenappropriatedtoideasofadifferentsort，whollyunconnectedwiththatnowintendedtobeconveyed。

Thusasortofrebusorcharadewasproduced。Inothercasestheword，thoughmonosyllabic，wascapableofbeingdividedintotwosounds，andthesameprocesswasemployed。Thisisafirststeptowardsalphabeticalanalysis。Someword，suchastheinterjectionO！ortheparticleA，isalreadyasoundperfectlysimple，andthusfurnishesafirststonetotheedifice。But，thoughtheseideasmayperhapspresentuswithafaintviewofthemannerinwhichanalphabetwasproduced，yettheactualproductionofacompletealphabetisperhapsofallhumandiscoveriesthatwhichrequiredthemostperseveringreflection，theluckiestconcurrenceofcircumstances，andthemostpatientandgradualprogress。

Letushoweversupposemantohavegainedthetwofirstelementsofknowledge，speakingandwriting；letustracehimthroughallhissubsequentimprovements，throughwhateverconstitutestheinequalitybetweenNewtonandtheploughman，andindeedmuchmorethanthis，sincethemostignorantploughmanincivilizedsocietyisinfinitelydifferentfromwhathewouldhavebeenwhenstrippedofallthebenefitshehasderivedfromliteratureandthearts。Letussurveytheearthcoveredwiththelaboursofman，houses，enclosures，harvests，manufactures，instruments，machines，togetherwithallthewondersofpainting，poetry，eloquenceandphilosophy。

Suchwasmaninhisoriginalstate，andsuchismanasweatpresentbeholdhim。Isitpossibleforustocontemplatewhathehasalreadydonewithoutbeingimpressedwithastrongpresentimentoftheimprovementshehasyettoaccomplish？Thereisnosciencethatisnotcapableofadditions；

thereisnoartthatmaynotbecarriedtoastillhigherperfection。Ifthisbetrueofallothersciences，whynotofmorals？Ifthisbetrueofallotherarts，whynotofsocialinstitution？Theveryconceptionofthisaspossibleisinthehighestdegreeencouraging。Ifwecanstillfurtherdemonstrateittobeapartofthenaturalandregularprogressofmind，ourconfidenceandourhopeswillthenbecomplete。Thisisthetemperwithwhichweoughttoengageinthestudyofpoliticaltruth。Letuslookback，thatwemayprofitbytheexperienceofmankind；butletusnotlookback，asifthewisdomofourancestorswassuch，astoleavenoroomforfutureimprovement。

NOTES：

1。ChapterV。

2。Thequestionwhetherornotthehumanmindiscapableofformingabstractideas，hasbeenthesubjectofmuchprofoundandseriousdisquisition。

Itiscertainthatwehaveageneralstandardofsomesort，inconsequenceofwhich，ifananimalispresentedtoourview，wecaninmostcasesdecidethatitis，orisnotahorse，aman，&amp；c。；norisittobeimaginedthatweshouldbeunabletoformsuchjudgements，evenifweweredeniedtheuseofspeech。

Itisacuriousfact，andonthataccountworthytobementionedinthisplace，thatthehumanmindisperhapsincapableofentertaininganybutgeneralideas。Take，forexample，awineglass。If，afterthisglassiswithdrawn，Ipresenttoyouanotherfromthesameset，youwillprobablybeunabletodeterminewhetheritisanotherorthesame。Itiswithalikeinattentionthatpeopleingeneralviewaflockofsheep。Theshepherdonlydistinguishesthefeaturesofeveryoneofhissheepfromthefeaturesofeveryother。Butitisimpossiblesotoindividualizeourremarksastocauseourideatobetrulyparticular，andnotspecial。Thustherearememorableinstancesofonemansonearlyresemblinganother，astobeabletopasshimselfuponthewifeandalltherelativesofthisman，asifhewerethesame。

Theoppositionwhichhasbeensoingeniouslymaintainedagainstthedoctrineofabstractideasseemschieflytohavearisenfromahabitofwingthetermidea，not，asLockehasdone，foreveryconceptionthatcanexistinthemind，butasconstantlydescriptiveofanimage，orpicture。

Thefollowingviewofthesubjectwillperhapsserveinsomedegreetoremoveanyambiguitythatmightcontinuetorestuponit。

Ideas，consideringthattermascomprehendingallperceptions，bothprimary，orofthesenses，andsecondary，orofthememory，maybedividedintofourclasses：1。perfect。Theexistenceofthesewehavedisproved。

2。imperfect，suchasthosewhichareproducedinusbyanearandcarefulinspectionofanyvisibleobject。3。imperfect，suchasthoseproducedbyaslightanddistantview。4。imperfect，soastohavenoresemblancetoanimageofanyexternalobject。Theperceptionproducedinusinslightandcurrentdiscoursebythewordsriver，field，areofthisnature；andhavenomoreresemblancetotheimageofanyvisibleobjectthantheperceptionordinarilyproducedinusbythewordsconquest，government，virtue。

ThesubjectofthislastclassofideasisveryingeniouslytreatedbyBurke，inhisEnquiryintotheSublime，PartV。Hehashowevercommittedonematerialerrorinthediscussion，byrepresentingtheseasinstancesoftheemploymentof“wordswithoutideas。”Ifwerecollectthatbruteshavesimilarabstractions，andageneralconception，ofthefemaleoftheirownspecies，ofman，offood，ofthesmartofawhip，&amp；c。，weshallprobablyadmitthatsuchperceptions(andinalleventstheyareperceptions，or，accordingtotheestablishedlanguageuponthesubject，ideas)arenotnecessarilyconnectedwiththeemploymentofwords。

PJ2BOOKII

PRINCIPALSOFSOCIETY

CHAPTERI

INTRODUCTION

Intheprecedingbookwehaveclearedthefoundationsfortheremainingbranchesofenquiry，andshownwhataretheprospectsitisreasonabletoentertainastofuturepoliticalimprovement。Theeffectswhichareproducedbypositiveinstitutionshavetherebeendelineated，aswellastheextentofthepowersofman，consideredinhissocialcapacity。Itistimethatweproceedtothosedisquisitionswhicharemoreimmediatelytheobjectofthepresentwork。

Politicalenquirymaybedistributedundertwoheads：first，whataretheregulationswhichwillconducetothewellbeingofmaninsociety；

and，secondly，whatistheauthoritywhichiscompetenttoprescriberegulations。

Theregulationstowhichtheconductofmenlivinginsocietyoughttobeconformedmaybeconsideredintwoways：first，thosemorallawswhichareenjoineduponusbythedictatesofenlightenedreason；and，secondly，thoseprinciplesadeviationfromwhichtheinterestofthecommunitymaybesupposedtorenderitpropertorepressbysanctionsandpunishment。

Moralityisthatsystemofconductwhichisdeterminedbyaconsiderationofthegreatestgeneralgood：heisentitledtothehighestmoralapprobationwhoseconductis，inthegreatestnumberofinstances，orinthemostmomentousinstances，governedbyviewsofbenevolence，andmadesubservienttopublicutility。Inlikemannertheonlyregulationswhichanypoliticalauthoritycanbejustlyentitledtoenforcearesuchasarebestadaptedtopublicutility。Consequently，justpoliticalregulationsarenothingmorethanacertainselectpartofmorallaw。Thesupremepowerinastateoughtnot，inthestrictestsense，torequireanythingofitsmembersthatanunderstandingsufficientlyenlightenedwouldnotprescribewithoutsuchinterference。(1*)

Theseconsiderationsseemtoleadtothedetectionofamistakewhichhasbeenverygenerallycommittedbypoliticalwritersofourowncountry。

TheyhaveforthemostpartconfinedtheirresearchestothequestionofWhatisajustpoliticalauthorityorthemosteligibleformofgovernment，consigningtoothersthedelineationofrightprinciplesofconductandequitableregulations。Butthereappearstobesomethingpreposterousinthismodeofproceeding。Awellconstitutedgovernmentisonlythemeansforenforcingsuitableregulations。Oneformofgovernmentispreferabletoanotherinexactproportiontothesecurityitaffordsthatnothingshallbedoneinthenameofthecommunitywhichisnotconducivetothewelfareofthewhole。Thequestiontherefore，Whatitiswhichisthusconducive，isuponeveryaccountentitledtothefirstplaceinourdisquisitions。

Oneoftheillconsequenceswhichhaveresultedfromthisdistortedviewofthescienceofpoliticsisanotionverygenerallyentertained，thatacommunity，orsocietyofmen，hasarighttolaydownwhateverrulesitmaythinkproperforitsownobservance。Thiswillpresentlybeprovedtobeanerroneousposition。(2*)Itmaybeprudentinanindividualtosubmitinsomecasestotheusurpationofamajority；itmaybeunavoidableinacommunitytoproceedupontheimperfectanderroneousviewstheyshallchancetoentertain：butthisisamisfortuneentaileduponusbythenatureofgovernment，andnotamatterofright。(3*)

Asecondillconsequencethathasarisenfromthisproceedingisthat，politicshavingbeenthusviolentlyseparatedfrommorality，governmentitselfhasnolongerbeencomparedwithitstruecriterion。Insteadofenquiringwhatspeciesofgovernmentwasmostconducivetothepublicwelfare，anunprofitabledisquisitionhasbeeninstitutedrespectingtheprobableoriginofgovernment；anditsdifferentformshavebeenestimated，notbytheconsequenceswithwhichtheywerepregnant，butthesourcefromwhichtheysprung。Hencemenhavebeenpromptedtolookbacktothefollyoftheirancestors，ratherthanforwardtothebenefitsderivablefromtheimprovementsofhumanknowledge。Hence，ininvestigatingtheirrights，theyhaverecurredlesstothegreatprinciplesofmoralitythantotherecordsandchartersofabarbarousage。Asifmenwerenotentitledtoallthebenefitsofthesocialstatetilltheycouldprovetheirinheritingthemfromsomebequestoftheirdistantprogenitors。Asifmenwerenotasjustifiableandmeritoriousinplantinglibertyinasoilinwhichithadneverexistedasinrestoringitwhereitcouldbeprovedonlytohavesufferedatemporarysuspension。

Thereasonshereassignedstronglytendtoevincethenecessityofestablishingthegenuineprinciplesofsociety，beforeweenteruponthedirectconsiderationofgovernment。Itmaybeproperinthisplacetostatethefundamentaldistinctionwhichexistsbetweenthesetopicsofenquiry。Manassociatedatfirstforthesakeofmutualassistance。Theydidnotforeseethatanyrestraintwouldbenecessarytoregulatetheconductofindividualmembersofthesocietytowardseachother，ortowardsthewhole。Thenecessityofrestraintgrewoutoftheerrorsandperversenessofafew。Anacutewriterhasexpressedthisideawithpeculiarfelicity“Societyandgovernment。”

sayshe，“aredifferentinthemselves，andhavedifferentorigins。Societyisproducedbyourwants，andgovernmentbyourwickedness。Societyisineverystateablessing；governmenteveninitsbeststatebutanecessaryevil。”(4*)

NOTES：

1。ChapterV，ofthefollowingBook。

2。ChapterV，ofthisBook。

3。ChapterV。

4。Paine’sCommonSense，p。1。

CHAPTERII

OFJUSTICE

Fromwhathasbeensaiditappears，thatthesubjectofourpresentenquiryisstrictlyspeakingadepartmentofthescienceofmorals。Moralityisthesourcefromwhichitsfundamentalaxiomsmustbedrawn，andtheywillbemadesomewhatclearerinthepresentinstance，ifweassumethetermjusticeasageneralappellationforallmoralduty。

Thatthisappellationissufficientlyexpressiveofthesubjectwillappear，ifweexaminemercy，gratitude，temperance，oranyofthosedutieswhich，inlooserspeaking，arecontradistinguishedfromjustice。WhyshouldIpardonthiscriminal，remuneratethisfavour，orabstainfromthisindulgence？

Ifitpartakeofthenatureofmorality，itmustbeeitherrightorwrong，justorunjust。Itmusttendtothebenefitoftheindividual，eitherwithouttrenchingupon，orwithactualadvantagetothemassofindividuals。Eitherwayitbenefitsthewhole，becauseindividualsarepartsofthewhole。

Thereforetodoitisjust，andtoforbearitisunjust——ByjusticeIunderstandthatimpartialtreatmentofeverymaninmattersthatrelatetohishappiness，whichismeasuredsolelybyaconsiderationofthepropertiesofthereceiver，andthecapacityofhimthatbestows。Itsprinciplethereforeis，accordingtoawellknownphrase，tobe“norespecterofpersons。”

Considerablelightwillprobablybethrownuponourinvestigation，if，quittingforthepresentthepoliticalview，weexaminejusticemerelyasitexistsamongindividuals。Justiceisaruleofconductoriginatingintheconnectionofonepercipientbeingwithanother。Acomprehensivemaximwhichhasbeenlaiddownuponthesubjectis“thatweshouldloveourneighbourasourselves。”Butthismaxim，thoughpossessingconsiderablemeritasapopularprinciple，isnotmodeledwiththestrictnessofphilosophicalaccuracy。

InalooseandgeneralviewIandmyneighbourarebothofusmen；andofconsequenceentitledtoequalattention。But，inreality，itisprobablethatoneofusisabeingofmoreworthandimportancethantheother。

Amanisofmoreworththanabeast；because，beingpossessedofhigherfaculties，heiscapableofamorerefinedandgenuinehappiness。InthesamemannertheillustriousarchbishopofCambraywasofmoreworththanhisvalet，andtherearefewofusthatwouldhesitatetopronounce，ifhispalacewereinflames，andthelifeofonlyoneofthemcouldbepreserved，whichofthetwooughttobepreferred。

Butthereisanothergroundofpreference，besidetheprivateconsiderationofoneofthembeingfurtherremovedfromthestateofamereanimal。Wearenotconnectedwithoneortwopercipientbeings，butwithasociety，anation，andinsomesensewiththewholefamilyofmankind。Ofconsequencethatlifeoughttobepreferredwhichwillbemostconducivetothegeneralgood。InsavingthelifeofFenelon，supposeatthemomentheconceivedtheprojectofhisimmortalTelemachus，shouldhavebeenpromotingthebenefitofthousands，whohavebeencuredbytheperusalofthatworkofsomeerror，viceandconsequentunhappiness。Nay，mybenefitwouldextendfurtherthanthis；foreveryindividual，thuscured，hasbecomeabettermemberofsociety，andhascontributedinhisturntothehappiness，information，andimprovementofothers。

SupposeIhadbeenmyselfthevalet；Ioughttohavechosentodie，ratherthanFenelonshouldhavedied。ThelifeofFenelonwasreallypreferabletothatofthevalet。Butunderstandingisthefacultythatperceivesthetruthofthisandsimilarpropositions；andjusticeistheprinciplethatregulatesmyconductaccordingly。Itwouldhavebeenjustinthevalettohavepreferredthearchbishoptohimself。Tohavedoneotherwisewouldhavebeenabreachofjustice。(1*)

Supposethevalethadbeenmybrother，myfather，ormybenefactor。

Thiswouldnotalterthetruthoftheproposition。ThelifeofFenelonwouldstillbemorevaluablethanthatofthevalet；andjustice，pure，unadulteratedjustice，wouldstillhavepreferredthatwhichwasmostvaluable。

JusticewouldhavetaughtmetosavethelifeofFenelonattheexpenseoftheother。Whatmagicisthereinthepronoun“my。”thatshouldjustifyusinoverturningthedecisionsofimpartialtruth？Mybrotherormyfathermaybeafooloraprofligate，malicious，lyingordishonest。Iftheybe，ofwhatconsequenceisitthattheyaremine？

“ButtomyfatherIamindebtedforexistence；hesupportedmeinthehelplessnessofinfancy。”Whenhefirstsubjectedhimselftothenecessityofthesecares，hewasprobablyinfluencedbynoparticularmotivesofbenevolencetohisfutureoffspring。Everyvoluntarybenefithoweverentitlesthebestowertosomekindnessandretribution。Why？Becauseavoluntarybenefitisanevidenceofbenevolentintention，thatis，inacertaindegree，ofvirtue。Itisthedispositionofthemind，nottheexternalactionseparatelytaken，thatentitlestorespect。Butthemeritofthisdispositionisequal，whetherthebenefitwereconferreduponmeoruponanother。Iandanothermancannotbothberightinpreferringourrespectivebenefactors，formybenefactorcannotbeatthesametimebothbetterandworsethanhisneighbour。Mybenefactoroughttobeesteemed，notbecausehebestowedabenefituponme，butbecausehebestowedituponahumanbeing。Hisdesertwillbeinexactproportiontothedegreeinwhichthathumanbeingwasworthyofthedistinctionconferred。

Thuseveryviewofthesubjectbringsusbacktotheconsiderationofmyneighbour’smoralworth，andhisimportancetothegeneralweal，astheonlystandardtodeterminethetreatmenttowhichheisentitled。Gratitudetherefore，ifbygratitudeweunderstandasentimentofpreferencewhichIentertaintowardsanother，uponthegroundofmyhavingbeenthesubjectofhisbenefits，isnoparteitherofjusticeorvirtue。(2*)

Itmaybeobjected，“thatmyrelation，mycompanion，ormybenefactor，willofcourseinmanyinstancesobtainanuncommonportionofmyregard：

for，notbeinguniversallycapableofdiscriminatingthecomparativeworthofdifferentmen，IshallinevitablyjudgemostfavourablyofhimofwhosevirtuesIhavereceivedthemostunquestionableproofs；andthusshallbecompelledtopreferthemanofmoralworthwhomIknow，toanotherwhomaypossess，unknowntome，anessentialsuperiority。”

Thiscompulsionhoweverisfoundedonlyintheimperfectionofhumannature。Itmayserveasanapologyformyerror，butcanneverchangeerrorintotruth。Itwillalwaysremaincontrarytothestrictanduniversaldecisionsofjustice。Thedifficultyofconceivingthis，isowingmerelytoourconfoundingthedispositionfromwhichanactionischosen，withtheactionitself。Thedispositionthatwouldprefervirtuetovice，andagreaterdegreeofvirtuetoaless，isundoubtedlyasubjectofapprobation；

theerroneousexerciseofthisdisposition，bywhichawrongobjectisselected，ifunavoidable，istobedeplored，butcanbynocolouringandundernodenominationbeconvertedintoright。(3*)

Itmayinthesecondplacebeobjected，“thatamutualcommerceofbenefitstendstoincreasethemassofbenevolentaction，andthattoincreasethemassofbenevolentactionistocontributetothegeneralgood。”Indeed！

Isthegeneralgoodpromotedbyfalsehood，bytreatingamanofonedegreeofworthasifhehadtentimesthatworth？orasifhewereinanydegreedifferentfromwhathereallyis？Wouldnotthemostbeneficialconsequencesresultfromadifferentplan；frommyconstantlyandcarefullyenquiringintothedesertsofallthosewithwhomIamconnected，andfromtheirbeingsure，afteracertainallowanceforthefallibilityofhumanjudgement，ofbeingtreatedbymeexactlyastheydeserved？Whocandescribethebenefitsthatwouldresultfromsuchaplanofconduct，ifuniversallyadopted？

Itwouldperhapstendtomakethetruthinthisrespectmoreaccuratelyunderstoodtoconsiderthat，whereasthereceivedmoralityteachesmetobegrateful，whetherinaffectionorinact，forbenefitsconferredonmyself，thereasoningsheredelivered，withoutremovingthetieuponmefrompersonalbenefits(exceptwherebenefitisconferredfromanunworthymotive)，multiplytheobligation，andenjoinmetobealsogratefulforbenefitsconferreduponothers。Myobligationtowardsmybenefactor，supposinghisbenefittobejustlyconferred，isinnosortdissolved；norcananythingauthorizemetosupersedeitbuttherequisitionofasuperiorduty。Thatwhichtiesmetomybenefactor，upontheseprinciples，isthemoralworthhehasdisplayed；anditwillfrequentlyhappenthatIshallbeobligedtoyieldhimthepreference，because，whileothercompetitorsmaybeofgreaterworth，theevidenceIhaveoftheworthofmybenefactorismorecomplete。

Thereseemstobemoretruthintheargument，derivedchieflyfromtheprevailingmodesofsocialexistence，infavourofmyproviding，inordinarycases，formywifeandchildren，mybrothersandrelations，beforeIprovideforstrangers，thaninthosewhichhavejustbeenexamined。Aslongastheprovidingforindividualsisconductedwithitspresentirregularityandcaprice，itseemsasiftheremustbeacertaindistributionoftheclassneedingsuperintendenceandsupply，amongtheclassaffordingit；

thateachmanmayhavehisclaimandresource。Butthisargumentistobeadmittedwithgreatcaution。Itbelongsonlytoordinarycases；andcasesofahigherorder，oramoreurgentnecessity，willperpetuallyoccurincompetitionwithwhichthesewillbealtogetherimpotent。Wemustbeseverelyscrupulousinmeasuringthequantityofsupply；and，withrespecttomoneyinparticular，shouldrememberhowlittleisyetunderstoodofthetruemodeofemployingitforthepublicbenefit。

Nothingcanbelessexposedtoreasonableexceptionthantheseprinciples。

Iftherebesuchathingasvirtue，itmustbeplacedinaconformitytotruth，andnottoerror。ItcannotbevirtuousthatIshouldesteemaman，thatis，considerhimaspossessedofestimablequalities，wheninrealityheisdestituteofthem。ItsurelycannotconducetothebenefitofmankindthateachmanshouldhaveadifferentstandardofmoralJudgement，andpreference，andthatthestandardofallshouldvaryfromthatofreality。

Thosewhoteachthisimposethedeepestdisgraceuponvirtue。Theyassertinotherwordsthat，whenmenceasetobedeceived，whenthefilmisremovedfromtheireyes，andtheyseethingsastheyare，theywillceasetobeeithergoodorhappy。Uponthesystemoppositetotheirs，thesoundestcriterionofvirtueistoputourselvesintheplaceofanimpartialspectator，ofanangelicnature，suppose，beholdingusfromanelevatedstation，anduninfluencedbyourprejudices，conceivingwhatwouldbehisestimateoftheintrinsiccircumstancesofourneighbour，andactingaccordingly。

Havingconsideredthepersonswithwhomjusticeisconversant，letusnextenquireintothedegreeinwhichweareobligedtoconsultthegoodofothers。Andhere，upontheverysamereasons，itwillfollowthatitisjustIshoulddoallthegoodinmypower。Doesapersonindistressapplytomeforrelief？Itismydutytograntit，andIcommitabreachofdutyinrefusing。Ifthisprinciplebenotofuniversalapplication，itisbecause，inconferringabenefituponanindividual，Imayinsomeinstancesinflictaninjuryofsuperiormagnitudeuponmyselforsociety。

Nowthesamejusticethatbindsmetoanyindividualofmyfellowmenbindsmetothewhole。If，whileIconferabenefitupononeman，itappear，instrikinganequitablebalance，thatIaminjuringthewhole，myactionceasestoberight，andbecomesabsolutelywrong。ButhowmuchamIboundtodoforthegeneralweal，thatis，forthebenefitoftheindividualsofwhomthewholeiscomposed？Everythinginmypower。Totheneglectofthemeansofmyownexistence？No；forIammyselfapartofthewhole。

Beside，itwillrarelyhappenthattheprojectofdoingforotherseverythinginmypowerwillnotdemandforitsexecutionthepreservationofmyownexistence；orinotherwords，itwillrarelyhappenthatIcannotdomoregoodintwentyyearsthaninone。IftheextraordinarycaseshouldoccurinwhichIcanpromotethegeneralgoodbymydeathmorethanbymylife，justicerequiresthatIshouldbecontenttodie。Inothercases，itwillusuallybeincumbentonmetomaintainmybodyandmindintheutmostvigour，andinthebestconditionforservice。(4*)

Suppose，forexample，thatitisrightforonemantopossessagreaterportionofpropertythananother，whetherasthefruitofhisindustry，ortheinheritanceofhisancestors。Justiceobligeshimtoregardthispropertyasatrust，andcallsuponhimmaturelytoconsiderinwhatmanneritmaybeemployedfortheincreaseofliberty，knowledgeandvirtue。Hehasnorighttodisposeofashillingofitatthesuggestionofhiscaprice。

Sofarfrombeingentitledtowellearnedapplause，forhavingemployedsomescantypittanceintheserviceofphilanthropy，heisintheeyeofjusticeadelinquentifhewithholdanyportionfromthatservice。Couldthatportionhavebeenbetterormoreworthilyemployed？Thatitcouldisimpliedintheverytermsoftheproposition。Thenitwasjustitshouldhavebeensoemployed——Inthesamemannerasmyproperty，Iholdmypersonasatrustinbehalfofmankind。Iamboundtoemploymytalents，myunderstanding，mystrengthandmytime，fortheproductionofthegreatestquantityofgeneralgood。Sucharethedeclarationsofjustice，sogreatistheextentofmyduty。

Butjusticeisreciprocal。IfitbejustthatIshouldconferabenefit，itisjustthatanothermanshouldreceiveit，and，ifIwithholdfromhimthattowhichheisentitled，hemayjustlycomplain。MyneighbourisinwantoftenpoundsthatIcanspareThereisnolawofpoliticalinstitutiontoreachthiscase，andtransferthepropertyfrommetohim。

Butinapassivesense，unlessitcanbeshownthatthemoneycanbemorebeneficentlyemployed，hisrightisascomplete(thoughactivelyhehavenotthesameright，orratherduty，topossesshimselfofit)asifhehadmybondinhispossession，orhadsuppliedmewithgoodstotheamount。(5*)

Tothisithassometimesbeenanswered“thatthereismorethanonepersonwhostandsinneedofthemoneyIhavetospare，andofconsequenceImustbeatlibertytobestowitasIplease。”Bynomeans。Ifonlyonepersonofferhimselftomyknowledgeorsearch，tomethereisbutone。

ThoseothersthatIcannotfindbelongtootherrichmentoassist(everymanisinrealityrichwhohasmorethanhisjustoccasionsdemand)，andnottome。Ifmorethanonepersonoffer，Iamobligedtobalancetheirclaims，andconductmyselfaccordingly。Itisscarcelypossiblethattwomenshouldhaveanexactlyequalclaim，orthatIshouldbeequallycertainrespectingtheclaimoftheoneasoftheother。

Itisthereforeimpossibleformetoconferuponanymanafavour；I

canonlydohimright。Whateverdeviatesfromthelawofjustice，thoughitshouldbedoneinthefavourofsomeindividualorsomepartofthegeneralwhole，issomuchsubtractedfromthegeneralstock，somuchofabsoluteinjustice。

Thereasoningsherealleged，aresufficientclearlytoestablishthecompetenceofjusticeasaprincipleofdeductioninallcasesofmoralenquiry。Theyarethemselvesratherofthenatureofillustrationandexample，and，iferrorbeimputabletotheminparticulars，thiswillnotinvalidatethegeneralconclusion，theproprietyofapplyingmoraljusticeasacriterionintheinvestigationofpoliticaltruth。

Societyisnothingmorethananaggregationofindividuals。Itsclaimsanddutiesmustbetheaggregateoftheirclaimsandduties，theonenomoreprecariousandarbitrarythantheother。Whathasthesocietyarighttorequirefromme？Thequestionisalreadyanswered：everythingthatitismydutytodo。Anythingmore？Certainlynot。Canitchangeeternaltruth，orsubvertthenatureofmenandtheiractions？Canitmakemydutyconsistincommittingintemperance，inmaltreatingorassassinatingmyneighbour？——

Again，whatisitthatthesocietyisboundtodoforitsmembers？Everythingthatisrequisitefortheirwelfare。Butthenatureoftheirwelfareisdefinedbythenatureofmind。Thatwillmostcontributetoitwhichexpandstheunderstanding，suppliesincitementstovirtue，fillsuswithagenerousconsciousnessofourindependence，andcarefullyremoveswhatevercanimpedeourexertions。

Shoulditbeaffirmed，“thatitisnotinthepowerofpoliticalsystemtosecuretoustheseadvantages。”theconclusionwillnotbelessincontrovertible。

Itisboundtocontributeeverythingitisabletothesepurposes。Supposeitsinfluenceintheutmostdegreelimited；theremustbeonemethodapproachingnearerthananyothertothedesiredobject，andthatmethodoughttobeuniversallyadopted。Thereisonethingthatpoliticalinstitutionscanassuredlydo，theycanavoidpositivelycounteractingthetrueinterestsoftheirsubjects。Butallcapriciousrulesandarbitrarydistinctionsdopositivelycounteractthem。Thereisscarcelyanymodificationofsocietybuthasinitsomedegreeofmoraltendency。Sofarasitproducesneithermischiefnorbenefit，itisgoodfornothing。Sofarasittendstotheimprovementofthecommunity，itoughttobeuniversallyadopted。

NOTES

1。Thequestionhowfarimpartialjusticeisamotivecapableofoperatinguponthemindwillbefoundexaminedatlength，BookIV，ChapterX。

2。ThisargumentisstatedwithgreatclearnessinanEssayontheNatureofTrueVirtue，byJonathanEdwards，authorofacelebratedworkontheFreedomoftheWill。

3。ChapterIV。

4。Appendix。No。1。OfSuicide。

5。ChapterV。

AppendixI。

OFSUICIDE

Thisreasoningwillthrowsomelightuponthelongdisputedcaseofsuicide。“HaveIarighttodestroymyselfinordertoescapefrompainordistress？“Circumstancesthatshouldjustifysuchanaction，canrarelyoccur。Therearefewsituationsthatcanexcludethepossibilityoffuturelife，vigour，andusefulness。Itwillfrequentlyhappenthattheman，whooncesawnothingbeforehimbutdespair，shallafterwardsenjoyalongperiodofhappinessandhonour。Inthemeantimethepowerofterminatingourownlives，isoneofthefacultieswithwhichweareendowed；andtherefore，likeeveryotherfaculty，isasubjectofmoraldiscipline。Incommonwitheverybranchofmorality，itisatopicofcalculation，astothebalanceofgoodandeviltoresultfromitsemploymentinanyindividualinstance。

Weshouldhoweverbescrupulouslyuponourguardagainstthedeceptionsthatmelancholyandimpatiencearesowellcalculatedtoimpose。Weshouldconsiderthat，thoughthepaintobesufferedbyourselvesisbynomeanstobeoverlooked，wearebutone，andthepersonsnearlyorremotelyinterestedinourpossibleusefulnessinnumerable。Eachmanisbutthepartofagreatsystem，andallthathehasissomuchwealthtobeputtotheaccountofthegeneralstock。

Thereisanothercaseofsuicideofmoredifficultestimation。WhatshallwethinkofthereasoningofLycurgus，who，whenhedetermineduponavoluntarydeath，remarked“thatallthefacultiesarationalbeingpossessedwerecapableofbeingbenevolentlyemployed，andthat，afterhavingspenthislifeintheserviceofhiscountry，amanought，ifpossible，torenderhisdeathasourceofadditionalbenefit？“ThiswasthemotiveofthesuicideofCodrus，LeonidasandDecius。IfthesamemotiveprevailedinthemuchadmiredsuicideofCato，andhewereinstigatedbyreasonspurelybenevolent，itisimpossiblenottoapplaudhisintention，evenifheweremistakenintheapplication。Thedifficultyistodecidewhetherinanyinstancetherecoursetoavoluntarydeathcanoverbalancetheusefulnesstobedisplayed，intwentyyearsofadditionallife。

Additionalimportancewillbereflecteduponthisdisquisitionifwerememberthatmartyrs(martures)aresuicidesbytheverysignificationoftheterm。Theydieforatestimony(martution)。Butthatwouldbeimpossibleiftheirdeathwerenottoacertaindegreeavoluntaryaction。Wemustassumethatitwaspossibleforthemtoavoidthisfate，beforewecandrawanyconclusionfromitinfavourofthecausetheyespoused。Theyweredeterminedtodie，ratherthanreflectdishonouronthatcause。

AppendixII

OFDUELLING

Itmaybeproperinthisplacetobestowamoment’sconsiderationuponthetritebutveryimportantcaseofduelling。Ashortreflectionwillsufficetosetitinitstruelight。

Thisdespicablepracticewasoriginallyinventedbybarbariansforthegratificationofrevenge。Itwasprobablyatthattimethoughtaveryhappyproject，forreconcilingtheodiousnessofmalignitywiththegallantryofcourage。

Butinthislightitisnowgenerallygivenup。Menofthebestunderstandingwholendittheirsanctionareunwillinglyinducedtodoso，andengageinsinglecombatmerelythattheirreputationmaysustainnoslander。

Inexaminingthissubjectwemustproceedupononeoftwosuppositions。

Eitherthelivesofboththepersonstobehazardedareworthless，ortheyarenot。Inthelattercase，thequestionanswersitself，andcannotstandinneedofdiscussion。Usefullivesarenottobehazarded，fromaviewtothepartialandcontemptibleobloquythatmaybeannexedtotherefusalofsuchaduel，thatis，toanactofvirtue。

Whentheduellisttellsmethatheandthepersonthathasoffendedhimareofnopossibleworthtothecommunity，Imayreasonablyconcludethathetalksthelanguageofspleen。But，ifItakehimathisword，isittobeadmitted，thoughhecannotbenefitthecommunity，thatheshouldinjureit？Whatwouldbetheconsequenceifweallowedourselvestoassaileveryonethatwethoughtworthlessintheworld？Inreality，whenhetalksthislanguage，hedesertsthegroundofvindicatinghisinjuredhonour，andshowsthathisconductisthatofavindictiveandbrutalizedsavage。

“Buttherefusingaduelisanambiguousaction。Cowardsmaypretendprincipletoshelterthemselvesfromadangertheydarenotmeet。”

Thisispartlytrueandpartlyfalse。Therearefewactionsindeedthatarenotambiguous，orthatwiththesamegeneraloutlinemaynotproceedfromdifferentmotives。Butthemannerofdoingthemwillsufficientlyshowtheprinciplefromwhichtheyspring。

He，thatwouldbreakthroughareceivedcustombecausehebelievesittobewrong，mustnodoubtarmhimselfwithfortitude。Thepointinwhichweprincipallyfail，isinnotaccuratelyunderstandingourownintentions，andtakingcarebeforehandtopurifyourselvesfromeveryalloyofweaknessanderror。He，whocomesforwardwithnootherideabutthatofrectitude，andwhoexpresses，withthesimplicityandfirmnesswhichconvictionneverfailstoinspire，theviewswithwhichheispenetrated，isinnodangerofbeingmistakenforacoward。Ifhehesitate，itisbecausehehasnotanideaperfectlyclearofthesentimentheintendstoconvey。Ifhebeinanydegreeembarrassed，itisbecausehehasnotafeelingsufficientlygenerousandintrepidofthedemeritoftheactioninwhichheisurgedtoengage。

Ifcouragehaveanyintelligiblenature，oneofitsprincipalfruitsmustbethedaringtospeaktruthatalltimes，toallpersons，andineverypossiblesituationinwhichawellinformedsenseofdutymayprescribeit。Whatisitbutthewantofcouragethatshouldpreventmefromsaying，“Sir，Iwillnotacceptyourchallenge。HaveIinjuredyou？Iwillreadilyandwithoutcompulsionrepairmyinjusticetotheuttermostmite。Haveyoumisconstruedme？Statetometheparticulars，anddoubtnotthatwhatistrueIwillmakeappeartobetrue。IshouldbeanotoriouscriminalwereItoattemptyourlife，orassistyouinanattemptuponmine。Whatcompensationwilltheopinionoftheworldmakefortherecollectionofsovileandbrutalaproceeding？Thereisnotrueapplausebutwheretheheartofhimthatreceivesitbeatsinunison。Thereisnocensureterriblewhiletheheartrepelsitwithconsciousintegrity。IamnotthecowardtodoadeedthatmysouldetestsbecauseIcannotendurethescoffsofthemistaken。Lossofreputationisaseriousevil。ButIwillactsothatnomanshallsuspectmeofirresolutionandpusillanimity。”Hethatshouldfirmlyholdthislanguage，andactaccordingly，wouldsoonbeacquittedofeverydishonourableimputation。

CHAPTERIII

OFTHEEQUALITYOFMANKIND

Theprinciplesofjustice，asexplainedintheprecedingchapter，proceedupontheassumptionoftheequalityofmankind。Thisequalityiseitherphysicalormoral。Physicalequalitymaybeconsideredeitherasitrelatestothestrengthofthebodyorthefacultiesofthemind。

Thispartofthesubjecthasbeenexposedtocavilandobjection。Ithasbeensaid“thatthereverseofthisequalityistheresultofourexperience。

Amongtheindividualsofourspecies，weactuallyfindthattherearenottwoalike。Onemanisstrong，andanotherweak。Onemaniswise，andanotherfoolish。Allthatexistsintheworldoftheinequalityofconditionsistobetracedtothisastheirsource。Thestrongmanpossessespowertosubdue，andtheweakstandsinneedofanallytoprotect。Theconsequenceisinevitable：theequalityofconditionsisachimericalassumption，neitherpossibletobereducedintopractice，nordesirableifitcouldbesoreduced。”

Uponthisstatementtwoobservationsaretobemade。First，thisinequalitywasinitsorigininfinitelylessthanitisatpresent。Intheuncultivatedstateofman，diseases，effeminacyandluxurywerelittleknown；and，ofconsequence，thestrengthofeveryonemuchmorenearlyapproachedtothestrengthofhisneighbour。Intheuncultivatedstateofman，theunderstandingsofallwerelimited，theirwants，theirideasandtheirviewsnearlyuponalevel。Itwastobeexpectedthat，intheirfirstdeparturefromthisstate，greatirregularitieswouldintroducethemselves；anditistheobjectofsubsequentwisdomandimprovementtomitigatetheseirregularities。

Secondly，Notwithstandingtheencroachmentsthathavebeenmadeupontheequalityofmankind，agreatandsubstantialequalityremains。Thereisnosuchdisparityamongthehumanraceastoenableonemantoholdseveralothermeninsubjection，exceptsofarastheyarewillingtobesubject。Allgovernmentisfoundedinopinion。Menatpresentliveunderanyparticularformbecausetheyconceiveittheirinteresttodoso。Onepartindeedofacommunityorempiremaybeheldinsubjectionbyforce；

butthiscannotbethepersonalforceoftheirdespot；itmustbetheforceofanotherpartofthecommunity，whoareofopinionthatitistheirinteresttosupporthisauthority。Destroythisopinion，andthefabricwhichisbuiltuponitfallstotheground。Itfollowsthereforethatallmenareessentiallyindependent——Somuchforthephysicalequality。

Themoralequalityisstilllessopentoreasonableexception。BymoralequalityIunderstand，theproprietyofapplyingoneunalterableruleofjusticetoeverycasethatmayarise。Thiscannotbequestioned，butuponargumentsthatwouldsubverttheverynatureofvirtue。“Equality。”ithasbeenaffirmed，“willalwaysbeanunintelligiblefiction，solongasthecapacitiesofmenshallbeunequal，andtheirpretendedclaimshaveneitherguaranteenorsanctionbywhichtheycanbeenforced。”(1*)Butsurelyjusticeissufficientlyintelligibleinitsownnature，abstractedlyfromtheconsiderationwhetheritbeorbenotreducedintopractice。Justicehasrelationtobeingsendowedwithperception，andcapableofpleasureandpain。Nowitimmediatelyresultsfromthenatureofsuchbeings，independentlyofanyarbitraryconstitution，thatpleasureisagreeableandpainodious，pleasuretobedesiredandpaintobedisapproved。Itisthereforejustandreasonablethatsuchbeingsshouldcontribute，sofarasitliesintheirpower，tothepleasureandbenefitofeachother。Amongpleasures，somearemoreexquisite，moreunalloyedandlessprecariousthanothers。

Itisjustthattheseshouldbepreferred。

Fromthesesimpleprincipleswemaydeducethemoralequalityofmankind。

Wearepartakersofacommonnature，andthesamecausesthatcontributetothebenefitofonewillcontributetothebenefitofanother。Oursensesandfacultiesareofthesamedenomination。Ourpleasuresandpainswillthereforebealike。Weareallofusendowedwithreason，abletocompare，tojudgeandtoinfer。Theimprovementthereforewhichistobedesiredforoneistobedesiredforanother。Weshallbeprovidentforourselves，andusefultoeachotherinproportionasweriseabovethesphereofprejudice。

Thesameindependence，thesamefreedomfromanysuchrestraint，asshouldpreventusfromgivingthereinstoourownunderstanding，orfromuttering，uponalloccasions，whateverwethinktobetrue，willconducetotheimprovementofall。Therearecertainopportunitiesandacertainsituationmostadvantageoustoeveryhumanbeing，anditisjustthattheseshouldbecommunicatedtoall，asnearlyasthegeneraleconomywillpermit。

Thereisindeedonespeciesofmoralinequality，paralleltothephysicalinequalitythathasbeenalreadydescribed。Thetreatmenttowhichmenareentitledistobemeasuredbytheirmeritsandtheirvirtues。Thatcountrywouldnotbetheseatofwisdomandreasonwherethebenefactorofhisspecieswasregardedwithnogreaterdegreeofcomplacencethantheirenemy。Butinrealitythisdistinction，sofarfrombeingadversetoequalityinanytenablesense，isfriendlytoit，andisaccordinglyknownbytheappellationofequity，atermderivedfromthesameorigin。

Thoughinsomesenseallexception，ittendstothesamepurposetowhichtheprincipleitselfisindebtedforitsvalue。Itiscalculatedloinfuseintoeverybosomanemulationofexcellence。Thethingreallylobedesiredistheremovingasmuchaspossiblearbitrarydistinctions，andleavingtotalentsandvirtuethefieldofexertionunimpaired。Weshouldendeavourtoaffordtoallthesameopportunitiesandthesameencouragement，andtorenderjusticethecommoninterestandchoice。

Itshouldbeobservedthattheobjectofthischapterisbarelytopresentageneraloutlineoftheprincipleofequality。Thepracticalinferencesthatflowfromitmustremaintobedetailedundersubsequentheadsofenquiry。

NOTES：

1。“Onadit-quenousavionstouslesm&ecirc；mesdroits。J’ignorecequec’estruelesm&ecirc；mesdroits，o&ugrave；ilyain&eacute；galit&eacute；

detalensoudeforce，etnullegarantie，nullesanction。”Raynal，Revolutiond’Am&eacute；rique，p。34。

CHAPTERIV

OFPERSONALVIRTUEANDDUTY

Therearetwosubjects，oftheutmostimportancetoajustdelineationoftheprinciplesofsociety，whichare，onthataccount，entitledtoaseparateexamination：thedutiesincumbentonmenlivinginsociety，andtherightsaccruingtothem。Thesearemerelydifferentmodesofexpressingtheprincipleofjustice，asitshallhappentobeconsideredinitsrelationtotheagentorthepatient。DutyisthetreatmentIamboundtobestowuponothers；rightisthetreatmentIamentitledtoexpectfromthem。

Thiswillmorefullyappearinthesequel。

First，ofpersonalvirtueandduty。

Virtue，likeeveryothertermofgeneralscience，maybeunderstoodeitherabsolutely，orasthequalificationandattributeofaparticularbeing：inotherwords，itisonethingtoenquirewhetheranactionisvirtuous，andanothertoenquirewhetheramanisvirtuous。Theformerofthesequestionsisconsiderablysimple；thelatterismorecomplex，andwillrequireanexaminationofseveralcircumstancesbeforeitcanbesatisfactorilydetermined。

InthefirstsenseIwoulddefinevirtuetobeanyactionoractionsofanintelligentbeingproceedingfromkindandbenevolentintention，andhavingatendencytocontributetogeneralhappiness。Thusdefined，itdistributesitselfundertwoheads；and，inwhateverinstanceeitherthetendencyortheintentioniswanting，thevirtueisincomplete。Anaction，howeverpuremaybetheintentionoftheagent，thetendencyofwhichismischievous，orwhichshallmerelybenugatoryanduselessinitscharacter，isnotavirtuousaction。Wereitotherwise，weshouldbeobligedtoconcedetheappellationofvirtuetothemostnefariousdeedsofbigots，persecutorsandreligiousassassins，andtotheweakestobservancesofadeludedsuperstition。Stilllessdoesanaction，theconsequencesofwhichshallbesupposedtobeinthehighestdegreebeneficial，butwhichproceedsfromamean，corruptanddegradingmotive，deservetheappellationofvirtue。Avirtuousactionisthat，ofwhichboththemotiveandthetendencyconcurtoexciteourapprobation。

Letusproceedfromtheconsiderationoftheactiontothatoftheagent。

Beforewecandecideuponthedegreeinwhichanymanisentitledtobedenominatedvirtuous，wemustcomparehisperformancewithhismeans。Itisnotenough，thathisconductisattendedwithanoverbalanceofgoodintentionandbeneficialresults。Ifitappearthathehasscarcelyproducedthetenthpartofthatbenefit，eitherinmagnitudeorextent。whichhewascapableofproducing，itisonlyillaverylimitedsensethathecanbeconsideredasavirtuousman。

Whatisittherefore，weareledtoenquire，thatconstitutesthecapacityofanyman？Capacityisanideaproducedinthemindbyacontemplationoftheassemblageofpropertiesinanysubstance，andtheusestowhichasubstancesocircumstancedmaybeapplied。Thusagivenportionofmetal，maybeformed，atthepleasureofthemanufacturer，intovariousimplements，aknife，arazor，asword，adozenofcoat-buttons，etc。Thisisonestageofcapacity。Asecondis，whenithasalreadyreceivedtheformofaknife，and，beingdismissedbythemanufacturer，fallsintothehandsofthepersonwhointendsitforhisprivateuse。Bythispersonitmaybedevotedtopurposes，beneficial，perniciousoridle——Toapplytheseconsiderationstothenatureofahumanbeing。

Wearenothereenquiringrespectingthecapacityofmanabsolutelyspeaking，butofanindividual；theperformerofagivenaction，orthepersonwhohasengagedinacertainseriesofconduct。Inthesamemannerthereforeastheknifemaybeappliedtovariouspurposesatthepleasureofitspossessor，soanindividualendowedwithcertainqualifications，mayengageinvariouspursuits，accordingtotheviewsthatarepresentedtohim，andthemotivesthatactuatehismind。

【推荐阅读】幽幽深宫，醒来一梦似千年，重生于下堂妃身躯中的她，将如何手刃仇人? 点击阅读