TheCambridgeModernHistory/，vol。i(givesanexcellentbibliography)。Hergenrother-Kirsch，/HandbuchderAllgemeinenKirchengeschichte/，Bd。2(pp。996-1002)。Ranke，/DeutscheGeschichteimZeitalterderReformation/，1844(Eng。Trans。byAustin，1845-7)。Idem。，/GeschichtederRomanischenundGermanischenVolker/(1419-1514)。Kaser，/DeutscheGeschichtezurZeitMaximiliansI。/(1486-1519)，1912。Cherrier，/HistoiredeCharlesVIII。/，1868。Prescott，/FerdinandandIsabella/，1887。
Busch-Todd，/EnglandundertheTudors/，1892-5。Hunt-Poole，/ThePoliticalHistoryofEngland/，vol。v。，1910(chap。v。)。
ThestrugglebetweenthePapacyandtheEmpire，ending，asitdid，inthedownfalloftheHouseofHohenstaufen，putanendtotheoldconceptionoftheuniversalmonarchypresidedoverbytheEmperorandthePope。AnewtendencybegantomakeitselffeltinEuropeanpolitics。Hithertothefeudalsystem，onwhichsocietywasbased，hadservedasabarrieragainstthedevelopmentofroyalpowerortheformationofunitedstates。Underthissystemthekingwassometimeslesspowerfulthansomeofhisnominalsubjects，andwasentirelydependentuponthegood-willofthebaronsforthesuccessofanyactionhemighttakeoutsidehisownhereditarydominions。Thiswastherealweaknessofthesystem，andsolongasitremainedthegrowthofNationalismwasimpossible。
Gradually，however，bytheexertionsofpowerfulsovereignsthepowerofthebaronswasbroken，thesmallerstateswereswallowedupinthelargerones，andthewaywaspreparedfortheriseofthenationsofModernEurope。InFrancethepolicyofcentralisationbeguninthethirteenthcentury，wascarriedtoasuccessfulconclusioninthedaysofLouisXI。(1461-83)。TheEnglishprovinces，Aquitane，Burgundy，andBrittany，wereallunitedtoformonestate，knowingonlyonesupremeruler。InSpaintheolddivisionsdisappearedalmostcompletelywiththeunionofCastileandAragonunderFerdinand(1479-1516)andIsabellatheCatholic(1474-1504)，andwiththecompletedestructionoftheMoorishpowerbytheconquestofGranada(1492)。InEnglandtheslaughterofthenobilityintheWarsoftheRosesleftthewayreadyfortheestablishmentoftheTudordominion。AspartofthesamemovementtowardsunificationHenryVIII。wasdeclaredtobeKingofIrelandinsteadofFeudalLord，andseriousattemptsweremadetoincludeScotlandwithinhisdominions。InsidetheEmpiresimilartendencieswereatwork，butwithexactlyoppositeresults。TheinterregnumintheEmpireandasuccessionofweakrulerslefttheterritorialprincesfreetoimitatetherulersofEuropebystrengtheningtheirownpowerattheexpenseofthelowernobility，thecities，andthepeasantry；but，havingsecuredthemselves，theyusedtheirincreasedstrengthtoarresttheprogressofcentralisationandtopreventthedevelopmentofastrongimperialpower。
Asadirectresultofthiscentralisationtendencyandoftheincreaseinroyalauthoritythatitinvolved，therulersofEuropeinitiatedacampaignagainstallconstitutionalrestrictionsontheexerciseoftheirauthority。Thefeudalsystemwithallitsfaultswasinsomesenseswonderfullydemocratic。Thesovereignwasdependentuponthedecisionsofthevariousrepresentativeassemblies；andthoughthelowerclasseshadlittlevoiceexceptinpurelylocalaffairs，yettherightsandprivilegesofallclasseswerehedgedroundsosecurelybywrittenchartersorimmemorialusagethatanyinfringementofthemmightbeattendedwithseriousresults。InEnglandtheParliament，inSpaintheCortes，inFrancetheStatesGeneral，andinGermanytheDiet，shouldhaveprovedastrongbarrieragainstabsoluterule。Buttheauthorityofsuchassemblieswassoonweakenedordestroyed。UndertheTudorstheEnglishParliamentbecameameremachineforregisteringthewishesofthesovereign；theCortesandStatesGeneralwererarelyconsultedinSpainandFrance；and，thoughtheDietretaineditspositionintheEmpire，itwasusedrathertoincreasetheinfluenceoftheprincesthantoaffordanyguaranteeoflibertytothesubject。
InbringingaboutsuchacompleterevolutiontherulerswereassistedlargelybytheintroductionoftheRomanCodeofJustinian。[1]
AccordingtotheprinciplesoftheRomanCodethepowerofthesovereignwasunlimited，andagainsthiswishesnotraditionalcustomsorprivilegescouldprevail。SuchasystemwasdetestedespeciallybytheGermans，whoclungwithgreatpertinacitytotheirownnationallawsandcustoms；buttheprinces，supportedbytheuniversities，carriedthroughthereformonwhichtheyhadsettheirheart。TheysucceededinstrengtheningtheirownpowerandintramplingdowntherightsguaranteedtotheirsubjectsbytheoldGermanicCode，whileatthesametimetheywereuntiringintheirresistancetoimperialreforms，andwereunwillingtodoanythingtoincreasethepoweroftheEmperor。
Asaresultofthedevelopmentofarbitraryrulethelowerclasseshadgreatreasontocomplainoftheincreaseoftaxationandofthedifficultiesofobtainingjusticeintheordinarycourtsoflaw。Theywerereadytolistentotheadviceofinterestedleaders，whourgedthemtobandtogetherindefenceoftheirrightsagainsttheusurpationoflandownersandkings。AsaresultnearlyeverycountryinEuropefounditselfinvolvedinagreatstruggle。ThePeasants'WarinHungary(1514)，therevoltagainstCharlesV。inSpain(1520)，theresistanceoftheFlemishCommunes，ledbyGhent，totheordinancesoftheDukesofBurgundy，thediscontentofthelowerclassesinFrancewiththeexcessivetaxesleviedbyLouisXI。，andthesecretassociationswhichpreparedthewayforthegreatuprisingofthelowerclassesinGermany(1524)，wereclearindicationsthatoppressionanddiscontentwerenotconfinedtoanyparticularcountryinEurope。
WithallthesepoliticaldevelopmentstheinterestsofreligionandoftheChurchwerecloselyconnected。EventhoughitbeadmittedthatinthemselvesthereisnorealoppositionbetweenNationalismandCatholicism，yetinthecircumstancesofthetime，whennationalrivalrywasacute，thedependenceoftheHolySeeuponanyparticularnationwascertaintoexciteseriousjealousy。FromthattimenationsbegantoregardthePopeasanallyoranenemyaccordingtothesidehefavouredinsteadoflookingtohimasacommonfather，andconsequentlythedangerofaconflictbetweennationalpatriotismandloyaltytotheHeadoftheChurchwasrenderedlessimprobable。ThisfeelingwasincreasedbytheresidenceofthePopesatAvignon，whentheHolySeewassocompletelyassociatedwiththeinterestsofFrance，andbythepolicypursuedbySixtusIV。andhissuccessorsinregardtotheItalianStates。Nowhere，however，wasthisoppositiontothePapacymanifestedmoreclearlythaninGermany。ThiswasduepartlytothegrowingfeelingofantipathybetweentheTeutonicandtheLatinraces，partlytothetraditionofthegreatstruggleofthethirteenthcenturyinwhichtheEmperorswereworstedbythePopes，andpartlyalsotothediscontentexcitedamongstallclassesoftheGermanpeople，layandcleric，bythetaxationsoftheCuria。Theattitudeofthethreeecclesiasticalelectorsin1455，thecomplaintsoftheclergyin1479，andthelistof/Gravamina/presentedtoMaximilianin1510wereharbingersoftherevolutionthatwastocome。
Besides，thegrowthofabsolutisminEuropewaslikelytoprovedangeroustothelibertiesoftheChurch。Rulers，whoaimedatsecuringforthemselvesunlimitedauthority，werenotblindtotheimportanceofbeingabletocontroltheecclesiasticalorganisation，andtoattainthisresulttheirlegaladvisersquotedforthemthemaximsoftheoldRomanCode，accordingtowhichthekingwasthesourceofallspiritualaswellastemporalpower。Theirpredecessorshadusurpedalreadyastrongvoiceintheappointmentstobenefices，butnowcivilrulersclaimedasarightwhatthosewhohadgonebeforeweregladtoacceptasaprivilege。HencetheydemandedthattheHolySeeshouldhandovertothemthenominationofbishops，thatitshouldmodifytheoldlawsregardingexemptionofecclesiasticalpropertyfromtaxation，trialofclerics，andrightofsanctuary，andthatitshouldsubmititspronouncementsfortheroyal/Exequator/beforetheycouldhavetheforceoflawinanyparticularstate。ThePragmaticSanctionofBourges(1438)andtheConcordatwrungfromLeoX。byFrancisI。ofFrancein1516，theConcordatofPrincesin1447，andthenewdemandsformulatedbytheDietoftheEmpire，theStatutesof/Provisors/and/Praemunire/inEngland(1453)，andtheconcessionsinsisteduponbyFerdinandandIsabellainSpain(1482)，wereclearproofsthatabsolutismwasdestinedtoprovefataltothelibertyoftheChurchandtheauthorityoftheHolySee。
Finally，theuniversaldiscontentofthemasses，andthegreatsocialrevolutionsofthefirstquarterofthesixteenthcenturywerelikelytoprovedangeroustoecclesiasticalauthority。Inallrevolutionsthemostextrememenarecertaintoassumecontrolatleastintheearlierstagesofthemovement，andtheirwildestonslaughtsonChurchandStatearesuretoreceivetheapplauseofthecrowd。Buttherewasspecialdangerthatthesepopularoutbreaksmightbeturnedintoanti-
religiouschannelsatatimewhensomanyofthebishopsweresecularprinces，andwhentheChurchappearedtobesocloselyidentifiedwiththeveryinterestsagainstwhichthepeasantstookuparms。Inthesecircumstancesitwasnotdifficultfordesigningmentopushforwardtheirplansofareligiousreformunderguiseofacampaignforlibertyandequality。[2]——
[1]/CambridgeModernHistory/，ii。，p。176。Janssen，op。cit。，Eng。
Trans。，ii。，chap。ii。
[2]Janssen，op。cit。Eng。Trans。，vols。i-iii。Pastor，op。cit。，Eng。Trans。，vols。i-iii。
(c)TheReligiousConditionofEurope。
Pastor，op。cit。Janssen，op。cit。Creighton，/HistoryofthePapacyfromtheGreatWesternSchismtotheSackofRome/，2ndedition，1897。Ranke，/DieRomischePapsteim16und17
jahrhunderten/(xxxvii-xxxix)，1900(Eng。Trans。，3vols。，1866)。
Haller，/PapsttumundKirchenreform/，1904。Mansi，/SacrorumConciliorumCollectio/，1900。Hefele，/Conciliengeschichte/2auf。
1873-90(Eng。Trans。inpart，FrenchTrans。)。ImbartdelaTour，/LesoriginesdelaReforme/，ii。，1909。Thomas，/LeConcordatde1516/，1910。Ullman，/ReformatorenvorderReformation/，1866
(Eng。Trans。byMenzies，1855)。
ThewithdrawalofthePopesfromthecapitalofChristendomandtheunfortunateschism，forwhichtheirresidenceatAvignonismainlyresponsible，proveddisastroustotheauthorityoftheHolySee。TheAvignonPopeswereFrenchmenthemselves。Theircardinalsandofficialsbelongedforthemostparttothesamefavourednation。TheyweredependentupontheKingofFranceforprotection，andinreturn，theirrevenueswereattimesplacedathisdisposalinordertoensurevictoryfortheFrenchbanners。Suchastateofaffairswascertaintoalienatetherulersandpeopleofothernations，especiallyofGermanyandEngland，andtopreparethewayforapossibleconflictinthedaysthatweretocome。
TheGreatWesternSchismthatfollowedupontheresidenceatAvignondividedChristianEuropeintohostilecamps，andsnappedthebondofunitywhichwasalreadystrainedtotheutmostbypoliticalandnationalrivalries。SincerebelieverswerescandalisedatthespectacleoftwoorthreerivalPopes，eachclaimingtobethesuccessorofSt。Peter，andhurlingathisopponentsandtheirsupporterstheseverestcensuresoftheChurch。WhilethevariousclaimantstothePapacywerecontendingforsupremepowerintheChurch，theywereobligedtomakeconcessionafterconcessiontotherulerswhosupportedthemandtopermitthemtointerfereinreligiousaffairs，sothatevenwhenpeacewasrestoredandwhenMartinV。wasuniversallyrecognisedasthelawfulPope，hefoundhimselfdeprivedofmanyoftherightsandprerogatives，forwhichhispredecessorsfromGregoryVII。toBonifaceVIII。hadstruggledsobravely。
Norwasthisall。Intheireffortstobringaboutareunion，anddespairingofarrivingatthishappyresultbyanagreementamongthecontendingPopes，manyhonesttheologiansputforwardprinciples，which，howeversuitabletothecircumstancesoftheschism，wereutterlysubversiveofthemonarchicalconstitutionoftheChurch。TheymaintainedthatincaseofdoubtfulPopesthecardinalshadtherighttosummonaGeneralCounciltodecidetheissue，andthatallChristianswereboundtosubmittoitsdecrees。InaccordancewiththeseprinciplestheCouncilofConstancewasconvoked，and，elatedwiththesuccessofthisexperiment，manyofthemoreardentspiritsseemeddeterminedtoreplace，oratleast，tolimittheauthorityofthePopesbytheauthorityofGeneralCouncilssummonedatregularintervals。ThePopewastobenolongersupremespiritualruler。HispositionintheChurchwastoberatherthepositionofaconstitutionalsovereigninastate，theGeneralCouncilbeingforthePopewhatmodernParliamentsarefortheking。
FortunatelyforthePopessuchatheorywascompletelydiscreditedbytheexcessesofitssupportersattheCouncilofBasle，butitservedtoweakentheauthorityoftheHolySee，andtoputintothehandsofitsopponentsaweaponwhichtheywerenotslowtowieldwhenevertheirpersonalinterestswereaffected。HenceforthappealsfromthePopetoaGeneralCouncil，althoughprohibited，werebynomeansunfrequent。
Yetinspiteofallthesereverses，hadtheChurchbeenblessedwithasuccessionofworthyPopesburningwithzealforreligion，freetodevotethemselvestoathoroughreform，andcapableofunderstandingthealteredpoliticalandsocialconditionsoftheworld，thePapacymighthavebeenrestoredtoitsoldposition。ButunfortunatelythePopesfromNicholasV。toLeoX。werenotthementorepairthedamagethatwasdone，ortowardoffimpendingdanger。ThecalamitiesthatthreatenedEuropefromtheadvanceoftheTurks，andthenecessityofrousingitsrulerstoasenseoftheirresponsibilitiesoccupiedalargeshareoftheirattention；whiletheanxietywhichtheydisplayedinthemiserablesquabblesoftheItaliankingdoms，sometimesoutofdisinterestedregardforthetemporalStatesoftheChurch，asinthecaseofJuliusII。，morefrequentlyfromadesireofprovidingterritoriesfortheirunworthyrelations，leftthemlittletimetosafeguardthegeneralwell-beingoftheChurch。Incaseofsomeofthem，too，ifonemayjudgethembytheiractions，theprogressofHumanismseemedtobenearertotheirheartsthantheprogressofreligion。
InhispersonallifeNicholasV。(1447-55)wasnotunworthyofhisexaltedposition，butthenecessityofrepairingthedamagethathadbeendonebytheunrulyassemblyatBasle，whicharrogatedtoitselftheauthorityofanindependentGeneralCouncil，theremovalofthelastobstacletotheTurkishinvasionofEuropeinthefallofConstantinople，andtheimportanceofsecuringforRomeapre-eminentpositioninthegreatclassicalrevival，engagedallhisenergiestotheexclusionofnecessaryreforms。CalixtusIII。(1455-58)wastoooldtodomuch，yet，notwithstandinghisadvancingyearsandtheindifferenceoftheEuropeanrulers，hethrewhimselfintothestruggleagainsttheTurks，aidingandencouragingHungaryandAlbaniaintheirresistance，anditisduelargelytohiseffortsthatthevictoriousadvanceofMahometII。wascheckedbytheoverthrowofhisforcesatBelgrade(1456)。PiusII。[1](1458-64)，thoughinhisyouthnotthemostexemplaryoftheHumanistschool，devotedhimselfwithearnestnessandzealtothedutiesofhissacredoffice。HepublishedaBullretractingalltheattackswhichhehadmadeagainstthePapacyinhiscapacityassecretarytothe/Concilabulum/atBasle。HesethimselftostudytheScripturesandtheearlyFathersinplaceofthePaganclassics，andheshowedhisapprobationoftheChristianHumanists。Buthewasunabletoundertaketheworkofreform。InviewofthedangerthatstillthreatenedEuropeheconvokedanassemblyoftheprincesatMantuatoorganiseacrusadeagainsttheTurks，buttheyturnedadeafeartohisappeals，and，atlastwearyoftheirrefusalsandindifference，hedeterminedtoplacehimselfattheheadoftheChristianforcesforthedefenceofEuropeandChristianity。HereachedAnconabrokendowninspiritsandbodilyhealth，anddiedbeforeanythingeffectivecouldbedone。PaulII。(1464-71)，whosucceeded，madesomeeffortstopurifytheRomanCourt。HesuppressedpromptlytheCollegeofAbbreviatorswhowerenotedfortheirgreedforgoldandtheirzealforPaganism，andclosedtheRomanAcademy。OnaccountofhisseverityindealingwiththehalfChristianHumanistsoftheCuriahehasbeenattackedwithsavagebitternessbyPlatina，oneofthedismissedofficials，inhis/LivesofthePopes/，[2]butnobodyislikelytobedeceivedbyscurrilouslibels，themotivesofwhichareonlytooapparent。TheworstthatcanbesaidagainstPaulII。isthathewastoofondofappointinghisrelativestohighpositionsintheChurch；butinmitigationofthatitiswelltorememberthathisreformshadraisedupsomanyenemiesagainsthiminRome，anddisaffectionwassorifeamongsteventhehighestofficialsofhiscourt，thathemayhavedeemeditprudenttohaverelativesaroundhimonwhomhecouldrely。
SixtusIV。(1471-84)wasthefirstofthepoliticalPopes，LeoX。
beingthelast。TheyaresocalledonaccountoftheexcessiveinteresttheydisplayedinItalianpoliticsoftheperiod，totheneglectofthehigherinterestswithwhichtheywereentrusted。Mostofthem，withtheexceptionofAlexanderVI。，werenotpositivelyunworthymen，buttheyweretoomuchconcernedwithsecularpursuitstoundertakeareformofthegrossabuseswhichflourishedattheverygatesoftheirpalace。Thepapalcourtwasnoworseandverylittlebetterthanthecourtsofcontemporaryrulers，andthegreedformoney，whichwasthepredominantweaknessofthecurialofficials，alienatedthesympathyofallforeigners，bothlayandcleric。
JuliusII。(1503-13)did，indeed，undertakethedifficulttaskofrestoringtheStatesoftheChurchthathadbeenparcelledoutintopettykingdomsbyhispredecessors，buthispolicysoonbroughthimintoconflictwithLouisXII。ofFrance。LouisdemandedthataGeneralCouncilshouldbeconvoked，notsomuchoutofzealforreformasfromadesiretoembarrassthePope，andwhenJuliusII。refusedtocomplywithhisrequestthekinginducedsomeoftherebelliouscardinalstoissueinvitationsforacounciltomeetatPisa(Sept。1511)。MostofthebishopswhometatPisaattheappointedtimewerefromFrance。
TheEmperorMaximilianheldaloof，andthepeopleofPisaregardedtheconventiclewithnofriendlyfeelings。ThesessionsweretransferredfromPisatoMilan，andfinallytoLyons。AsasetofftothisJuliusII。convokedacounciltomeetatRome，thefifthLateranCouncil(May1512)，forthethreefoldpurposeofhealingtheFrenchschism，ofproscribingcertaindoctrinalerrors，andofundertakingtheworkofreform。Theearliersessionsweretakenupalmostentirelywiththeschism，andbeforetheworkofreformwasbegunJuliusII。passedaway。
HewassucceededbytheyoungandlearnedJohnde'Medici，sonofLorenzotheMagnificentofFlorence，whotookthenameofLeoX。
(1513-21)。Likehisfather，thenewPopewasagenerouspatronofartandliterature，andbestoweduponhisliteraryfriends，someofwhomwereexceedinglyunworthy，thehighestdignitiesintheChurch。
HumanismwastriumphantatthePapalCourt，but，unfortunately，religionwasneglected。ThoughinhispersonallifeLeoX。couldnotbedescribedasadeeplyreligiousman，yethewasmindfulofhisvowsofcelibacy，attentivetotherecitationofthedivine，office，abstemious，andobservantofthefastsoftheChurch。AsasecularrulerhewouldhavestoodincomparablyhigherthananyofthecontemporarysovereignsofEurope，buthewasoutofplaceconsiderablyastheheadofagreatreligiousorganisation。
WorldlinessandindifferencetothedangersthatthreatenedtheChurcharethemostseriouschargesthatcanbemadeagainsthim，butespeciallyinthecircumstancesofthetime，whentheHolySeeshouldhavesetitselftocombatthevicioustendenciesofsociety，thesefaultswereseriousenough。
ThedefeatoftheFrenchforcesatNovara(1513)，andtheloyaltyoftheotherrulersofEuropetotheHolySeeinducedLouisXII。ofFrancetomakepeacewiththenewPope，andtorecognisetheLateranCouncil。ButontheaccessionofFrancisI。(1515-47)afreshexpeditionintoItalywasundertaken；theSwisstroopswereoverthrownatMarignano(1515)andLeoX。wasobligedtoconcludeaConcordat[3]
withtheFrenchKing。BythetermsofthisagreementFranceagreedtoabandonthePragmaticSanctionofBourges，whilethePopebestoweduponFrancisI。andhissuccessorstherightofpresentationtothebishopricsandabbaciesinhisdominions。Theworkofreform，whichshouldhaveclaimedspecialattentionattheLateranCouncil，wasneverundertakenseriously。Somedecreeswerepassedprohibitingpluralityofbenefices，forbiddingofficialsoftheCuriatodemandmorethantheregulationfees，recommendingpreachingandreligiousinstructionofchildren，regulatingtheappointmenttobenefices，etc。，butthesedecrees，apartfromthefactthattheylefttherootoftheevilsuntouched，wereneverenforced。ThecloseoftheLateranCouncilsynchroniseswiththeopeningofLuther'scampaigninGermany，forthesuccessofwhichtheCouncil'sfailuretorespondtotherepeateddemandsforreformistoagreatextentresponsible。
InanyschemeforthereformoftheabusesthatafflictedtheChurchthereformationofthePapalCourtitselfshouldhaveoccupiedtheforemostplace。Atalltimesalargeproportionofthecardinalsandhigherofficialsweremenofblamelesslives，but，unfortunately，manyotherswereutterlyunworthyoftheirposition，andtheirconductwashighlyprejudicialtoreligionandtothepositionoftheHolySee。
MuchofthescandalousgossipretailedbyPlatinainhis/LivesofthePopes/，andbyBurcard[4]andInfessura[5]intheir/Diaries/maybeattributedtopersonaldisappointmentanddiseasedimaginations，butevenwhendueallowancehasbeenmadeforthefrailtyofhumantestimony，enoughremainstoprovethatthePapalCourtinthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturieswasnotcalculatedtoinspirestrangerstoRomewithconfidenceorrespect。SuchcorruptandgreedyofficialsreflecteddiscreditontheHolySee，andaffordedsomejustificationforthechargeslevelledagainstthemofusingreligionmerelyasameansofraisingmoney。
Thevarioustaxations，[6]directandindirect，leviedbythePopesduringthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturieshelpedtogivecolourtotheseaccusations。Itoughttoberemembered，however，thatthePopescouldnotcarryonthegovernmentoftheChurch，andsupportthelargebodyofofficialswhoseserviceswereabsolutelynecessary，withoutrequiringhelpfromtheirsubjectsinallpartsoftheworld。DuringtheresidenceofthePopesatAvignonadditionalexpenseswereincurredowingtothenecessityofprovidingresidencesforthemselvesandtheircourt，and，atthesametime，therebellionsanddisordersinthePapalStatesputanendtoanyhopeofderivinganyrevenuefromtheirowntemporaldominions。OntheirreturntoRomemoneywasrequiredtorepairthepalacesthathadgoneintoruin，andtoenablethePopestomaintaintheirpositionaspatronsofartandliterature，andastheleadersofEuropeinitsstruggleagainsttheforcesofIslam。
Forthislastpurpose，namely，toorganisetheChristianforcesagainsttheTurks，thePopesclaimedtherightoflevyingafixedtaxonallecclesiasticalproperty。Theamountofthisvariedfromone-
thirtiethtoone-tenthoftheannualrevenue，andasaruleitwasraisedonlyforsomedefiniteperiodofyears。Eveninthedayswhenthecrusadingfeverwasuniversal，suchataxexcitedagreatdealofopposition；butwhenEuropehadgrownwearyofthestruggle，andwhenthePopescoulddolittleowingtothefailureofthetemporalrulerstorespondtotheirappeals，thisformoftaxationwasresentedbitterly，andtherightofthePopestoraisetaxesinthiswayoffecclesiasticalpropertywasquestionedbytheecclesiasticsaffectedaswellasbythetemporalrulers。EnglandandFrancetookmeasurestoprotectthemselves；butinGermanytheabsenceofanystrongcentralauthority，andthewantofunityamongtheprincesmadeitdifficulttoofferanyeffectiveresistancetothesedemands。In1354，1372，1459，1487，andin1500，theGermanbishopsprotestedstronglyagainsttheattemptsofthePopetolevytaxesonecclesiasticalproperty。
ButinadditiontotheseextraordinaryleviesthereweremanypermanentsourcesofrevenueforthesupportofthePapalCourt。InthefirstplacefromthetimeofBonifaceIX。annats，whichconsistedofacertainproportionofthefirstyear'srevenue，weretobepaidbyallclericsonwhomaminorbeneficewasconferredbytheHolySee。
Incaseofthemajorbenefices，bishopricsandabbacies，the/servitiacommunia/andthe/servitiaminuta/tooktheplaceofannats。The/servitiacommunia/wasafixedsumtheamountofwhichdependedupontheannualrevenueoftheSeeorabbey，andwasdividedbetweenthePopeandthecardinalsoftheCuria。The/servitiaminuta/，amountingtoabout31/2percent。ofthe/servitiacommunia/，wasgiventothelowerofficials，whopreparedthelettersofappointment。TherevenuesofvacantSeesandthepropertyofdeceasedbishopswerealsoclaimedbytheHolySee。FromEnglandthePopereceivedyearlythePeter'sPence，andfromallcountriesthatacknowledgedhisfeudaljurisdictionhewasentitledtoadefiniteannualtribute。
Furthermore，thereservations[7]ofbeneficeswereanotherfruitfulsourceofrevenue。ThepolicyofreservingbeneficestotheHolySeemightbedefended，onthegroundthatitwasoftennecessaryinordertocounterbalancetheinterferenceofsecularrulersinregardtoecclesiasticalappointments，andthatitaffordedthePopeaconvenientmeansofrewardingofficialswhoseserviceswererequiredforthegovernmentoftheChurch。ButtherightofthePopetoreservebeneficeswasabusedduringthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies，andgaverisetoconstantfrictionwiththecivilandecclesiasticalauthoritiesindifferentcountriesofEurope。Reservations，insteadofbeingtheexception，becameverygeneral，and，asaresult，theeyesofallambitiousclericswereturnedtowardsRomefromwhichtheyhopedtoreceivepromotion，whethertheirimmediatesuperiorsdeemedthemworthyorunworthy。Suchastateofaffairsopenedthewaytothemostseriousabuses，andnotunfrequentlytodisedifyingwranglesbetweenrivalcandidates，allofwhomclaimedtohavereceivedtheirappointmentsfromRomanofficials。
Intimatelyconnectedwithpapalreservationswereexpectanciesorpromisesgiventocertainpersonsthattheywouldbeappointedtocertainbeneficesassoonasavacancywouldoccur。SuchpromisesofappointmentwereunknownintheChurchbeforethetwelfthcentury，butlaterontheybecameverygeneral，andledtomostseriousabusesduringtheresidenceofthePopesatAvignonandduringthedisturbancescausedbytheGreatWesternSchism。Expectancieswereadoptedasameansofraisingmoneyorofsecuringsupport。Variousattemptsweremadetoputanendtosuchadisastrouspractice，asforexampleattheCouncilsofConstanceandBasle，butitwasreservedfortheCouncilofTrenttoeffectthismuchneededreform。
Againthecustomofhandingoverbenefices/incommendam/，thatisofgivingsomepersontherightofdrawingtherevenuesofavacantbeneficeforacertainspecifiedtime，washighlyprejudicialtothebestinterestsofreligion。Suchapractice，howeverjustifiableincaseofbeneficestowhichthecareofsoulswasnotattached，wasentirelyindefensiblewhenadoptedinregardtobishopric，abbacies，andminorbenefices，wheresomuchdependeduponpersonalactivityandexample。Thepersonwhoheldthebenefice/incommendam/didnothingexcepttodrawtherevenueattachedtohisoffice，whilethewholeworkwascommittedtoanunderpaidvicarorrepresentative，whowasobligedoftentoresorttoallkindsofdevicestosecuresufficientmeansofsupport。Againthoughpluralityofbeneficeswasprohibitedbyseveraldecrees，yetduringthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturiesnothingwasmorecommonthantofindoneindividualholding，byvirtueofapapaldispensation，two，three，six，ten，andpossiblymorebeneficestomostofwhichthecareofsoulswasattached。SuchastateofaffairswasregardedasanintolerablescandalbyrightmindedChristians，whetherlayorcleric，andwascondemnedbydecreesofPopesandcouncils；butasexceptionsweremadeinfavourofcardinalsorprinces，andasevenoutsidethesecasesdispensationsweregivenfrequently，theevilsofpluralitycontinuedunabated。
Again，thefrequentapplicationsforandconcessionsofdispensationsincanonicalirregularitiesbytheRomancongregationswerelikelytomakeabadimpression，andtoarousethesuspicionthatwholesomeregulationswerebeingabandonedforthesakeofthedispensationfeespaidtotheofficials。Similarly，too，complaintsweremadeaboutthedispensationsgiveninthemarriageimpediments，andtheabusesallegedagainstpreacherstowhosechargethedutyofpreachingindulgenceswascommitted。Furthermore，thecustomofacceptingappealsintheRomanCourts，evenwhenthemattersindisputewereofthemosttrivialkind，wasprejudicialtothelocalauthorities，whiletheundueprolongationofsuchsuitslefttheRomanlawyersexposedtothechargeofmakingfeesratherthanjusticethemotiveoftheirexertions。
Thedisturbancesproducedbytheschism，andtheinterferenceofthestateinepiscopalelectionshelpedtosecuretheappointmentofmanyunworthybishops。EvenintheworstdaysofthefifteenthandsixteenthcenturiesalargeproportionofthebishopsinthedifferentcountriesofEuropewereexcellentmen，butalargepercentagealso，especiallyinGermany，werethoroughlyworldly。Theyweremoreanxiousabouttheirpositionassecularprincesorproprietorsthanaboutthefulfilmentoftheirsacredduties。Veryoftentheyweresprungfromthenobility，andwereappointedonaccountoftheirfamilyinfluencewithoutanyregardtotheirqualifications，and，asarule，thedutiesofvisitation，ofholdingsynods，andevenofresidingintheirdioceses，wereneglected。Besides，evenwhentheywereanxioustodotheirbest，theclaimsofthelaypatronsandthepapalreservationofbeneficesmadeitdifficultforthemtoexerciseproperdisciplinarycontrolovertheirclergy。Inmanycases，too，thecathedralchapterswereutterlydemoralised，mainlyowingtooutsideinfluenceintheappointmentofthecanons。TheclergyasabodywereveryfarfrombeingasbadastheyhavebeenpaintedbyfanaticalreformersorbythefollowersofLuther。Thecollectionsofsermonsthathavecomedowntous，theprayerbooksfortheinstructionofthefaithful，thecatechisms，thecompilationsfromtheHolyScriptures，thehymns，theologicalworks，andespeciallythecompendiumspreparedfortheuseofthoseengagedinhearingconfessions，givethelietothechargeofwholesaleneglect[8]；but，atthesametimethewantofsufficientcontrol，theinterferenceoflaypatronsintheappointmentstobenefices，theabsenceofseminaries，andthefailureoftheuniversitiestogiveaproperecclesiasticaltraining，producedtheirnaturaleffectonalargebodyoftheclergy。Gravechargesofignorance，indifference，concubinage，andsimonywerenotwhollygroundless，asthedecreesofvariouscouncilssufficientlytestify。
Manycausescontributedtobringaboutarelaxationofdisciplineinmanyofthereligiousorders。Theuncanonicalappointmentofabbots，theunionofvariousabbaciesinthehandsofasingleindividual，thecustomofholdingabbacies/incommendam/，andthewholesaleexemptionfromepiscopalauthorityforwhichmanyofthereligiousorderscontended，aresufficienttoaccountforthisgeneralrelaxation。Thestateofthevarioushousesandprovincesevenbelongingtothesameorderdependedlargelyonthecharacterofthesuperiors，andhenceitisnotfairtojudgeonecountryoroneprovince，orevenonehouse，bywhathappenedinothercountries，provinces，orhouses。Hencearisesthedifficultyofarrivingatanygeneralconclusionaboutthereligioushouses。Itissafe，however，tosaythatwiththeexceptionoftheCarthusiansalltheolderordersrequiredreform。FromthebeginningofthefifteenthcenturyattemptsweremadetorestoretheolddisciplineintheBenedictinecommunitiesandwithconsiderablesuccess。TheCarmelitesweredividedintotwomainbranches，theCalcedandtheDiscalced；theFranciscansweredividedintothreemainbodies，theConventuals，theObservants，andtheCapuchins；theDominicansmadevariouseffortstorestoretheancientdisciplineespeciallyfromaboutthebeginningofthefifteenthcentury；whilemanyoftheAugustinianswhoweredeterminedonreformestablishednewcongregations，asforexample，theDiscalcedAugustinianHermits，whospreadthemselvesoverFrance，Spain，andPortugal。Inaddition，variousnewcongregations，amongstthemtheOblatesfoundedin1433bySt。FranciscaRomana，andtheHermitBrothersin1435bySt。FrancisofPaula，wereestablishedtomeetthenecessitiesoftheage。[9]
Unfortunatelytheendlessdisputesbetweenthereligiousandsecularclergy[10]atthisperiodtendedtodistracttheattentionofbothfromtheirspiritualwork，andtogiverisetoconsiderabledisorderanddiscontent。Ontheoneside，menliketheParisprofessor，JohnPoillyandRichardFitzralph，ArchbishopofArmagh，weretooextremeandseemedinclinedtoleavetothereligiousordersnoplaceintheministrationoftheChurch，whileontheother，someofthereligious，suchastheFranciscan，JohnvonGorrel，wishedtoassertforthemselvescompleteindependenceofepiscopalcontrol。VariousattemptsweremadebyBonifaceVIII。，BenedictXI。，AlexanderV。，JohnXXII。，CalixtusIII。，SixtusIV。，andbytheCouncilsofConstanceandBasletosettlethesedisputes，butwithoutmuchpermanentresult。ItwasonlyintheeleventhsessionoftheFifthLateranCouncil(1516)
thatLeoX。promulgatedthedecrees，whichinsubstanceholdgoodatthepresenttime，fixingtherelationbetweenthebishopsandtheregularclergy。[11]
Manyofthefanaticalpreachersanxiousforreformwereguiltyofundoubtedexaggerationinthepictureswhichtheypaintedofclericallifeatthetime，aswerealsonotafewoftheHumanists，anxioustocastridiculeontheiropponents。Butevenwhenalldueallowancehasbeenmadefortheseexaggerationsinsuchworksasthe/OnusEcclesiae/[12]ofBishopBerthold，therhymedsermonsofoneofthegreatFranciscanopponentsofLuther，ThomasMurner(1475-1537)，whichbecamepopularinGermanyunderthetitlesofthe/Narrenbeschworung/
andthe/Schelmenzunft/，Faber's/TractatusdeRuinaeEcclesiaePlanctu/，the/EncomiumMoriae/ofErasmus，theDialoguesofSt。
GermaninEngland，the/Narrenschiff/ofSebastianBrant，andthepetitionsoftheSpanishCortes，enoughremainstoconvinceanyreasonablemanthatareformoftheclergywasanurgentnecessity。
FormanyyearsthecryofreformoftheChurchinitsheadandmembershadbeenheardinnearlyeverycountryofEurope。Thejusticeofsuchademandwasadmitteduniversally，butthedifficultiesinthewayweresogreatthatnoPopecaredtoriskagenerousschemeofreform。
MostoftheabusesofthefifteenthandsixteenthcenturiesmightbetracedbacktothedeclineofthepapalpowerduringtheAvignonexileandtheGreatWesternSchism。WhenpeacewasrestoredtotheChurch，andwhenthePopesmighthavedonesomethingfortherevivalofecclesiasticaldiscipline，theadvocatesoftheconciliartheoryblockedthewaybytheirextravagantattacksonthePapacy，andbytheirattemptstodestroythesupremacyoftheHolySeeundertheguiseofreformingtheRomanCuria。Besides，itwasimpossibletocarrythroughanyeffectivemeasuresfortheremovalofabuseswithoutattackingwhatwereregardedasvestedinterests，andtheholdersoftheseinterestsweredeterminednottoyieldwithoutastruggle。ThecardinalswishedtorestricttherightsofthePope；thebishopswishedtoreformthecardinalsandthePapalCourt；theParisdoctorswishedtoreformthebishopsandtheregularclergy；whiletheregularclergytracedalltheevilsintheChurchtotheindifferenceandneglectofthesecularpriests。UnfortunatelytherewasnomanendowedwiththeforesightandthecourageofGregoryVII。toputhisfingerupontherealcauseofthedownfall，namelytheslaveryoftheChurch，andtoleadacampaignfortheindependenceofthespiritualpower，particularlyfortherestorationoffreecanonicalelections。
AttheCouncilofConstanceeverybodyrecognisedthenecessityofreform，butthejealousiesofthevariousnations，theoppositionoftheinterestsconcerned，andthefearofprovokinganewschism，madeitimpossibletodomorethantoadopttemporaryexpedients，which，itwashoped，mightgivesomerelief。Decreesconcerningexemptionfromepiscopalauthority，theunionofbenefices，simony，tithes，andthedutiesoftheclericalstatewerepromulgatedinthefourteenthsession，andtheotherquestions，uponwhichthedifferentnationscouldnotagree，weretoberegulatedbyConcordatswiththeHolySee。
TheConcordatwiththeGermannationdealtwithcanonicalelection，appealstoRome，annats，indulgences，dispensations，andthelimitationofexcommunication；theEnglishConcordatinsistedontherightofEnglandtoberepresentedinthecollegeofcardinalsandcontainedclausesdealingwithindulgencesanddispensations；theConcordantwithCastileregardedthenumberofcardinals，thereservationandcollationofbenefices，annats，/commendams/，appeals，andindulgences；bytheConcordatwithFranceitwasarrangedthatowingtothewarsinwhichFrancewasengagedtheannatsandothertaxespayabletotheHolySeeshouldbereducedconsiderably。Measuressuchasthesewereutterlyinadequateevenhadtheybeenobservedtotheletter，butinrealitycomplaintsweremadefrequently，especiallyinGermany，thattheyweredisregarded。
TheCouncilwhichmetinSiena(1524)wasentirelyunrepresentative，andwasdissolvedwithouthavingaccomplishedanything。ButgreathopeswereexpressedthattheCouncilofBaslewouldformulateandcarryoutathoroughschemeofreform。Unfortunately，however，thesehopesweredoomedtodisappointment。Anextremesection，hostiletothePapacyanddeterminedtoweakenitsposition，dominatedtheCouncil，andmadeitimpossibletodotheworkforwhichtheassemblyhadbeenconvoked。Thoughthecouncilhelditsfirstsessionin1431，nearlyfouryearspassedbeforeanyreformdecreeswereissued。Theydealtwithconcubinage，excommunication，theabuseofinterdicts，andtheabolitionofannatsandothertaxespayabletotheHolySee。TheviolencewithwhichtheCouncilassailedEugeneIV。，andthefearofanewschismalienatedmanywhowereanxiousforreform，butwhowerenotwillingtoattacktheessentialprerogativesofthePope。TheclergyofFrancemetatBourgesin1432，andwiththeirconsentthePragmaticSanctionofBourgeswaspublishedbythekingin1438。
Accordingtothisedictannatswereretained，butwerereducedtoone-
fifthoftheamountformerlypaid，andmostofthereformatorydecreesofBaslewereadoptedforuseinFrance。Germanywasdesirousofreform，butatthesametimeunwillingtobreakwiththeHolySee，andhencetheGermannationremainedneutralinthedisputesbetweenEugeneIV。andtheCouncil。FinallyGermanyreturnedtoitsallegiance，andtheConcordatofViennawassignedin1448，accordingtowhichtherightofthePopetomakeappointmentstobeneficesintheEmpireandtheamountofthefeestobepaidtotheCuriawereregulated。ThisagreementwasnotregardedwithfavourinsomepartsofGermany，andcomplaintsweremadefrequentlybytheprincesthatthetermsoftheagreementwerenotobservedbytheRomanofficials。
EnglandalsotookstepstoprotectitselfbytheStatutesof/Provisors/and/Praemunire/(1453)。Thesestatutesrenderednullandvoidallcollations，reservationsorprovisionsofbeneficesmadebytheHolySeeinEngland，andforbadeallappealstotheRomantribunalonquestionswhichcouldbesettledbeforeEnglishtribunals。
DuringthepontificateofNicholasV。，CalixtusIII。，andPiusII。，verylittlewasdoneforreform。ThefearthatifanotherGeneralCouncilwereconvokedthedisgracefulscenesofBaslemightberepeated，andthedangerswhichthreatenedEuropefromaTurkishinvasion，seemtohaveparalysedthePopes，andtohavepreventedthemfromtakingeffectivemeasurestoabolishevidentabuses。PaulII。
did，indeed，takeactionagainstthePaganHumanistswhobarelyconcealedtheirantipathytoChristianityeveninthecityofthePopes，buthetooknostepstoremovetheinfluenceswhichhadmadesuchastateofaffairspossible。Asaruleateachsuccessiveconclavethecardinalelectorspledgedthemselvesthatwhicheverofthemshouldbeelectedwouldundertakecertainmeasures，someofwhichmighthaveredoundedtothegoodoftheuniversalChurch，othersofthemmerelytotheadvantageofthesacredcollegeitself；buttheseelectionagreementswerealwaysquashed，andtheevilwasallowedtoincreasewithoutcheck。FromtheelectionofSixtusIV。thetendencywassteadilydownwards，tillinthedaysofAlexanderVI。thePapacyreacheditslowestpoint。AtatimewhenevenpeopleindifferenttoreligionwereshockedbythestateofaffairsattheRomanCourt，itisnowonderthatazealousandholyecclesiasticlikethegreatDominicanSavonarola[13]shouldhavedenouncedtheseabusesinnouncertainlanguage，andshouldhavewarnedAlexanderVI。oftheterriblejudgmentinstorefortheChurchunlesssomestepsweretakentoaverttheindignationofanoffendedAlmighty。ThethreatsandwarningsofSavonarolawere，however，scoffedatastheunbridledoutburstsofadisappointedfanatic，andthecryforreformwasputasideasunworthyofattention。
JuliusII。(1503-13)waspersonallyabovereproach，butthecircumstancesofhistimeallowedhimverylittleopportunitytoundertakeagenerousplanofreform。TherecoveryofthePapalStatesthathadbeenfritteredawaybyhispredecessorsinprovidingterritoriesfortheirfamilyconnections，thewarsinItaly，andtheschemesofLouisXII。forcedthePopetoplaythepartofasoldierratherthanthatofanecclesiastic，anddelayedtheconvocationoftheGeneralCounciltowhichright-mindedChristianslookedforsomerelief。LouisXII。，takingadvantageofthisgeneraldesire，forestalledthePopebyinducingsomeofthecardinalstosummonaGeneralCounciltomeetatPisa(September1511)。TheassemblymetatPisaandadjournedtoLyons，butthefeelingofloyaltytothePopewastoostrongforLouisXII。，andtheassemblyatLyonscouldcountonverylittlesupportoutsideFrance。JuliusII。determinedtosummonaGeneralCounciltomeetinRomeforthereformationoftheChurch。
This，theFifthLateranCouncil，asitwascalled，wasopenedinMay1512，buttheearliersessionsweredevotedalmostentirelytothecondemnationoftheFrenchschism，thedecreesofthe/Conciliabulum/
atLyons，andthePragmaticSanction。BeforetheworkofreformcouldbetakeninhandJuliusXII。died(1513)，andtheyoungcardinaldeacon，Johnde'Medici，ascendedthepapalthroneunderthetitleofLeoX。
FromthenewPope，ifoneweretojudgehimbyhisantecedents，adevelopmentofclassicallearningandartmightbeexpectedratherthanarenewalofreligion。PersonallyLeoX。wasnotawickedman。Onthecontraryinhisprivatelifehewasattentivetohisreligiousduties，buthewasindifferentandinclinedtoletthingsshapetheirowncourse。TheLateranCouncildid，indeed，undertaketherestorationofecclesiasticaldiscipline。Itcondemnedabusesinconnexionwiththebestowalofbenefices，decreedthereformationoftheCuria，especiallyinregardtotaxes，definedthepositionoftheregularsinregardtothebishopsofthediocesesinwhichtheirhousesweresituated，orderedthebishopstoenforcetheircensorshipoverbookspublishedwithintheirjurisdiction，andapprovedoftheConcordatthathadbeenarrangedbetweenLeoandFrancisI。(1516)。
Suchreformsastheseweresocompletelyinadequatethattheyfailedtogivesatisfactiontothehostofclericsandlaymenwhodesiredathoroughreform。ThenewsthattheCouncilwasdissolvedinMarch1517
withouthavinggrappledwiththeurgentreformoftheChurchinitsheadandmembers，sentathrillofdismaythroughouttheChristianworld，andsecuredforLutherthesympathyofmanywhenafewmonthslaterheopenedhiscampaignatWittenberg。Itwasthoughtatfirstthatheaimedmerelyattheremovalofabuses，andinthisworkhecouldhavecountedupontheactiveco-operationofsomeoftheleadingGermanecclesiastics，whoshowedthemselveshisstrongestopponentsoncetheyrealisedthatheaimednotsomuchatreformasatthedestructionoftheChurchandofallreligiousauthority——
[1]Weiss，/AeneasSilviusalsPapstPiusII。/，1897。Boulting，/AeneasSilvius，Orator，ManofLetters，Statesman，andPope/，1908。
[2]/VitaePontificumRomanorum/，etc。，1479。
[3]Thomas，/LeConcordatde1516/，1910。
[4]Burcadus，/DiariumInnocen。VIII。etAlex。VI。/，Florence，1884。
/DiariumsivererumurbanarumCommentarii/(1483-1506)，1883-5。
[5]Infessura，/Diariod。CittadiRoma/，1890。
[6]Tangl，/DasTaxwesenderpapstlichenKanzlei/，1892。SamaranetMollat，/LafiscalitepontificateenFranceduXVesiecle/，1905。
Kirsch，/DiepapstlichenKollektorieninDeutschlandwahrenddes14Jahr/，1894。
[7]Lux，/ConstitutionumApostolicarumdegeneralibeneficiorumreservationeabanno1265adan。1378/，etc。，1904。
[8]Cf。Gasquet，/EveoftheReformation/，chap。ix。Janssen，op。
cit。，Eng。Trans。，vol。i。，pp。9-86。Leclerc，/MemoiresurlapredicationauXIV。siecle/(/Hist。Litter。deFrance/，tom。
xxiv。)。
[9]Helyot，/Hist。desordresmonastiques/，8vols。，1714-19。Henrion，/Allgem。GeschichtederMonchsorden/，1855。
[10]Paulus，/WeltundOrdensklerusbeimAusgangedes13Jahrh/，etc。，1901。
[11]Raynaldus，/Annal。an。/1515，1516。
[12]Publishedin1524。
[13]Lucas，/FraGirolamoSavonarola/，1906。O'Neill，/JeromeSavonarola/，1898。
CHAPTERII
THERELIGIOUSREVOLUTION
LUTHERIANISMANDZWINGLIANISM
(a)InGermany。
Janssen，op。cit。(i。，a)。Pastor，op。cit。(i。a)。Dollinger，/DieReformation/，1846-8。Hergenrother-Kirsch，op。cit。(i。，b)。
Grisar，S。J。，/Luther/，3Bde，1911-12(Eng。Trans。1913-14)。
Denifle-Weiss，O。P。，/LutherundLuthertumindererstenEntwicklung/，1906-9。Weiss，/LutherpsychologiealsSchlusselzurLutherlegende/，2auf。，1906。Hausrath，/LuthersLeben/，2Bde。
1904。Kostlin-Kawerau，/MartinLuther，SeinLebenundseineschriften/，1903。Cardauns，/ZurGeschichtederKirchlichenUnions——undReformsbestrebungenvon1538-42/，1910。Laemmer，/MonumentaVaticanahistoriamecclesiasticamsaeculiXVI。illustrantia/，1861。Raynaldus，/AnnalesEcclesiastici/，1735(tom。xx-xxi。)。
Armstrong，/TheEmperorCharlesV。/，1902。/CambridgeModernHistory/，vol。ii。(TheReformation)，1903。Kidd，/DocumentsIllustrativeoftheContinentalReformation/，1911。Forafairlycompletebibliographyonthisperiodofhistory，cf。Grisar's/Luther/(Eng。Trans。，vol。i。，xv-xxv。；CambridgeModernHistory，ii。，pp。728-64；Hergenrother-Kirsch，Bd。iii。，pp。4-8)。
ThereligiousrevoltthathadbeenforetoldbymanyearnestecclesiasticsbeganinGermanyin1517。ItsleaderwasMartinLuther，thesonofaminer，bornatEislebenin1483。AsaboyheattendedschoolatEisenachandMagdeburg，supportinghimselfbysinginginthestreetsuntilakindbenefactresscametohisassistanceinthepersonofUrsulaCotta。Hisfather，havingimprovedhispositionintheworld，determinedtosendtheyouthtostudylawattheUniversityofErfurt，whichwasthenoneoftheleadingcentresofHumanismonthenorthernsideoftheAlps。ButthoughLutherwasinclosetouchwithsomeoftheprincipalclassicalscholarsofGermanyandwasbynomeansanindifferentclassicalscholarhimself，thereisnoevidenceofhishavingbeeninfluencedlargelyinhisreligiousviewsbytheHumanistmovement。Heturnedhisattentionprincipallytothestudyofphilosophy，andhavingreceivedhisdegreein1505，hebegantolectureonthephysicsandethicsofAristotle。
Suddenly，tothesurpriseofhisfriends，andthenosmallvexationofhisfathertheyoungLuther，whohadnotbeenparticularlyremarkableforhisreligiousfervour，abandonedhiscareerattheuniversityandenteredthenovitiateoftheAugustinianmonasteryatErfurt(July1505)。Themotiveswhichinducedhimtotakethisunexpectedsteparenotclear。Somesayhewasledtodosobythesuddendeathofastudentfriend，othersthatitwasinfulfilmentofavowwhichhehadmadeduringafrightfulthunderstormthatovertookhimonajourneyfromhisfather'shousetoErfurt，whilehehimselftellsusthathebecameamonkbecausehehadlostconfidenceinhimself。[1]Ofhislifeasastudentverylittleisknownforcertain。Probablyhewasnoworseandnobetterthanhiscompanionsinauniversitycity，whichwasdescribedbyhimselfinlaterlifeasa"beerhouse"anda"nestofimmorality。"[2]
ThesuddenchangefromthefreedomandexcitementoftheuniversitytothesilenceandmonotonyofthecloisterhadadepressinginfluenceonamanlikeLuther，who，beingofanervous，highly-strungtemperament，wasinclinedtopassquicklyfromoneextremetoanother。Hebegantobegloomyandscrupulous，andwasdrivenattimesalmosttodespairofhissalvation；butStaupitz，thesuperioroftheprovince，endeavouredtoconsolehimbyimpressingonhimthenecessityofputtinghistrustentirelyinthemeritsofChrist。YetinspiteofhisscruplesLuther'slifeasanovicewasahappyone。Hewasassiduousintheperformanceofhisduties，attentivetotheinstructionofhissuperiors，andespeciallyanxioustoacquireacloseacquaintancewiththeSacredScriptures，thereadingandstudyofwhichwerestronglyrecommendedtoallnovicesintheAugustinianorderatthisperiod。[3]
In1506hewasallowedtomakehisvows，andinthefollowingyearhewasordainedpriest。DuringthecelebrationofhisfirstMasshewassoovercomebyasenseofhisownunworthinesstoofferupsuchapuresacrificethathewouldhavefledfromthealtarbeforebeginningthecanonhaditnotbeenforhisassistants，andthroughouttheceremonyhewastroubledlestheshouldcommitamortalsinbytheslightestneglectoftherubrics。Atthebreakfastthatfollowed，towhichLuther'srelativeshadbeeninvited，fatherandsonmetforthefirsttimesinceLutherenteredthemonastery。Whiletheyoungpriestwaxedeloquentaboutthehappinessofhisvocationandaboutthestormfromheaventhathelpedhimtounderstandhimself，hisfather，whohadkeptsilentthroughouttherepast，unabletorestrainhimselfanylongerinterruptedsuddenlywiththeremarkthatpossiblyhewasdeceived，andthatwhathetooktobefromGodmighthavebeentheworkofthedevil。"Isithere，"hecontinued，"eatinganddrinkingbutIwouldmuchprefertobefarfromthisspot。"Luthertriedtopacifyhimbyremindinghimofthegodlycharacterofmonasticism，buttheinterruptionwasneverforgottenbyLutherhimselforbyhisfriendswhoheardit。
Afterhisordinationtheyoungmonkturnedhisattentiontotheology，but，unfortunately，thetheologicaltraininggiventotheAugustiniannovicesatthisperiodwasofthepoorestandmostmeagrekind。[4]HestudiedlittleifanythingoftheworksoftheearlyFathers，andneverlearnedtoappreciateScholasticismasexpoundedbyitsgreatestmasters，St。ThomasorSt。Bonaventure。HisknowledgeofScholasticTheologywasderivedmainlyfromtheworksoftherebelfriarWilliamofOccam，who，inhisowntime，wasatconstantwarwiththePopes，andwho，duringthegreaterpartofhislife，ifnotatthemomentofhisdeath，wasundersentenceofexcommunicationfromtheChurch。Thewritingsofsuchaman，betrayingastheydidanalmostcompleteunacquaintancewiththeScripturesandexaggeratingmen'snaturalpowerstotheundervaluingorpartialexclusionofGrace，exercisedabanefulinfluenceonamanofLuther'stastesandtemperaments。
AcceptedbyLutherascharacteristicofScholasticTheology，suchwritingsprejudicedhimagainsttheentiresystem。Actingontheadviceoftheprovincial，Staupitz，hegavehimselfupwithgreatzealtothestudyoftheBible，andlateronheturnedhisattentiontotheworksofSt。Augustine，particularlytheworkswrittenindefenceoftheCatholicdoctrineonGraceagainstthePelagians。In1508hewenttotheuniversityofWittenberg，foundedrecentlybyFrederickofSaxony，tolectureonLogicandEthics，andtocontinuehistheologicalstudies；butforsomereason，asyetunexplained，hewasrecalledsuddenlytohismonasteryatErfurt，whereheacquiredfamerapidlyasalecturerandpreacher。
ThirtyfoundationsoftheAugustiniansinSaxonyhadacceptedthereformbegunbyAndrewProlesinthefifteenthcentury，andhadseparatedthemselvesdefinitelyfromtheunreformedhousesoftheorderinGermany。Theyweresubjectimmediatelytothegeneraloftheorder，whosevicaratthistimeinSaxonywasthewell-knownHumanist，Staupitz。[5]Thelatterwasanxioustobringaboutareunionbetweenthetwopartiesandtohavehimselfappointedassuperior；butthepartywhostoodforthestrictobservancewereopposedbitterlytosuchastep，anddeterminedtosendarepresentativetoRometopleadtheircause。ThefactthattheyselectedsoyoungamanasLuthertochampiontheirinterestsisasufficientproofofthepositionwhichhehadwonforhimselfamongsthisreligiousbrethren。Hewaslookeduptoalreadyasanornamentoftheorder，andhisselectionforthishighlyimportantmissionservedtoincreasetheover-weeningprideandself-confidencethathadmanifestedthemselvesalreadyasweakspotsinhischaracter。AccompaniedbyacompanionofhisorderhestartedonhislongjourneyacrosstheAlps。AshereachedtheheightsofMonteMarioandsurveyedthePopeshefellonhisknees，accordingtothecustomofthepilgrims，andhailed"thecitythricesanctifiedbythebloodofmartyrs。"HehadlookedforwardwithpleasuretoastayinRome，wherehemighthaveanopportunityofsettinghisscruplestorestbyageneralconfessionofhissins，but，unfortunately，hisbrotherAugustiniansinRomeandthosewithwhomhecamemostincontactseemedtohavebeenmoreanxioustoregalehimwithstoriesabouttherealorimaginaryscandalsofthecitythantogivehimspiritualconsolationoradvice。Yetinlaterlife，whenhehaddefinitelyseparatedfromtheChurchandwhenhewasmostanxioustoblackenthecharacterofRomeandthePopes，itisremarkablethathecouldpointtoverylittledetrimentaltothemofwhichhehadpersonalknowledge，andwasforcedtorelysolelyonwhathadbeentoldhimbyothers。NordidheleaveRomeasadeclaredenemyofthePapacy，forevensolateas1516hedefendedwarmlythesupremacyofthePopeastheonesafeguardfortheunityoftheChurch。[6]Manyofhisbiographers，indeed，assertthat，ashestoodbythe/ScalaSancta/andwitnessedthepilgrimsascendingontheirbareknees，heturnedasidedisgustedwiththesightandrepeatedthewordsofSt。
Paul，"thejustmanlivesbyhisfaith"；butsuchastatement，dueentirelytotheimaginationofhisrelativesandadmirersisrejectedasalegendbythosebestqualifiedtojudge。[7]ThethreatenedunionofthestrictandunreformedthathadoccasionedLuther'sjourneytoRomewasabandoned；butitisworthyofnotethatStaupitzhadsucceededindetachinghimfromhisformerfriends，andthathereturnedtoGermanyaconvincedandviolentopponentofthepartyofstrictobservance，whohadsenthimtoRomeastheirrepresentative。
DuringhisstayinthecitythereisgoodreasonforbelievingthatonhisownbehalfhesoughtforpermissiontolayasidehismonastichabitandtodevotehimselffortenyearstostudyinItaly，buthisrequestwasrefusedonthegroundthatitwasnotsupportedbytheauthorityofhissuperiors。ThispetitionwasprobablythefoundationfortherumoursthatwerecirculatedinGermanybyhisopponentsthatwhileinRomeheendeavouredtohavehimself"secularised"andtoobtainadispensationtomarry。
OnhisreturntoGermanyhedevotedhimselfoncemoretothestudyoftheologyinpreparationforthedoctoratewhichhewonatWittenbergin1512。AlmostimmediatelyhewasappointedprofessorattheuniversityandundertooktolectureonthePsalms。Hiseloquenceandhisimagination，hisretentivememoryenablinghimtoillustratehistextsbyparallelpassagesdrawnfromthebooksoftheOldTestament，andinacertainwayhisexaggerations，hisstrengthofdiction，andhisasperityoflanguagetowardsallwithwhoseviewshedidnotfindhimselfinagreement，madehislecturesmostpopularattheuniversity，andfilledhishallwithaneagerandattentiveaudience。
AmongstthestudentsLutherhadnorival，andeventhefewprofessorswhowereinclinedtoresenthismethodsandhisviewswerecaptivatedbythemagicinfluenceoftheirbrilliantyoungcolleague。TheAugustinians，mindfulofthehonourhewasachievingfortheirorder，hastenedtoappointhimtotheimportantpositionofdistrictvicar(1515)，whiletheElectorFrederickcouldnotconcealhisdelightathavingsecuredtheservicesofsocapableaprofessorforthenewuniversity。
AtWittenbergLutherfelthimselfcompletelyathome。Hewasproudofthedistinctionsconferreduponhimbyhisbrethren，andoftheinfluenceaccordedtohimbyhiscompanionsintheuniversity。Greataswerehisindustryandhispowersofapplication，yettheywereputtothemostsevereteststoenablehimtocompletetheprogrammehehadsethimselftoaccomplish。Hislecturesattheuniversity，hissermonspreachedintheAugustinianchurch，hisvisitationsofthehousesofhisorderinthedistrictoverwhichhewasvicar，hiscorrespondence，partlyroutineandpartlyentailedbyhiscloserelationswithsomeoftheleadingmeninGermany，occupiedallhistimeeventotheexclusionofthespiritualexercisesenjoinedbyhisrule。VeryfrequentlyheneglectedtocelebrateMassoreventoreadthedivineoffice，andthenalarmedbyhisnegligenceandguilthehadrecoursetoextraordinaryformsofpenance。Fitsoflaxitywerefollowedbyfitsofscrupulousnessuntilatlasthewasdrivenattimesalmosttodespair。ItwasthenthathecalledtomindtheconsolingadvicegiventohimbyhissuperiorthatheshouldputhistrustinthemeritsofChrist，andtheteachingofSt。AugustineonthefrailtyofhumannatureunlessitwasaidedandsupportedbydivineGrace。Hebegantodeveloptheideathatjustificationcouldnotbeacquiredbygoodworks，thatconcupiscencecouldnotbeovercome，andthatconsequentlymancouldbejustifiedonlybytheimputationofthemeritsofChrist。Yearsbefore，viewssuchasthesehadbeenpassingthroughhismind，asmaybeseeninhissermonsagainsttheAugustiniansofthestrictobservance，buttheyfoundadequateexpressiononlyinhiscommentariesontheEpistlesofSt。
PaultotheRomansandtotheGalatians(1515-6)。Still，asyet，heheldstronglytotheprincipleofauthorityinmattersofreligion，andinveighedagainsthereticswhowoulddaretosetasidetheauthorityofthePopeinordertofollowtheirownjudgment。Inreality，however，hisownteachingonmeritandjustificationwasnolongerinharmonywithCatholicdoctrine，andonlyaslightoccasionwasrequiredtobringhimintoopenanddefiniteconflictwiththeauthoritiesoftheChurch。
ThisoccasionwasprovidedbythepreachinginGermanyofanIndulgenceproclaimedbyLeoX。(1513-21)。ThebuildingofSt。Peter'shadbeenbegunbyJuliusII。andwascontinuedbyhissuccessorLeoX。，thesonofLorenzode'Medici，andthegreatpatronoftheHumanistmovement。InordertoprovidefundstoenablehimtocontinuethisgiganticundertakingLeoX。proclaimedanIndulgence。InadditiontoConfessionandHolyCommunionitwasorderedthatthoseofthefaithfulwhowishedtoshareinthespiritualfavoursgrantedbythePopeshouldcontributeaccordingtotheirmeansforthecompletionofSt。Peter's，orthattheyshouldprayforthesuccessoftheworkincasepovertydidnotpermitthemtogivealms。ThepublicationoftheIndulgenceinagreatpartofGermanywasentrustedtoAlbrechtofBrandenberg，whohadbeenelectedArchbishopofMainzthoughhewasalreadyArchbishopofMagdeburgandAdministratorofHalberstadt。ThefeestobepaidbyanarchbishopappointedtoMainzwereexceptionallyhighnottospeakofthelargesumrequiredfortheextraordinaryfavourofbeingallowedtoholdtwoarchbishoprics。AsameansofenablingAlbrechttoraisetherequiredamount，itwasproposedbyanofficialoftheDatarythatheshouldbeallowedtoretainhalfofthecontributionsgivenontheoccasionofthepublicationoftheIndulgenceintheprovincesofMainzandMagdeburg，andinthelandsoftheHouseofBrandenburg。
TopublishtheIndulgenceintheabove-mentionedterritoriesAlbrechtappointedtheDominicanJohnTetzel，[8]whohadacquiredalreadyconsiderablerenownasapreacher。Tetzelwasamanofsolideducationandofgoodmoralstanding，whosereputationasasuccessfulpopularpreacherstoodhighinGermanyatthisperiod。Manygraveabuseshavebeenallegedagainsthimbyhisenemiesconcerninghismannerofcarryingouttheofficeentrustedtohimbythearchbishop，andinregardtohisownprivatelifeseriouscrimeshavebeenlaidtohischarge；butasamatterofhistoryitisnowadmittedthatTetzelwasamuchmalignedman，thathisownconductcanbearthefullestscrutiny，andthatinhispreachingtheworstthatcanbesaidagainsthimisthatheputforwardascertainties，especiallyinregardtogainingindulgencesforthesoulsofthefaithfuldeparted，whatweremerelytheopinionsofcertainschoolsoftheologians。Norisittruetosaythatastheresultofhisactivityvastsumsofmoneymadetheirwayintothepapaltreasury。Theaccountsofthemoniesreceivedduringthegreaterportionofthetimearenowavailable，anditcanbeseenthatwhenallexpenseswerepaidcomparativelylittleremainedforeithertheArchbishopofMainzorthebuildingfundofSt。
Peter's。[9]
TetzelpreachedwithconsiderablesuccessinHalberstadt，MagdeburgandLeipzig，andinMay1517hefoundhimselfintheneighbourhoodofWittenberg，whencemanypeopleflockedtoseehim，andtogaintheIndulgence。ThiswasnotcalculatedtopleaseLutherorhispatrontheElector，FrederickofSaxony，andprovidedLutherwithanoccasionofgivingventtohisownviewsongoodworks，Grace，andJustification。
Yearsbefore，bothinhissermonsattackingtheAugustiniansofthestrictobservancefortheiroverconfidenceinthemeritsofgoodworksandpenance，andinhiscommentariesontheEpistlesofSt。PaultotheRomansandtotheGalatians，hehadindicatedalreadythathisviewsonman'spowertodoanythinggood，andonthemeansandnatureofjustificationdifferedwidelyfromthoseputforwardbyCatholictheologians。Atlast，aftercarefulconsideration，followingthebentofhisowninclinationandtheadviceofhisfriends，hedeterminedtotakethefieldopenlybypublishing，ontheeveofthefestivalofAllSaints，1517，hiscelebratedseventythesesagainstIndulgences。[10]
Thisdocumentwasdrawnupwithgreatskillandforesight。SomeofthetheseswereperfectlyorthodoxandprofessedgreatreverencefortheteachingoftheChurchandtheauthorityofthePope；othersofthemwereopentoanorthodoxaswellastoanunorthodoxinterpretation；
others，still，wereopposedclearlyanddefinitelytoCatholicdoctrine，andallofthemwereputforwardinawaythatwaslikelytoarrestpublicattentionandtowinthesupportofthemasses。[11]TheywereaffixedtothedoorsoftheuniversitychurchinWittenberg，andcopiesofthemwerespreadbroadcastthroughGermany。Beforeaweekhadelapsedtheywerediscussedwitheagernessinallpartsofthecountry，andthestateoffeelingbecamesointensethatTetzelwasobligedtodiscontinuehismission，andtoretiretoFrankfurt，whereunderthedirectionofWimpina，hesethimselftodrawupanumberofcountertheseswhichheofferedtodefend。
ThecircumstancesofthetimewereveryfavourabletoacampaignsuchasLutherhadinitiated。TheprincesofGermanyandevensomeofthebishopsmadenosecretoftheiropinionthatindulgenceshadbeenabused，andmanyofthemwereanythingbutdispleasedatthestepthathadbeentakenbytheWittenbergprofessor。TheoldoppositionbetweentheTeutonandtheLatinwasgrowingdailymoremarkedowingtotheviolentandabusivelanguageofmenlikeUlrichvonHutten，whoposedasGermanpatriots；whiletheHumanistparty，rousedbytheattacksmadeuponReuchlinbytheDominicansofCologne，backedbytheScholasticTheologians，werenotsorrytoseetheiropponentschallengedintheirownspecialdepartment，andobligedtoactonthedefensive。Theknightsorlowernobles，too，whohadbeendeprivedofmanyoftheirprivilegesbytheprinces，werereadyforanyschemeofviolenceinthehopethatitmightconducetotheiradvantage；andthelowerclassesgrounddownforcenturieswerebeginningtorealisetheirownstrength，partlyowingtothespreadofsecretsocieties，andwerewillingtolendareadyeartoaleaderwhohadgivenexpressiontoviewsthatwerecoursingalreadythroughtheirminds。
FromallpartsofGermanylettersofcongratulationpouredinuponLuther。Manyofthesecamefrommenwhohadnodesireforareligiouschange，butwhothoughtthatLuther'scampaignwasdirectedonlyagainstabusesintheChurch。FromtheHumanists，fromseveraloftheprofessorsandstudentsofWittenberg，andevenfromthesuperiorsofhisorderhereceivedunstintedpraiseandencouragement。Atleastoneofthebishops，LorenzvonBibraofWurzburg，hastenedtointercedeforhimwithFredericktheElectorofSaxony，whilenoneoftheotherstookupanattitudeofunflinchingopposition。Tetzel，whohadbeenforcedtoabandonhisworkofpreaching，defendedpubliclyatFrankfurtontheMaineanumberofcounterthesesformulatedbyConradWimpina。TothisattackLutherrepliedinasermononindulgencesinwhichheaimedatexpressinginapopularstylethekernelofthedoctrinecontainedinhistheses。SylvesterPrierias，themasteroftheSacredPalaceinRome，towhomLuther'stheseshadbeenforwardedforexamination，publishedasharpattackuponthem，[12]andwasansweredinLuther'smostabusivestyle。Themostdistinguished，however，ofthemenwhotookthefieldagainsthimwasJohnEck，[13]
ProfessorofTheologyandVice-ChancelloroftheUniversityofIngolstadt。HewasamanwellversedintheScripturesandinthewritingsoftheFathers，areadyspeakerandanincisivewriter，ineverywayqualifiedtomeetsuchaversatileopponent。WhileonavisitwiththeBishopofEichstatthewasconsultedaboutLuther'stheses，andgavehisopinioninthe/Obelisks/onthedangerouscharacteroftheteachingtheycontained。The/Obelisks/waspreparedhastilyandwasnotintendedforpublication，butitwasregardedassoimportantthatcopiesofitwerecirculatedfreelyevenbeforeitwasgiventotheworld。Lutherrepliedinthe/Asterisks/，aworkfullofpersonalinvectiveandabuse。ADominicanofCologne，Hochstraten，alsoenteredthelistsagainstLuther，buthisinterventiondidmoreharmthangoodtothecauseoftheChurchbyalienatingtheHumanistpartywhomheassailedfiercelyasalliesandabettorsofLuther。
Theseattacks，however，servedonlytogivenotorietytoLuther'sviewsandtowinforhimthesympathyofhisfriends。Hisopponentsmadeonegreatmistake。Theirworkswereintendedingreatpartonlyforthelearned，whileLutheraimedprincipallyatappealingtothemassesofthepeople。TheAugustiniansrepresentedhimasthevictimofaDominicanconspiracy，andtoshowtheirhighappreciationofhisservicestheyselectedhimtoconductthetheologicaldisputationatachaptermeetingheldatLeipzigsixmonthsafterthepublicationofhistheses(1518)。AtthissamemeetingLutherdefendedtheviewthatfreewillinmanandallpowerofdoinggoodweredestroyedbyoriginalsin，andthateverythingmeritoriousaccomplishedbymanisreallydonebyGod。Hisoldopponentattheuniversity，Bodenstein(surnamedCarlstadtfromhisplaceofbirth)，declaredhimselfopenlyinfavourofLuther'steachingonfreewill，andpublishedareplytoEck。
AsaresultofthiscontroversybetweenEckandCarlstadtitwasarrangedthatapublicdisputationshouldbeheldatLeipzig(27June-
15July，1519)。TheCatholicteachingwastobedefendedbyEckagainsthistwoopponents，LutherandCarlstadt。AhallinthecastleofPleissenburgwasplacedatthedisposalofthedisputantsbyDukeGeorgeofSaxony，whowasaconvincedCatholichimself，andwhobelievedthatthedisputationmightbethemeansofremovingmanydoubtsandmisunderstandings。TheactsofthedisputationweretobedrawnupandforwardedtotheUniversitiesofParisandErfurtfortheirdecision。WhenitbecameknownthroughoutGermanythatameetinghadbeenarrangedbetweenEckandhistwoprincipalopponents，theexcitement，especiallyinthelearnedcircles，becameintense，andsogreatwastherushofscholarsfromallpartsofthecountrytowitnesstheencounter，thattheimmensehallwaspackedwithaneagerandattentiveaudiencewhenEckandCarlstadtenteredthepulpitsthathadbeenpreparedforthem。
FewmeninGermany，oroutsideit，weremorefittedtoholdtheirowninsuchadisputationthanthedistinguishedVice-ChancellorofIngolstadt。Hewasamanofimposingappearance，giftedwithaclearandpleasingvoiceandgoodmemory，eventemperedandready，quicktodetecttheweakpointsofhisadversaries，andkeenlyalerttotheirdamagingconcessionsandadmissions。ThefirstpointtobedebatedbetweenhimandCarlstadtwasthequestionofGraceandFreeWill。
Carlstadtwasatlastobligedtoconcedethatthehumanwillwasactiveatleasttotheextentofco-operatingorofnotco-operatingwithdivineGrace，aconcessionthatwasopposedentirelytothethesishehadundertakentosustain。Luther，alarmedbythediscomfitureofhiscolleague，determinedtoenterthelistsatonceonthequestionoftheprimacyoftheRomanSee。Hewasnot，however，moresuccessfulthanCarlstadt。Eck，takingadvantageofLuther'sirascibletemperamentandhisexaggerationsofspeech，forcedhimstepbysteptoputasideasworthlessinterpretationsgivenbytheearlyFatherstocertainpassagesofScripture，andtorejecttheauthorityandinfallibilityofGeneralCouncils。Suchalineofarguments，opposedasitwastotheteachingandbeliefsoftheChurch，rousedtheoppositionoftheaudience，andservedtoopentheeyesofDukeGeorgetotherealnatureofLuther'smovement。AnnoyedbyhisowndefeatandbytheattentionsandapplauselavisheduponhisrivalbythepeopleofLeipzig，Lutherleftthecityindisgust。Thedisputationundoubtedlydidgoodinsofarasitmadecleartoallthepositionofthetwoparties，andsucceededinholdingDukeGeorgeofSaxonyandthecityofLeipzigloyaltotheChurch；butitalsodidmuchharmbygivingLutherthenotorietythathewassoanxioustoobtain，andbywinningtohissidePhilipMelanchthon，whowasdestinedtobeinafterlifehisablestlieutenant。Bothsides，asisusualinsuchcontests，claimedthevictory。TheUniversitiesofCologneandLouvaincondemnedLutherimmediately，asdidalsoParisin1521，butasfarascanbeknownErfurtpronouncednodecisiononthequestionssubmitted。
MeanwhilewhatwastheattitudeoftheauthoritiesinRometowardsLuther'smovement。LeoX。，havinglearnedsomethingoftheturmoilcreatedinGermanybyLuther'sthesesandsermons，requestedthevicar-generaloftheAugustinianstoinducehisrebellioussubjecttorecallhisteaching，or，atleast，tokeepsilent。Thevicarwrotetotheprincipal，Staupitz，but，asthelatterwasoneofthosewhohadencouragedLuthertotakethestepshehadtaken，verylittlewasdonetosecurepeace。Lutherwas，however，inducedtowriteamostsubmissivelettertothePopeinwhichhebeggedforaninvestigation，pledginghimselfatthesametimetoacceptthedecisionofLeoX。asthedecisionofChrist(30thMay，1518)。[14]Notsatisfiedwiththecourseofevents，andalarmedbythereportsforwardedtohimfromGermany，thePopeappointedacommissiontoexaminethewholequestion，theresultofwhichcommissionwasthatLutherwassummonedtosubmitatonceortoappearatRometodefendhimselfwithinsixtydays。
Heandhisfriendswerethrownintoastateofgreatalarmbythisunexpectedstep。Ontheonehand，werehetosubmitandtoacknowledgethathehadbeeninerrorhisreputationwouldbeshattered，theAugustinianswouldfeelthemselvesdisgraced，andtheUniversityofWittenbergwouldlosecasteintheestimationofeducatedGermans。Ontheotherhand，ifheadoptedtheboldpolicyofrefusingtoyieldtothepapalentreatieshewasindangerofbeingdenouncedpubliclyasaheretic。InthisdifficultsituationhisfriendsdeterminedtoinvoketheprotectionoftheElectorFrederickofSaxony，thefounderandpatronofWittenbergUniversity。Alarmedbythedangerthatthreatenedthisinstitutionfromtheremovalorexcommunicationofoneofitsmostpopularprofessors，andanxioustogaintime，FrederickrequestedthePopetoreferthematterfordecisiontosomeGermanbishoportoaneutraluniversity。InreplytothisrequestLeoX。appointedCardinalCajetan，papallegateinGermany，toholdaninquiry(23
Aug。，1518)。Luther，havingarmedhimselfwithasafeconduct，wenttoAugsburgtomeetthepapalrepresentative，whoreceivedhimverykindly，andexhortedhimtowithdrawhisstatementsandsubmit。Lutherendeavouredtoinducethecardinaltoenterintoadiscussiononthequestionsindispute，butthelatterdidnotallowhimselftobedrawnintoadisputation。Finally，Lutherrefusedtosubmit，though，atthesametime，hedeclaredsolemnlythathewishedunsaidandunwrittenwhathehadsaidorwrittenagainsttheRomanChurch。AfewdayslaterhefledfromAugsburgafterhavingdrawnupaformalappeal"fromthePopeill-informedtothePopewell-informed，"whilethecardinal，disappointedbythefailureofhisefforts，turnedtotheElectorofSaxonyforhelpagainsttherebelliousmonk。Butthelatter，deceivedbytherecommendationsforwardedonLuther'sbehalfbyhisownsuperior，Staupitz，yieldedtotheentreatiesofSpalatin，thecourtchaplain，andoftheprofessorsofWittenberg，anddeclinedtotakeanystepstocompelLuthertosubmit。Fearful，however，lesthispatronmightnotbeabletoshieldhimfromthecensuresofRome，LutherdeterminedtoanticipatetheexpectedcondemnationbyissuinganappealtoafutureGeneralCouncil(28Nov。，1518)。
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