InthemeantimeLeoX。whohadlearnedfromhisrepresentativetheresultoftheAugsburginterviews，issuedtheBull，/Cumpostquam/(9

Nov。，1518)，inwhichheexplainedauthoritativelytheCatholicdoctrineonIndulgences，andthreatenedexcommunicationagainstallwhorefusedtoacceptit。ThisdocumentwasdeprivedofmuchofitseffectowingtothemisrepresentationsofLutherandhisfriends，whoannouncedthatitoweditsorigintotheschemesandintriguesoftheirDominicanopponentsatRomeandinGermany。Theoccasioncalledforspeedyanddecisiveaction。Buttheimpendingimperialelection，inwhichCharlesI。ofSpain(1516-56)andFrancisI。ofFrance(1515-

47)weretoberivalcandidates，madeitnecessaryforthePopetoproceedcautiously，andaboveall，todonothingthatmightantagonisetheElectorofSaxony，whoseinfluencewouldbeofthegreatestimportanceindecidingthevotesoftheelectoralcollege，if，indeed，itdidnotsecurehisownelection。HadtheappointmentofasuccessortoMaximilianI。restedwithLeoX。itcanhardlybedoubtedthat，inthehopeofpreservingthebalanceofpowerandofsecuringthefreedomoftheHolySee，hewouldhavefavouredtheclaimsoftheElectoragainsteitherorboththerivalmonarchs。[15]

InthesecircumstancesitwasdecidedtosendKarlvonMiltitz，[16]

whowasbybirthaSaxonnoblemanandatthatperiodachamberlainatthePapalCourt，topresentFrederickwiththeGoldenRose，andtobringaboutapeacefulsettlementofacontroversythathadbeendisturbingthewholeEmpire。TheselectionofMiltitzforsuchadelicatemissionwasmostunfortunate。Proud，obstinate，andill-

informedabouttherealissuesatstake，hewasanxioustohavethegloryofputtinganendtothecontroversyatallcosts，andhencehewaswillingtoappearbeforeLutherasahumblesuitorforpeaceratherthanasasternjudge。AllhisseverityandreproacheswerereservedforLuther'sopponents，especiallyforTetzel，whomheheldprimarilyresponsibleforthewholemischief，andtowardswhomheactedbothimprudentlyandunjustly。TheElectorshowedhimselfbutlittleinclinedtorespondtotheadvancesofLeoX。Heconsented，however，toarrangeaninterviewbetweenMiltitzandLutheratAltenburg(Jan。1519)。Duringthecourseoftheinterviewsthattookplacebetweenthem，Lutherpledgedhimselftoremainsilentifhisopponentswereforcedtodolikewise。Hepromised，too，thatifMiltitzwroteadvisingthePopetoappointaGermanbishoptotrythecaseandtoconvincehimofhiserrorhewouldbewillingtoretracthistheses，tosubmittotheChurch，andtoadviseallhissupporterstoremainloyaltotheHolySee。AtthesametimehepreparedaletterfortransmissiontoRome，inwhichheaddressedthePopeinthemostrespectfulterms，declaringasonoathbeforeGodandcreaturesthatitneverenteredintohismindtoattackinanywaytheauthorityoftheRomanChurchorofthePope，thatheconfessedwillinglythatinthisChurchwasvestedsupremejurisdiction，andthatneitherinheavenoronearthwasthereanythingheshouldputbeforeitexceptJesusChristtheLordofallthings。[17]ThroughouttheseproceedingsitisclearthatLuthermeantonlytodeceiveMiltitzandtolullthesuspicionsoftheRomanauthorities，untiltheseedhehadplantedshouldhavetakenroot。Onlyashorttimebeforehehadwrittentoafriend，hintingthatthePopewastherealAnti-ChristmentionedbySt。PaulintheSecondEpistletotheThessalonians，andassertinghisabilitytoprovethathewhoruledattheRomanCourtwasworsethantheTurk。[18]

SeveralmonthspassedandnofurtherstepsweretakenbyRometomeetthecrisis。ThisdelaywasdueingreatmeasuretothedeathofMaximilianI。(1519)，andtothesharpcontestthatensued。ThetwostrongestcandidateswereCharlesI。，KingofSpain，whoassonofPhiliptheHandsome(sonofMaximilian)，andofJoannaofCastile(daughterofFerdinandandIsabella)，wasrulerofSpain，theNetherlands，Austria，andNaples，andFrancisI。，KingofFrance。ForcenturiesthePopehadstriventopreventtheunionofNaplesandtheEmpire，andwithgoodreason，forsuchaunionmustprovealmostofnecessityhighlydetrimentaltothesafetyofthePapalStatesandtheindependenceoftheHolySee。Forthisreason，iffornoother，LeoX。

didnotfavourthecandidatureofCharles。NorcouldheinducehimselftodisplayanyenthusiasmforthecauseofFrancisI。，whoseinterventioninItalianaffairsthePopehadgoodgroundstodread。AsagainstthetwothePopeendeavouredtoinducetheprincestoelectoneoftheirownnumber，preferablytheElectorofSaxony。ButtheElectorshowednoanxietytoacceptsucharesponsibleoffice，andintheendCharlessucceededinwinningovertohissidethemajorityoftheprinces。HewaselectedandproclaimedEmperorunderthetitleofCharlesV。(1519)。

WhileRomeremainedinactive，andwhiletheopponentsofLutherinGermanywerehandicappedbythecrudediplomacyofMiltitz，Lutherwasgaininggroundwithmarvellousrapidity。Hissuccesswasduepartlytohisowngreatpersonalgiftsasapopulardemagogue，andpartlyalsotothefactthatnomanknewbetterthanhehowtomakecapitaloutoftheecclesiasticalabusesofthetime，andtowintohissideallwhohadanyreasontobediscontentedwiththeexistingorder。HewasstrengthenedverymuchbytheinactivityoftheGermanbishops，whoseemedunwillingtotakeanyseveremeasuresagainsthim，bythehelpandencouragementofFrederickofSaxony，who，duringtheinterregnumandforsometimeaftertheelectionofCharlesV。wastherealadministratorofGermany，byhisunionwiththeleadingHumanistscholarsandprofessors，especiallyErasmus，allofwhomregardedLuthermerelyasthechampionoflibertyagainsttheobscurantismoftheScholastics，andbyhissecretallianceswithdiscontentednobles，suchasUlrichvonHuttenandFranzvonSickingen，whosesolehopeofimprovingtheirfortuneslayinthecreationofpublicdisorder。

JohannEck，Luther'schiefopponent，realisingthattherewasnohopeofstirringuptheGermanauthoritiestotakeaction，hastenedtoRometoimpressuponthePopeandhisadviserstheextremegravityofthesituation，andtourgethemtoproceedagainsttherevoltwithallpossibleenergyanddespatch。Lutherhimselfrecognisedclearlyenoughthatthecrisishehadlongforeseenwasathand，andhebegantopreparemen'smindsforcompleterupturewiththeChurchbyhissermononexcommunicationinwhichhebadedefiancetotheecclesiasticalauthorities。Hethrewhimselfwithrenewedenergyintothefray，turningoutvolumeaftervolumewithfeverishrapidity，eachmoreviolentandabusivethanitspredecessor，andnearlyallcouchedinlanguagethatwasasintelligibletothepeasantasitwastotheprofessor。Inhis/AddresstotheNoblesofGermany/，inhisworks/OntheMass/，/OntheImprovementofChristianMorality/，and/OntheBabylonianCaptivity/，heproclaimedhimselfapoliticalaswellasareligiousrevolutionary。Therewasnolongeranyconcealmentorequivocation。Theveilwasliftedatlast，andLutherstoodforthtotheworldasthedeclaredenemyoftheChurchandthePope，thechampionoftheBibleasthesoleruleoffaith，andthedefenderofindividualjudgmentasitsonlyinterpreter。IntheseworksherejectedtheMass，Transubstantiation，vowsofchastity，pilgrimages，fasts，theSacraments，thepowersofthepriesthood，andthejurisdictionandsupremacyofthePope。Withsuchamantherecouldbenolongeranyquestionofleniencyorofcompromise。Theissuesatstake，namely，whetherthewildandimpassionedassertionsofarebelmonkshouldbeacceptedinpreferencetotheteachingofChrist'sChurch，oughttohavebeenapparenttoeverythinkingman；andyetsoblindedweresomeofhiscontemporariesbytheirsympathywiththeHumanistsasagainsttheTheologians，thatevenstilltheyforcedthemselvestobelieveLuthersoughtonlyforreform。

AtRomethetroubleinGermanywasoneofthemainsubjectsthatengagedtheattentionoftheCuria。Itwasfeltthatthetimehadcomewhendecisivemeasuresmustbetaken。AfterlongandanxiousdeliberationsLeoX。publishedtheBull，/ExsurgeDomine/(June1520)，inwhichfortypropositionstakenfromLuther'swritingswerecondemned，hisworkswereorderedtobeburned，thefullpenaltiesofexcommunicationwereproclaimedagainsthimunlesshewithdrewhiserrorsandmadehissubmissionwithinsixtydays，whilehisaidersandabettorswerebesoughtinthemosttouchingtermstoabandonthedangerouspathintowhichtheyhadbeenbetrayed。HadsuchapronouncementbeenissuedatthebeginningofthemovementitmighthavedonemuchtorestorepeacetotheChurch，but，comingasitdidatatimewhenLuther'smovement，backedbyalltherevolutionaryforcesofGermany，hadalreadyacquiredconsiderabledimensions，itfailedtoputanendtothetumult。Besides，thepapaldecisionwasdeprivedofmuchofitsforcebythefactthatEck，Caraccioli，andAleandrowereappointedasacommissiontosuperintenditsexecution。

TheappointmentofEckwasagreattacticalblunder，asitaffordedLutherandhisfriendsanopportunityofproclaimingthatthesentenceofexcommunicationwasprocuredbytheintriguesandmisrepresentationsoftheirpersonalenemies；whilethefactthattheGermanbishopsweredisregardedintheexecutionoftheBullasiftheywerenotabovesuspicionthemselves，waslookeduponbymanyasastudiedinsulttotheentireGermanhierarchy。EventhoughLutherhadentertainedanythoughtsofsubmission，thetriumphofEckwouldhavecreatedveryseriousobstacles；but，knowingashedid，thatevenattheworsthecouldreckonuponthesupportofacertainnumberofthediscontentednobleswhohadpledgedthemselvestoputtheirswordsathisdisposal，hehadnointentionofmakinghissubmission。

Thereceptionaccordedtothepapaldocumentvariedaccordingtotheviewsofthelocalauthoritiesandthestateofpublicfeelinginthedifferentcitiesandprovinces。Thus，whileitspublicationwaswelcomedinCologne，Mainz，Halberstadt，andFreising，itwasreceivedwithverymixedfeelingsatLeipzigandatErfurt。FrederickofSaxony，towhomLeoX。hadaddressedapersonalappeal，refusedtoabandonLuther'scauseunlessitwereprovedfromtheScripturesthathewaswrong。Hedid，indeed，suggestthatLuthershouldwritearespectfullettertothePope，buthissuggestionpassedunheeded。AtfirstLutherpretendedthattheBullwasaforgerybroughtforwardbyEcktodiscredithim，butwhenthislineofdefenceproveduseless，heboldlyattackedthepapalpronouncementinhispamphlet，/AgainsttheBullofAnti-Christ/，inwhichhedenouncedLeoX。asahereticandapostate，anenemyoftheHolyScriptures，atyrant，andacalumniator。Lest，however，thecourageofhissupportersmightbeovercomebytheterrorsofexcommunication，heissuedanappealfromthesentenceofthePopetothejudgmentofafutureGeneralCouncil。

Finally，onthe10thDecember，1520，inthepresenceofanimmenseconcourseofthecitizensandstudentsofWittenberg，heburnedpubliclythepapalBullandthewritingsofhispoliticalopponents。

Onthisoccasionheproclaimedhisintentionofoverthrowingtheecclesiasticalorganisation，andofintroducinganewtheologicalsystem。ForthefutureitwastobewartotheknifeagainstthePopeandtheChurch，andhecalleduponGermanpatriotsandalltruefriendsofpersonallibertytotaketheirstandbyhissideintheconflictthathadbeenbegun。

CharlesV。wasapparentlyinaverystrongposition。NotsincethedaysofCharlemagnehadanyrulerclaimedjurisdictionoversowideaterritoryashis，comprising，asitdid，GermanyandAustria，thekingdomofthetwoSicilies，Spain，andtheNetherlands。Butinrealitytheveryextentofhisdominionsmadehimmuchlesspowerfulthanhemighthavebeenasthesovereignofasmallerbutmorecompactregion。Itservedtoawakenthesuspicionsofhissubjects，whofearedthathemightabolishtheirdistinctivenationalconstitutionsandweldhisscatteredterritoriesintoonegreatempire，andtoexcitethejealousyoftheotherrulersofEurope，whoimaginedthathemightdeclarehimselfdictatorofthewesternworld。TheGermanprinces，havingresistedsuccessfullyalltheeffortsmadebyhisgrandfather，MaximilianI。，toconvertthelooseconfederationoftheGermanStatesintoaunitedandcentralisednation，wereontheirguardlesthissuccessorshouldattemptasimilarpolicywiththeaidofSpanishtroopsandSpanishgold；theSpaniardsresentedtheabsenceofthekingfromSpain，wheremanyofthelowerclasseswereinastateborderingonrebellion；FrancisI。ofFrance，tremblingfortheveryexistenceofhiscountry，waswillingtodoallthings，eventoagreetoanalliancewiththesonsofMohammed，ifhecouldonlylessentheinfluenceofhispowerfulrival。TheTurksunderSolimanI。weredeterminedtorealisethedreamsoftheirracebyextendingtheirterritoriesfromtheBosphorustotheAtlantic；whileeventhePopehadgoodreasontosuspectthatCharlesV。，unmindfuloftheexampleofhisgreatnamesake，mightseektobecomethemasterratherthantheprotectoroftheChurch。[19]

OnaccountofthetroublesinSpainitwasonlylateintheyear1520

thatCharlesV。couldcometoGermanytomeettheelectors，andtotakeoverformallytheadministrationoftheEmpire(23Oct。)。Lessthantwoweekshadelapsedwhenthepapalrepresentative，Aleandro，himselfadistinguishedHumanist，soughtaninterviewwiththenewruler，andbesoughthimtoenforcethepapalBullagainstLutherwiththefullweightofhisimperialauthority。ButthewaveringattitudeofmanyoftheprincesandthedeterminedoppositionofFrederickofSaxonymadetheEmperorhesitatetocondemnLutherwithoutgivinghimanopportunityforexplanationanddefence。TheDietwassoontoopenatWorms，andCharlesV。issuedaninvitationtoLuthertoattend，guaranteeingatthesametimehispersonalsafetyonthewaytoandfromWormsandduringhissojourninthecity。

TheDietmetinJanuary1521，butdespitetheeffortsofAleandrothemajorityoftheprincesstillfailedtorealisethegravityofthesituation。FeelingagainstRomewasrunningveryhighinGermanyatthetime。ManyoftheprincesinsistedonpresentingadocumentembodyingthegrievancesofGermany(/CentumGravamina/)[20]tothepapalambassador，whileevensuchanorthodoxsupporteroftheChurchasDukeGeorgeofSaxony，broughtforwardveryseriouscomplaintsagainsttheclergy，accompaniedbyademandthataGeneralCouncilshouldbesummonedtorestorepeacetotheChurch。Luther，strengthenedbythesafeconductoftheEmperorandbyasecretunderstandingwithsomeoftheprincesandknights，setoutfromWittenbergforWorms，wherehearrivedinApril1521。OnpresentinghimselfbeforetheDiethewasinvitedtostateifhewerereallytheauthoroftheworkspublishedunderhisname，copiesofwhichwerepresentedtohim，and，ifso，washewillingtoretractthedoctrinescontainedinthem。Inreplytotheformerofthesequestionsheadmittedtheauthorshipofthevolumes，butaskedfortimetoconsiderwhatanswerheshouldmakeinregardtothelatter。Adaywasallowedhimforconsideration。Whenheappearedagain，alltracesofthehesitationandnervousnessthatmarkedhisattitudeattheprevioussessionhaddisappeared。Herefusedtoretracthisopinions，andmadeitclearthathenolongeracknowledgedtheauthorityofthePopeorofGeneralCouncilsasasafeguideinmattersreligious。

ThereupontheEmperorintimatedtotheprincesthathewasdeterminedtotakevigorousactionagainstsuchahereticanddisturberofthepublicpeace，thoughattherequestofsomeoftheprincesheallowedtimeforprivateconferencesbetweenLutherandrepresentativeCatholictheologians，notablyEckandCochlaeus。[21]TheseconferenceshavingfailedtoproduceanyresulttheEmperorissuedanorder(25thApril)commandingLuthertodepartfromWormswithoutdelay，andforbiddinghimtopreachtothepeopleonhisjourneyunderpainofforfeitinghissafeconduct。AmonthlaterCharlesV。publishedadecreeplacingLutherunderthebanoftheEmpire。Hewasdenouncedasapublichereticwhomnooneshouldreceiveorsupport；hewastobeseizedbyanyonewhocoulddoso，anddeliveredtotheEmperor；hiswritingsweretobeburned，andallpersonsprovedguiltyofcountenancinghimselforhiserrorswereliabletoseverepunishment。

Manyhopedthatthedecreemightputanendtotheconfusion，butinrealityCharlesV。waspowerlesstoenforceit，especiallyasthemajorityoftheprinceswereunwillingtocarryoutitstermsintheirterritories。Hence，outsidethehereditarydominionsoftheHouseofHabsburg，thelandsofJoachimI。ofBrandenburgandofDukeGeorgeofSaxony，andinBavaria，itremainedadeadletter。

OntheroutefromWormsLutherwastakenprisonerbysoldiersoftheElector，FrederickofSaxony，accordingtoarrangementsthathadbeenmadeforhisprotection，andwasbroughttothecastleatWartburgwhereheremainedforcloseonayear(May1521-March1522)undertheassumednameofYonkerGeorge，safeinspiteoftheimperialdecrees。

InthesilenceofhisretreatatWartburgLutherhadanopportunityforreflectiononthegravityofthesituationthathehadcreated。Attimeshetrembled，ashethoughtofseparatinghimselfdefinitelyfromthegreatworld-wideorganisationwhichrecognisedthejurisdictionoftheBishopofRome，andofsettinguphisownjudgmentagainstthefaiththathadbeenhandeddownforcenturies，andthatwassupportedbytheablestscholarsfromthedaysofClementofRometothoseofSt。ThomasandSt。Bonaventure。

Inhisanxietyofmindhewasthevictimofhallucinations，believingthatthespiritofevilappearedtohiminvisibleform，andheldcommunewithhiminhumanspeech。Hewasassailed，too，withviolenttemptationsoftheflesh，whichreducedhimtoastateborderingondespair。Butthesemomentsofdepressionpassedaway，tobesucceededbyfitsofwildexultationinwhichherejoicedatthestormthathehadcreatedalready，andatthestillgreaterstormhewassoontocreate。Hesettoworkwithtirelessenergy，believinghimselftobeinspiredfromonhighaswastheapostle，St。John，duringhisstayintheislandofPatmos。Attheinstigationofhisfriends，whourgedhimtoattackthecelibacyofthemonksandnuns，heturnedhisattentiontothisquestion，andissuedawork/OnMonasticVows/，inwhichhedeclaredthatsuchvowsofchastity，beingopposedtothefreedomoftheGospel，weresinfulandshouldbeneglected。Inhisbook/OntheMass/heassailedtheMassandthewholetheoryoftheChristianpriesthood，declaringthateverybelieverwasinatruesenseapriest。HepouredoutamostviolenttorrentofabuseagainstHenryVIII。ofEngland，who，inhis/DefenceoftheSevenSacraments/，hadventuredtojoinissuewiththeGermanreformer。AtthesametimeheundertooktoprepareatranslationoftheNewTestamentasameansofadvancinghispropaganda。Byaidofmis-translationsandmarginalnoteshesoughttopopularisehisviewsonFaithandJustification，andtowinfavourwiththepeoplebyopeningtothemthewordofGod，whichheassertedfalselyhadbeenclosedagainstthemforcenturies。

Allhispamphletswerecouchedinpopularlanguageandwereexactlythekindofworkslikelytoappealtothemassesofthepeople，aswellastothedebasedinstinctsofthosewhohadenteredintothereligiousstateinresponsetothewishesoftheirparentsorguardiansratherthaninobediencetothecallofGod。ButwhileLutherthuscateredforthemultitude，MelanchthonsoughttogainthesupportofthemoreeducatedclassesbythrowingLuther'steachingintoscientificandsystematicforminhiswork，/LociCommunes/

(1521)，abookthatremainedforcenturiesthestandardauthorityonLutheranteaching。

ItwouldbewrongtoassumethatLutherdevelopedhistheologicalsysteminitsentiretybeforehisseparationfromtheChurch。OnthequestionofJustificationandFree-willhehadarrivedatviewsdistinctlyopposedtoCatholicdoctrine，buthissystemassuchtookshapeonlygraduallyinresponsetotheattacksofhisopponentsorthedemandsofhisfriends。Ontheonehand，imbuedwiththeideasofGermanPantheisticmysticism，Lutherstartedwiththefixedprinciplethatman'sactioniscontrolledbynecessarylaws，andthatevenafterjustificationmaniscompletelydevoidoffreewillatleastinreligiousmatters。Accordingtohim，humannaturebecamesoessentiallymaimedandcorruptedbythesinofAdamthateveryworkwhichmancandoisandmustbesinful，becauseitproceedsinsomewayfromconcupiscence。Henceitis，heasserted，thatgoodworksareuselessinacquiringjustification，whichcanbeobtainedonlybyfaith；andbyfaithheunderstoodnotthemereintellectualassenttorevealeddoctrines，butapracticalconfidence，resulting，nodoubt，fromthisassent，thatthemeritsofChristwillbeappliedtothesoul。ThroughthisfaiththesinnerseizesupontherighteousnessofChrist，andbyapplyingtohimselfthejusticeofhisSaviourhissinsarecoveredup。ForthisreasonLutherexplainedthatjustificationdidnotmeantheactualforgivenessofsinbytheinfusionofsomeinternalhabitcalledsanctifyinggrace，butonlythenon-imputationoftheguiltonaccountofthemeritsofChrist。

SincefaithaloneisnecessaryforjustificationitfollowedasalogicalconsequencethattherewasnoplaceinLuther'ssystemfortheSacraments，thoughindeferencetooldtraditionsheretainedthreeSacraments，Baptism，Penance，andtheEucharist。These，however，ashetookcaretoexplain，donotproducegraceinthesoul。Theyaremereoutwardpledgesthatthereceiverhasthefaithwithoutwhichhecannotbejustified。HavinginthiswayrejectedthesacramentalsystemandthesacrificialcharacteroftheMass，itwasonlynaturalthatheshoulddisregardthepriesthood，andproclaimthatallbelieverswerepriests。Inharmonywithhistheoryonjustification，anditsdependenceonfaith，hedenouncedPurgatory，PrayersfortheDead，Indulgences，andInvocationoftheSaintsasbeinginthemselvesderogatorytothemeritsofChrist。

Ontheotherhand，helaiditdownastheleadingprinciplethattheBiblewasthesoleruleoffaith，andthatindividualjudgmentwasitsonlyinterpreter。ConsequentlyherejectedtheideaofavisibleauthoritysetupbyChristasaninfallibleguideinreligiousaffairs。InthiswayhesoughttounderminetheauthorityoftheChurch，todepreciatethevalueofthedecreesofthePopesandGeneralCouncils，andtore-assurehislessdaringfollowersbystrippingecclesiasticalcensuresofmorethanhalftheirterrors。[22]

TheresultsofLuther'sliteraryactivityweresoonapparentatWittenbergandothercentresinGermany。TheAugustiniansinLuther'sownconventsetasidetheirvowsasworthless，andrejectedtheMass。

Carlstadtmadecommoncausewiththemostradicalelementinthecity，celebratedMassonChristmasmorningintheGermanlanguage(1521)，andadministeredHolyCommuniontoeveryonewhocameforwardtoreceive，withoutanyinquiryabouttheirspiritualcondition。Puttinghimselfattheheadofabodyofstudentsandroughshewentroundthechurchesdestroyingthepictures，statues，confessionals，andaltars。

ToincreasetheconfusionapartyofmenatZwickauledbyashoemaker，NicholasStorch，andapreacher，ThomasMunzer，followingtheprincipleofprivatejudgmentadvocatedbyLuther，insistedonfaithasaconditionforbaptismandrejectedinfantbaptismasworthless。TheywerecalledAnabaptists。TheyclaimedtobespecialmessengersfromGod，giftedwiththepowerofworkingmiracles，andfavouredwithvisionsfromonhigh。InvaindidLutherattackthemasheretics，andexhorthislieutenantstosuppressthemasbeingmoredangerousthanthePapists。Carlstadt，unabletoanswertheirargumentsfromScripture，wentovertotheirside，andevenMelanchthonfeltsoshakeninhisoppositionthatheappealedtoWartburgforguidance。ThestudentsattheuniversitybecamesorestlessandturbulentthatDukeGeorgeofSaxonybegantotakethepromptanddecisiveactionnecessaryfordealingwithsuchadangeroussituation。Luther，alarmedforthefutureofhiswork，abandonedhisretreatatWartburg(March1522)andreturnedtoWittenberg，wherehehadrecoursetosternmeasurestoputanendtotheconfusion。HedroveCarlstadtfromthecity，andevenfollowedhimtootherplaceswherehetriedtofindrefuge，tillatlast，afteraverydisedifyingscenebetweentheminapublictavern，heforcedhimtofleefromSaxony。Carlstadt'sgreatestoffenceintheeyesofhismasterwashispreachingagainsttheRealPresenceofChristintheEucharist，thoughLutherhimselfadmittedthatheshouldhavelikedtodenytheRealPresenceifonlytoannoythePope，wereitnotthatthewordsofScriptureprovedtoostrong。Carlstadtadoptedadifferentinterpretation，butLutherwasnotthemantotolerateindividualjudgmentinthecaseofoneofhisownlieutenants。Carlstadtwasdenouncedasahereticandablasphemer，forwhomnopunishmentcouldbesufficientlysevere。Munzer，too，wasbanished，andwiththeassistanceoftheElector，Lutherwasenabledtoovercomeallhisopponents。

Lutherowedhissuccessintheopeningyearsofhiscampaignmainlytohisabilityingaugingthefeelingsofthedifferentclasseswhosesupporthewishedtoobtain，aswellastohiscompletemasteryoftheGermanlanguage。Inappealingtothemonksandnuns，whowerelongingtoescapefromtheobligationstheyhadcontracted，heofferedthemcompletelibertybydenouncingtheirvowsasopposedtothefreedomoftheGospelandconsequentlysinful。ManyofthemonksandnunsabandonedtheircloistersandfledtoWittenbergtoseekthepleasuresdeniedthemhitherto，andtoputinpracticeLuther'steachingonthenecessityofmarriage。Thoughheencouragedbishopsandprieststomarry，andthoughheforwardedhiswarmestcongratulationstoCarlstadtonhisbetrothaltoafifteenyearoldmaiden(1522)，Lutherhimselfhesitatedlongbeforetakinghisfinalplunge；butatlast，againsttheadviceofhisbestfriends，hetookashiswifeCatherineBora，oneoftheescapednunswhohadsoughtrefugeinWittenberg。Hismarriage(1525)wasasourceofamusementtohisopponentsasitwasofdismaytohissupporters。Melanchthoncomplainedbitterlyofthestephismasterhadtaken，butheconsoledhimselfwiththethoughtthatthemarriagemightoutanendtohisformerfrivolity，andmightallaythesuspicionsthathisconducthadaroused。[23]Totheprinces，thefreecities，andthelandlessknightsheappealedbyholdingouthopesthattheymightbeenrichedbyadivisionoftheecclesiasticalestatesandofthegoodsofthemonasteriesandchurches。WiththeoverthrowofthePopeandofthebishopstheprinceswereledtoexpectthattheymightthemselvesbecomespiritualdictatorsintheirowndominions。TothefriendsoftheHumanistmovementandthegreatbodyoftheprofessorsandstudentsherepresentedhimselfasthechampionoflearningandintellectualfreedom，anxioustodefendthemagainsttheobscurantismoftheScholasticsandtheinterferenceoftheRomancongregations。

AlargenumberoftheleadingHumanists，believingthatLutherhadundertakenonlyacampaignagainstuniversallyrecognisedabuses，wereinclinedatfirsttosympathisewithhismovement。Thefriendlyattitudetheyadopted，andtheinfluenceemployedbyErasmusandothersonhisbehalfduringtheearlyyearsofhisrevoltcontributednotalittletohisfinalsuccess。ButasitbecameevidentthathisobjectwastheoverthrowoftheChurchandofdoctrinesacceptedasdogmasoffaithbythewholeChristianworld，hisformeralliesfellawayonebyone。Onthequestionoffree-willErasmus，whohadlongplayedadoublerole，founditnecessarytotakethefieldopenlyagainsthim。[24]Luther'sanswer，fullofpersonalabuseandinvective，drewasharpreplyfromErasmus，andallfriendlyintercoursebetweenthemwasbrokenoffforever。

Butitwasonthemassofthepeople，thepeasantsandtheartisans，thatLutherreliedmainlyforsupport，anditwastotheseheaddressedhismostforcibleappeals。ThepeasantsofGermany，grounddownbyheavytaxesandreducedtothepositionofslaves，werereadytolistentotherevolutionaryideasputforwardbyleaderslikeSickingenandvonHutten，andtorespondtothecallofLuthertoriseagainsttheirprinceswhethertheyweresecularorecclesiastical。IntheimaginationofthepeasantsLutherappearedasthefriendofhumanliberty，determinedtodeliverthemfromtheintolerableyokethathadbeenlaiduponthembytheirmasters。Hisattackswereconfinedatfirsttotheprince-bishopsandabbots，butsoonrealisingthestrengthoftheweaponhewielded，heattackedthelayprincesinthepamphletsentitled/ChristianLiberty/and/TheSecularMagistracy/，andadvocatedthecompleteoverthrowofallauthority。Itistrue，undoubtedly，thatmanyofthepeasantswerealreadyenrolledinthesecretsocieties，andthathadthereneverbeenaLutherapopularrisingmighthavebeenanticipated；buthisdoctrinesonevangelicalfreedomandhisfrenziedonslaughtsontheecclesiasticalandlayrulers，turnedthemovementintoananti-religiouschannel，andimpartedtothestruggleauniformityandbitternessthatotherwiseitcouldneverhaveacquired。

RisingsofthepeasantrytookplaceinvariouspartsofGermany，notablyinSwabia，Thuringia，theRhineProvinces，andSaxony(1524)。

ThomasMunzer，theleaderoftheAnabaptists，encouragedthemintheirfightforfreedom。Atfirsttheattackwasdirectedprincipallyagainstthespiritualprinces。Manymonasteriesandchurcheswereplundered，andseveralofthenobleswereputtodeath。SoonthelayprincesofGermany，alarmedbythecourseoftherevolutionariesandfearingforthesafetyoftheirownterritories，assembledtheirforcesandmarchedagainsttheinsurgents。Thewarwascarriedonmercilesslyonbothsides，closeupon100，000peasantsbeingkilledinthefield，whilemanyoftheirleaders，amongstthemThomasMunzer，werearrestedandcondemnedtodeath。Innearlyeveryimportantengagementthepeasants，asmightbeexpected，suffereddefeat，sothatbeforetheendof1525themovementwas，practicallyspeaking，atanend。Luther，whohadbeenconsultedbybothsides，andwhohadtriedtoavoidcommittinghimselftoeither，frightenedbytheveryviolenceofthestormhehadbeeninstrumentalincreating，issuedanappealtotheprincescallinguponthemtoshownomercytotheforcesofdisorder，[25]andevenMelanchthon，gentleandmoderateasheusuallywas，didnothesitatetodeclarethatthepeasantsofGermanyhadmorelibertythanshouldbeallowedtosucharudeandunculturedpeople。ThePeasants'War，disastrousasitwas，didsomegoodbyopeningmen'seyestothedangerousconsequencesofLuther'sextravagantharangues，andbygivingsomeslightindicationsastotherealcharacterandmethodsoftheman，whowasposingasaheaven-sentreformerandatthesametimeasachampionofpopularliberty。

ButthoughLutherlostgroundinmanyquartersowingtothepartheplayedbeforeandduringthePeasants'War，hehadnointentionofabandoningthestruggleindespair。Duringtheearlyyearsofhiscampaignhismindwassoengrossedwiththeoverthrowofexistingreligiousinstitutions，thathehadlittletimetoconsiderhowheshouldrebuildwhathehadpulleddown。Atfirsthethoughtthatnovisibleorganisationwasnecessary，astheChurch，accordingtohisview，consistedofallthosewhohadtruefaithandcharity。Butsoonheabandonedthisideainfavourofdistrictorlocalchurchesthatshouldbeleftcompletelyindependent。ThedisturbancesinGermanyduringthePeasants'Wartaughthimthehopelessnessofsuchascheme，andshowedhimthathisonlychanceofpermanentsuccesslayintheorganisationofstatechurchestobeplacedundertheprotectionandauthorityofthecivilrulers。Bythisbribehehopedtoconciliatetheprinces，whomhehadantagonisedbyhisattacksontheirownbodyaswellasbyhisattitudeduringtheearlystagesofthedisturbance。

TheElectorJohnofSaxony，whohadsucceededhisbrotherFrederick，hesitatedatfirsttoassisthiminthemomentousworkofsettinguparivalChristianorganisation。But，atlast，mindfuloftheadvantagesthatwouldaccruetohimfrombeingrecognisedassupremeheadoftheChurchinhisowndominions，hegaveareluctantconsenttotheplansformulatedbyLuther。

Abodyofvisitorsconsistingofclericsandlawyerswasappointedtodrawupanewecclesiasticalconstitution，themostnoteworthyfeatureofwhichwasthecompletedependenceofthenewchurchonthesecularauthorityofeachstate。Episcopaljurisdictionwasrejected，andinplaceofthebishops，superintendentswereappointed。Theordinaryadministrationwastobecarriedoutbyasynodofclericsandlaymenelectedbythevariousparishes，but，inreality，therightofappointment，oftaxation，ofapportioningthetemporalgoods，andofdecidinglegaldifficultiespassedunderthecontrolofthesovereign。

Strangetosay，thoughLutherinsistedonindividualjudgmentduringhiscampaignagainsttheCatholicChurch，hehadnodifficultyinurgingthecivilrulerstoforcealltheirsubjectstojointhenewreligiousbody。ThegoodsoftheCatholicChurchweretobeappropriated，someofthembeingsetasideforthesupportofthenewreligiousorganisation，whilethegreaterportionofthemfoundtheirwayintotheroyaltreasury。TheMass，shornoftheElevationandofeverythingthatwouldimplytheideaofsacrifice，wastranslatedintotheGermanlanguage，sothatinallsolemnreligiousservicestheplaceoftheSacrificewastakenbythehymns，Scripturallessons，thesermon，andtheLord'sSupper。MelanchthonwroteaVisitationBook(1527)fortheguidanceofLutheranministers，andLutherhimselfpublishedtwocatechismsfortheinstructionofthechildren。TheLutheranchurchwasorganisedonasimilarplaninHesseandBrandenburgandinmanyofthefreecitiessuchasNurnberg，Magdeburg，Bremen，Frankfurt，Ulm，etc。Bythesemeasurestheseparationwascompleteddefinitely，andacertainamountofunitywasensuredforthenewreligion。

Meanwhile，howfareditwiththeEmperorandthePope？ShortlyaftertheDietofNurnberg(1522)CharlesV。leftGermanyfortheNetherlands。OwingtothetroublesinSpainandthelongdrawnoutwarwithFrancehewasunabletogiveanyattentiontotheprogressofaffairsinGermany。TheadministrationoftheEmpirewascommittedtothreerepresentatives，theablestofwhomwastheElectorFrederickofSaxony，thefriendandpatronofLuther。TheresultwasthatLutherhadafreehandtospreadhisviewsnotwithstandingthedecreeofWorms。

LeoX。diedin1521andwassucceededbyAdrianVI。(1522-3)，aformertutoroftheEmperor。AsaHollanderitmightbeanticipatedthathisrepresentationstotheGermanprinceswouldprovemoreeffectivethanthoseofhisItalianpredecessor，particularlyasnotevenhisworstenemiescoulddiscoveranythingworthyofreproacheitherinhisprinciplesorpersonalconduct。ConvincedthatLuther'sonlychanceofwinningsupportlayinhisexaggerateddenunciationsofrealorimaginaryabuses，hedeterminedtobringaboutacompletereform，firstinRomeitselfandthenthroughouttheentireChristianworld。

Owingtohisill-disguisedcontemptforallthatwasdeartotheheartoftheHumanistLeoX。，andtotheseveremeasurestakenbyhimtoreduceexpensesattheRomanCourt，heencounteredgreatoppositioninRome，andincurredthedislikebothofofficialsandpeople。

WhenhelearnedthataDietwastobeheldatNurnberg(1522)toconsiderplansforthedefenceoftheEmpireagainsttheTurkswhohadconqueredBelgrade，hedespatchedChieregatiashisnunciotoinvitetheprincestoenforcethedecreeofWorms，andtorestorepeacetotheChurchbyputtingdowntheLutheranmovement。InhisletterstoindividualmembersoftheDietandinhisinstructionstothenuncio，whichwerereadpubliclytotheassembledrepresentatives，AdrianVI。

admittedtheexistenceofgraveabusesbothinRomeitselfandinnearlyeverypartofthechurch。[26]Hepromised，however，todoeverythingthatinhimlaytobringaboutacompleteandthoroughreform。

TheseadmissionsservedonlytostrengthenthehandsofLutherandhissupporters，whopointedtothemasajustificationforthewholemovement，andtoprovidetheprinceswithaplausibleexplanationoftheirinactivityingivingeffecttothedecreeofWorms。TheprincesrefusedtocarryoutthedecreeofWorms，allegingasanexcusethedangerofpopularcommotion。TheybroughtforwardoncemorethegrievancesoftheGermannationagainstRome(/CentumGravamina/)，insistedonaGeneralCouncilbeingcalledtorestorepeacetotheChurch，andheldoutavaguehopethataneffortwouldbemadetopreventthespreadofthenewdoctrinetilltheCouncilshouldbeconvoked。

Thepapalnuncio，dissatisfiedwiththeattitudeoftherepresentatives，withdrewfromtheDietbeforetheformalreplywasdeliveredtohim。AdrianVI。，cognisantofthefailureofhiseffortsandweariedbytheoppositionoftheRomanstowhomhisreformsweredispleasing，madealastfruitlessefforttowinoverFrederickofSaxonytohisside。ThenewsthattheislandofRhodes，forthedefenceofwhichhehadlabouredandprayedsostrenuously，hadfallenintothehandsoftheTurks，servedtocompletehisafflictionandtobringhimtoaprematuregrave。HediedinSeptember1523tothegreatdelightoftheRomans，whocouldbarelyconcealtheirrejoicingevenwhenhelayonhisbedofdeath。HewasanexcellentPope，thoughperhapsnotsufficientlycircumspectforthecriticaltimesinwhichhelived。Hadhebeenelectedacenturyearlier，andhadhebeengivenanopportunityofcarryingoutreforms，ashadbeengiventosomeofhispredecessors，theLutheranmovementwouldhavebeenanimpossibility。

HewassucceededbyClementVII。(1523-34)。ThenewPopewasarelativeofLeoX。，and，likehim，apatronofliteratureandart。Hewasamanofblamelesslifeandliberalviews，andendowedwithgreatprudenceandtact，buthisexcessivecautionandwantoffirmnessledtotheruinofhisbest-conceivedplansandtothefailureofhisgeneralpolicy。HedespatchedCardinalCampeggioashislegatetotheDietofNurnberg(1524)。OnceagaintheprincesofGermanyclosedtheirearstotheappealofthePope，refusedtotakeenergeticmeasurestoenforcethedecreeofWorms，andtalkedofestablishingacommissiontoconsiderthegrievancesoftheirnationagainstRome，andtoinquireintothereligiousissuesthathadbeenraised。

Campeggio，feelingthatitwashopelesstoexpectassistancefromtheDiet，turnedtotheindividualprinces。HesucceededinbringingaboutanallianceatRatisbon(1524)betweentherulersofAustria，Bavaria，andseveraloftheecclesiasticalprincesofSouthernGermanyforthepurposeofopposingthenewteachingandsafeguardingtheinterestsoftheCatholicChurch。AsimilarallianceoftheCatholicprincesofNorthernGermanywasconcludedatDessauin1526。AtthesametimetheprinceswhowerefavourabletoLutheranviews，notablyPhilipofHesse，John，ElectorofSaxony，therulersofBrandenburg，Prussia，MecklenburgandMansfeld，togetherwiththerepresentativesofthecitiesofBrunswickandMecklenburg，metandpledgedthemselvestomakecommoncause，wereanyattemptmadebytheEmperorortheCatholicprincestosuppressLuther'sdoctrinebyforce。InthiswayGermanywasbeingdividedgraduallyintotwohostilecamps。

UnfortunatelyCharlesV。，whosepresenceinGermanymighthaveexercisedarestraininginfluence，wassoengrossedinthelifeanddeathstrugglewithFrancethathehadnotimetofollowtheprogressofthereligiousrevolt。Tocomplicatetheissuestillmore，ClementVII。，whohadbeenfriendlytotheEmperorforsometimeafterhiselection，alarmedlestthefreedomofthePapalStatesandoftheHolySeemightbeendangeredweretheFrenchdrivencompletelyfromthepeninsula，tooksidesopenlyagainstCharlesV。andformedanalliancewithhisopponent。ThegoodfortunethathadsmiledontheFrencharmssuddenlydesertedthem。In1525FrancisI。wasdefeatedatPaviaandtakenasprisonertoSpain，wherehewasforcedtoacceptthetermsdictatedtohimbyhisvictoriousrival。Onhisreleasein1526herefusedtoabidebythetermsoftheTreaty，andanewalliance，consistingofthePope，France，England，Venice，Florence，Milan，andSwitzerlandwasformedagainstCharlesV。Disturbances，fomentedbytheItaliansupportersoftheEmperor，brokeoutinthePapalStates，andaGermanarmyledbythePrinceofBourbonmarchedonRomewithouttheknowledgeofCharles，capturedthecity，plundereditstreasures，andforseveraldayswreakedaterriblevengeanceonthecitizens。

Charles，whowasinSpainatthetime，wasdeeplygrievedwhenthenewswasbroughttohimofthehavocthathadbeenwroughtbyhissubordinates。AtemporarypeacewasconcludedimmediatelybetweentheEmperorandthePope，andthepeaceofBarcelonain1529putanendtothisunholystrife。AboutthesametimethehostilitiesbetweenCharlesandFrancisI。werebroughttoaconclusionbythePeaceofCambrai，andtheEmperor，havingbeencrownedbythePopeatBologna(1530)，wasfreeatlasttoturnhisattentiontothereligiousrevolutioninGermany。[27]

DuringthestrugglebetweenCharlesV。andthePopetheLutheranprinceshadafreehandtodoastheypleased，and，indeed，atonetimetheywerenotwithouthopethatCharlesmightbeinducedtoplacehimselfattheirhead。Besides，owingtothefactthattheTurkswereadvancingonHungaryandwerelikelytooverrunthehereditarydominionsoftheHouseofHabsburg，theyfeltconfidentthatnoattemptcouldbemadetosuppressLutheranismbyforce。AttheDietofSpeier，in1526，JohnDukeofSaxony，andPhilipofHesseadoptedsoviolentandunconciliatoryanattitudethatGermanywasonthebrinkofcivilwar，hadnottheArchdukeFerdinand，alarmedbythesuccessoftheTurks，usedallhispowerstopreventadivision。ItwasagreedthatbothsidesshoulduniteagainsttheTurks，thataCouncilshouldbecalledwithinayeartodiscussthereligiousdifficulties，andthatinthemeantimeindividualrulerswerefreetoenforceordisregardthedecreeofWormsastheywished。

Theseconcessions，wrungfromtheCatholicprincesowingtothefearofTurkishinvasion，didnotsatisfyeitherparty。FalserumourswerespreadamongtheProtestantprincesthatDukeGeorgeofSaxonyandotherCatholicrulersintendedtohaverecoursetoarms，andthoughtheDukewasabletoclearhimselfofthecharge，therelationsbetweenthetwopartiesbecamegraduallymorestrained。In1526theTurksovercametheHungariansandBohemiansatMohacz，andadvancingintoAustriawereencampedundertheverywallsofVienna。ItbecamenecessarytosummonanotherDietatSpeier(1529)。TheCatholicprinceswereinthemajority，andtheknowledge，thattheEmperorhadconcludedpeacewithFranceandthePopeandwasnowreadytosupportthem，renderedthemlesswillingtoacceptdictation。ItwascarriedbyamajoritythattheEmperorshouldendeavourtohaveaCouncilconvokedwithinayear，thatinthemeantimetherulersinwhoseterritoriesthedecreeofWormshadbeeninforceshouldcontinuetoenforceit，andthatinthestateswherethenewteachinghadtakenroottherulerswereatlibertytoallowittocontinue，but，intheintervalbeforetheCounciltheyshouldpermitnofurtherchangestobeintroduced。NobodyshouldbeallowedtopreachagainsttheSacramentoftheAltar；theMassshouldbecelebratedifithadnotbeenabolished，andifabolishednooneshouldbepunishedforcelebratingorattendingit，andtheScriptureshouldbeexpoundedaccordingtothetraditionalinterpretationoftheChurch。

TheLutheranpartyobjectedstronglytothisdecree，andastheirobjectionswereover-ruledtheysubmittedaformalprotest，onaccountofwhichtheyreceivedthedistinctivetitleofProtestants。[28]Theprotest，signedbytheElectorofSaxony，theMargraveofBrandenburg，theDukesofBrunswick-Luneburg，PhilipofHesse，andtherepresentativesoffourteencities，havingfailedtoproduceanyeffectontheDiet，adeputationwasappointedtointerviewtheEmperorandtoplacetheirgrievancesbeforehim。ButCharlesV。，mindfulofhisimperialoath，refusedtoallowhimselftobeintimidated。HewarnedthedeputationthatheandtheCatholicprinceshadalsotheirdutiestofulfiltowardsGodandtheChurch，andthatuntilaCouncilshouldassembletheymustobeythedecreesoftheDiet。InJanuary1530heconvenedanewDiettomeetatAugsburgatwhichhehimselfpromisedtobepresent。

TheDietwasconvenedtomeetatAugsburginApril1530，butitwasthemiddleofJunebeforetheEmperor，accompaniedbythepapallegate，madehisformalentranceintothecity。OnthefollowingdaythefeastofCorpusChristiwascelebratedwiththecustomarysolemnities，andtheEmperorwaspaineddeeplywhenhelearnedthattheProtestantprincesrefusedtobepresentortotakeanypartinthefunction。AttheopeningoftheDietitwasagreedthatthereligiousquestionshouldtakeprecedence，andtheProtestantprinceswereinvitedtomakeaclearstatementoftheirdoctrinesanddemands。

LutherhimselfcouldnotbepresentonaccountofthedecreeofWorms，andhencethedutyofpreparingacompleteexpositionoftheProtestantdoctrinedevolvedupontheablestofhislieutenants，PhilipMelanchthon。HedrewupandpresentedtotheDietthedocumentknownasthe/AugsburgConfession/(/ConfessioAugustana/)，acceptedbyLutherhimselfasamasterlythoughperhapstoomoderatestatementofthenewteaching。TheConfessionwasdividedintotwoparts，theformerofwhichconsistedoftwenty-onearticlesordogmasoffaithreceivedbyhimselfandhisfriends；thelatterdweltwithwhathetermedabuseswhichtheyrejected，notableamongstthesebeingcelibacyoftheclergy，monasticvows，auricularconfession，privatemasses，communionunderonekind，abstinence，andepiscopalgovernment。TheConfessionwasdrawnupveryskilfully，greatprominencebeinggiventothedoctrinesonwhichallChristianswereagreed，whilethedistinctivetenetsoftheProtestantreformerswereputforwardintheirmildestandleastoffensiveform。ThedocumentwasreadtotheDietinGermanbyBayer，ChancelloroftheElectorofSaxony，andundoubtedlyitproducedamarkedimpressionontheassembly。TheEmperorheldaconferencewiththeCatholicprinces，someofwhomadvocatedpromptrecoursetothesternestmeasures。

Others，however，amongstthembeingseveraloftheecclesiasticalprinces，misledbythetemperateand，inacertainsense，misleadingcharacterofMelanchthon'sstatement，andbelievingthatapeacefulsolutiontothereligiousdifficultywasstillpossible，urgedCharlesV。toabstainfromdecisiveaction。ItwasagreedthattheworkofexaminingandrefutingtheAugsburgConfessionshouldbeentrustedtoacertainnumberofCatholictheologians，themostprominentofwhomwereEck，Cochlaeus，andConradWimpina。[29]Unfortunatelythesemenallowedtheirnaturalfeelingsofirritationtoovercometheirjudgment，andnotcontentwithacalmandjudicialrefutationofthedocumentsubmittedtothem，theyattackedwarmlytheexaggerations，contradictions，andmisrepresentationsofCatholicdoctrineofwhichLutherhadbeenguilty，andsucceededinimpartingtotheirreplyabitterandironicaltonemorelikelytowidenthantohealthedivision。AttherequestoftheEmperortheymodifieditveryconsiderably，confiningthemselvesentirelytoabriefanddispassionateexaminationoftheindividualpointsraisedbyMelanchthon，andinitsmodifiedformtheirrefutation(/ConfutatioConfessionisAugustanae/)waspresentedtotheDiet(3rdAug。)。

WhenthereplyoftheCatholictheologianshadbeenreadtheEmperorcalledupontheProtestantprincestoreturntotheunityoftheChurch；buthisappealfellupondeafears，anditseemedasiftheissueweretobedecidedimmediatelybycivilwar。Bywayofcompromiseitwassuggestedthatrepresentativesofbothpartiesshouldmeetinconference，Eck，Cochlaeus，andWimpinabeingselectedastheCatholictheologians，Melanchthon，Brenz，andSchnepasthechampionsofLutheranism。Fromtheveryoutsetitshouldhavebeenevidenttoallthat，wheredisagreementwassofundamental，onepartymaintainingthetheoryofaninfallibleChurchastheonlysafeguideinreligiousmatters，theotherrejectingentirelytheauthorityoftheChurchandthePopeinfavourofindividualjudgment，thediscussionofparticulardogmascouldneverleadtounity。AsamatteroffactMelanchthonwaswillingtomakemostimportantconcessions，andonthequestionoforiginalsin，free-will，justification，faith，penance，andtheintercessionofthesaints，formulaswereputforwardnotdispleasingtoeitherparty。EveninregardtotheEucharist，thejurisdictionofthebishops，andthesupremacyofRome，Melanchthonwasinclinedtogofartomeethisopponents，muchtothedisgustoftheextremistsofhisownpartyandtothenosmallalarmofLuther。[30]Butinrealitytheapparentharmonyexistedonlyonpaper，andtheconcessionsmadebyMelanchthondependedentirelyonthemeaningthatshouldbeplacedontheambiguousphraseologyandqualificationswithwhichtheywereclothed。OnthequestionoftheMass，thecelibacyoftheclergy，andthemeritoriouscharacterofgoodworks，noagreementwasarrivedat，asMelanchthon，alarmedbytheoppositionofhisownsupportersandthereproofsofLuther，wasunwillingtomodifyhisposition。Whattheconferenceoftheologianshadfailedtodowasundertakenbyamixedcommissionconsistingofprinces，theologians，andlawyers，butwithoutanyresult。InSeptembertheEmperorannouncedthathewasendeavouringtoprocuretheconvocationofaGeneralCouncilandthatinthemeantimetheProtestantsshouldreturntotheoldfaith，acertaintimebeingallowedthemforconsideration，thattheyshouldattemptnofurtherinnovationsorinterferencewiththefollowersoftheoldfaith，thattheyshouldrestoretheecclesiasticalgoodswhichhadbeenseized，andthattheyshouldunitewiththeCatholicsinopposingtheAnabaptistsandtheSacramentarians。

TheProtestantprincesrefusedtosubmitonthegroundthattheirdoctrineswereinharmonywiththeWordofGod，andtojustifythiscontentionMelanchthonpublishedthe/ApologiaConfessionisAugustanae/，whichwasinmanypointsmorefullandexplicitthantheConfessionitself。SomeoftheGermancitiesthathadembracedtheZwingliandoctrine，notably，StrassburgandConstance，repudiatedtheAugsburgConfession，andpresentedadocumentembodyingtheirbeliefs，knownasthe/ConfessioTetrapolitana/whichfoundnofavourwithCharlesV。orwiththeDiet。Finally，onthe18thNovember，theEmperorannouncedtotheDietthatuntilaGeneralCouncilshouldmeet，everythingmustberestoredtothe/statusquo/，thathefeltitincumbentuponhimasprotectoroftheChurchtodefendtheCatholicfaithwithallhismight，andthatinthisworkhecouldcountonthefullsupportoftheCatholicprinces。Unfortunately，itwasbynomeanscorrecttostatethattheCatholicrulersofGermanystoodbehindtheirEmperor。Nearlyallofthemwereanxioustoavoidcivilwaratanycost，andnotafewofthemhesitatedtosupporttheEmperorlestthesuppressionoftheProtestantprincesmightleadtotheestablishmentofastrongcentralpower。NorweretheProtestantsalarmedbythethreatofforce。WiththeTurkshoveringontheflanksoftheempire，theywereconfidentthattheymightexpectconcessionsratherthanviolence。

TheProtestantprincesmetinDecember(1530)atSchmalkaldtoconsidertheirposition，andearlyinthefollowingyear(1531)theyformedtheSchmalkaldicLeagueforthedefenceoftheirreligiousandtemporalinterests。NegotiationswereopenedupwithFrance，Denmark，andEngland，andnotificationwasmadetotheEmperorthattheymustwithholdtheirassistanceagainsttheTurksuntiltheirreligiousbeliefsweresecured。Theyrefused，furthermore，torecogniseFerdinand，brotherofCharlesV。，whomCharleshadproclaimedKingoftheRomans。TheEmperor，alarmedbythenewsthatSolimanwaspreparinganimmensearmyforageneralattackonItalyandAustria，andwellawarethathecouldnotcounteitherontheassistanceoftheCatholicprincesortheneutralityofFrance，wasforcedtogiveway。

InJuly1532peacewasconcludedatNurnberg。AccordingtothetermsofthePeaceofNurnbergitwasagreedthatuntilaGeneralCouncilshouldassemblenoactionshouldbetakenagainsttheProtestantprinces，andthatintheintervaleverythingwastoremainunchanged。

Thisagreement，itwasstipulated，shouldapplyonlytothosewhoacceptedtheConfessionofAugsburg，astipulationthatwasmeanttoexcludethefollowersofZwingli。

CharlesV。wasreallyanxiousthataCouncilshouldbecalled，norwasClementVII。unwillingtomeethiswishes，ifonlyhecouldhavebeencertainthataCouncilconstitutedassuchassemblieshadbeenconstitutedtraditionally，couldserveanyusefulpurpose。TimeandagainLutherhadexpressedhissupremecontemptfortheauthorityofGeneralCouncils，thoughheprofessedtobenotunwillingtosubmitthemattersindisputetoabodyofmenselectedbythecivilrulers。

In1532-3PopeandEmperormetatBolognatodiscussthesituation，andmessengersweredespatchedtoseeonwhattermstheProtestantswouldconsenttoattendtheCouncil。ThemembersoftheSchmalkaldicLeaguerefused(1533)toaccepttheconditionsproposedbythePope，namely，thattheCouncilshouldbeconstitutedaccordingtotheplanhithertofollowedinregardtosuchassemblies，andthatallshouldpledgethemselvesbeforehandtoacceptitsdecrees。[31]

ClementVII。diedinSeptember(1534)andwassucceededbyPaulIII。

(1534-49)。HeconvokedaGeneralCounciltomeetatMantuain1537，buttheLeaguerefusedoncemoretoattend(1535)。Evenhadtherebeennootherdifficultiesintheway，thewarthatbrokeoutwithrenewedbitternessbetweenCharlesV。andFrancisI。wouldhavemadeitimpossibleforsuchabodytomeetwithanyhopeofsuccess。ThehelplessconditionoftheEmperor，confronted，ashewas，ontheonesidebytheFrenchandontheotherbytheTurks，raisedthehopesoftheProtestantparty，andmadethemmoredeterminedthanevertoattendnoCouncilinwhichtheauthorityofthebishopsorthejurisdictionofthePopeshouldberecognised。Moreover，eachyearbroughtnewaccessionstotheirranks。TheappearanceoforganisedChristianbodies，completelynationalincharacter，acceptingthecivilrulersastheirhead，andconcedingtothemfullpowertodealastheylikedwithecclesiasticalproperty，createdadeepimpressiononseveralprincesandfreecities，andmadethemnotaversetogivingthenewreligionafairtrial。In1530，theElectorofSaxony，PhilipofHesseandtherulersofAnsbach，Anhalt，Brunswick-Luneburg，Bayreuth，EastFriesland，andafewofthelargercitieshadgoneovertoLuther。BeforetenyearshadelapsedthegreaterpartofNorthernGermanyhadfallenfromtheCatholicChurch，andeveninSouthernGermanyProtestantismhadmadeseriousinroads。SeveralofthemoreimportantcitiessuchasWittenberg，Strassburg，Nurnberg，Magdeburg，Frankfurt-on-Main，Hamburg，andErfurtbecameleadingcentresforthespreadofthenewteaching，whilemanyoftheGermanuniversities，forexample，Erfurt，Basle，Frankfurt，Rostock，andMarburgsupportedstronglytheeffortsofLuther。

TheCatholicprinces，alarmedbytherapidspreadofthenewdoctrinesandbytheextravagantdemandsoftheProtestants，mettogethertoformtheHolyLeague(1538)asadefenceagainsttheSchmalkaldicconfederation。Feelingwasrunningsohighatthetimethatthelongexpectedwarmighthavebrokenoutimmediately，hadnotthedreadofaTurkishinvasionexercisedarestraininginfluenceonbothparties。In1539negotiationswereopenedupforatemporaryarmistice，andanotherfruitlessattemptwasmadetoarriveatpeacebymeansofareligiousconference。BeforeanyresulthadbeenattainedtheEmperorsummonedaDiettomeetatRatisbon(April1541)。Threetheologianswereappointedfrombothsidestodiscussthequestionsatissue。

ThoughsomeoftheCatholicrepresentativesshowedclearlyenoughthattheirdesireforunionwasmuchgreaterthantheirknowledgeofCatholicprinciples，anunderstandingwasarrivedatonlyinregardtoafewpointsofdifference。BytheRecessoftheDiet(knownasthe/RatisbonInterim/)itwasorderedthatbothpartiesshouldobservethearticlesoffaithonwhichtheyhadagreeduntilaGeneralCouncilshouldmeet，thatintheintervalthetermsofthePeaceofNurnbergshouldbecarriedoutstrictly，thatthereligioushousesthathadescapeddestructionhithertoshouldremainundisturbed，andthatthedisciplinarydecreespromulgatedbythecardinallegate(Contarini)

shouldbeobeyedbytheCatholics。

TheProtestantprinceswerestilldissatisfied。InordertoprocuretheirassistanceCharleswasobligedtoyieldtofurtherdemands，notably，topermitthemtosuppressthemonasteriesintheirdominions。But，fortunatelyfortheCatholicChurch，theagreementembodiedinthe/RatisbonInterim/wasrejectedbythemoreextremeProtestantPartyledbyLutherhimself，andthedangerofgravemisunderstandingwasremoved。

DuringthefollowingyearstheLutheranmovementcontinuedtoadvancebyleapsandbounds。DukeGeorgeofSaxony，oneofitsstrongestopponents，diedin1539，andhissuccessorinvitedtheLutheranpreacherstoassisthimintheworkofreform。Henry，DukeofBrunswick，wasdrivenfromhiskingdombytheLeagueofSchmalkaldandforcedtoseekrefugeinBavaria。TheBishopricsofHildesheimandNaumburgwerecapturedbyforce，anditrequiredalltheeffortsofthePopeandoftheEmperortopreventColognefrombeinghandedovertoLuther'sfollowersbyitsprince-bishop(HermannvonWied)。

Lutheranismprovidedalmostirresistibleattractionsforthelayrulers，whodesiredtoacquirewealthandpowerattheexpenseoftheChurch，aswellasfortheunworthyecclesiasticalprinceswhowereanxioustoconvertthestatesofwhichtheyweremerelyadministratorsintohereditarydominions。

Butthoughoutwardlythemovementprosperedbeyondexpectationallwasfarfromwellwithin。ThefundamentalprincipleenunciatedbyLuther，namely，therejectionofallreligiousauthority，openedthewayfornewtheoriesandnewsects。QuiteapartfromthecontroversiesbetweenthefollowersofLutherandZwingli，whichshallbedealtwithlater，theAnabaptistsandotherscontinuedtodestroytheharmonyoftheself-styledreformers。TheAnabaptistsseizedthecityofMunster，proclaimedademocratictheocracywithJohnofLeyden，atailor，atitshead，andpronouncedtheirintentionoftakingthefieldfortheoverthrowoftyrantsandimpostors。Buttheirsuccesswasshort-lived。

Conrad，bishopandprinceofMunster，raisedanarmy，laidsiegetothecitywhichhecapturedafteradesperatestruggle，andputtodeaththefanaticalleaderswhohaddeceivedthepeople(1535-6)。

OtherwritersandpreachersquestionedthedoctrinesoftheTrinityandIncarnation，andadvocatedmanyheresiescondemnedbytheearlyChurch，someofthemgoingsofarastoinsistontherevivalofcircumcisionandtheJewishceremoniallaw。[32]

Nordidthenewteachingexerciseanelevatinginfluenceonthemoralsorconductofitsadherents。Lutherhimselfwasforcedtoadmitthattheconditionofaffairshadgrownworseeventhanithadbeenbeforeheundertookhiscampaign。"Sincewehavecommencedtopreachourdoctrine，"hesaidinoneofhissermons，"theworldhasgrowndailyworse，moreimpious，andmoreshameless。Menarenowbesetbylegionsofdevils，andwhileenjoyingthefulllightoftheGospelaremoreavaricious，moreimpure，andrepulsivethanofoldunderthePapacy。

Peasants，burghers，nobles，menofalldegrees，thehigheraswellasthelowestareallalikeslavestoavarice，drunkenness，gluttony，andimpurity，andgivenovertohorribleexcessesofabominablepassions。"[33]

Theprinces，freefromallreligiousandecclesiasticalrestraints，setanexampleoflicentiousnesswhichtheirsubjectswerenotslowtoimitate。PhilipofHessewasthelifeandsouloftheLutheranmovement。HewasmarriedalreadytoChristina，daughterofDukeGeorgeofSaxony，bywhomeightchildrenhadbeenborntohim，butfindingitimpossibletoobservehismarriageobligations，andwishingtoimparttohisownsinfulconductanairofdecency，hedemandedpermissionfromLuthertomarryoneofthemaidsofhonourinattendanceonhissister。ThisrequestplacedLutherandMelanchthoninaverydelicateposition。Ontheonehand，iftheyaccededtoittheywouldberegardedaspatronsanddefendersofadulteryandwouldexposethemselvestotheridiculeoftheiropponents；ontheother，weretheytorefusecompliancewithhiswishes，Philip，forgetfulofhisformerzealforthepurewordofGod，mightcarryouthisthreatstoreturntotheCatholicChurch。AfterlongandanxiousdeliberationtheydeterminedtoexerciseadispensingpowersuchashadneverbeenexercisedbeforebyanyPope。"InordertoprovideforthewelfareofhissoulandbodyandtobringgreaterglorytoGod，"theyallowedhimtotaketohimselfasecondwife，insisting，however，thatthewholeaffairshouldbekeptaclosesecret。Buthardlyhadthemarriageceremonybeengonethrough(1540)thanthestoryofthedispensationbecamepublic。Lutherwasatfirstinclinedtodenyitentirelyasaninventionofhisenemies，buthechangedhismindwhenhefoundthattheproofswereirrefragableanddeterminedtobrazenouttheaffair。[34]

Luther'slastyearswerefullofanxietyandsorrow。AshelookedroundhisowncityofWittenbergandthecitiesofGermanywherehisdoctrineshadtakenroothefoundlittlegroundforself-

congratulation。Religiousdissensions，bitterness，war-likepreparations，declineoflearning，decayoftheuniversities，andimmorality，hadmarkedtheprogressofhisgospel。InmanydistrictsthepowerofthePopehadindeedbeenbroken，butonlytomakewayfortheauthorityofthecivilrulersuponwhomneitherreligiousnordisciplinarycanonscouldexerciseanyrestraint；themonasteriesandreligiousinstitutionshadbeensuppressed，buttheirwealthhadpassedintothetreasuriesoftheprinces，whilstthepoorforwhosebenefitithadbeenheldintrustwereneglected，andtheministersofreligionwereobligedtohaverecoursetodifferentoccupationstosecurealivelihood。Tohisfollowersandhismostintimateassociateshedeniedthelibertyofthoughtandspeechthatheclaimedforhimself，byinsistingontheunconditionalacceptanceofhisdoctrinesasifinhimalonewerevestedsupremeauthorityandinfallibility。

Forexercisingtheirrighttoprivatejudgment，Carlstadtwaspursuedfrompulpittopulpittillatlasthewasforcedtoseeksafetyinflight；Zwingliwasdenouncedasahereticforwhosesalvationitwasuselesstopray；theAnabaptistsweredeclaredtobeunworthyofanybetterfatethantheswordorthehalter；Agricola，hismostzealousfellow-labourer，wasbanishedfromhispresenceandhiswritingswereinterdicted；andevenMelanchthonwasatlastdriventocomplainofthestateofslaverytowhichhehadbeenreduced。[35]

Hisfailinghealthandhisdisappointmentsservedtosourhistemperandtorenderhimlessapproachable。TheattacksthathedirectedagainstthePapacysuchas/ThePapacyanInstitutionoftheDevil/，andtheversespreparedforthevulgarcaricaturesthatheinducedCranachtodesign(1545)surpassedevenhisformerproductionsinviolenceandabusiveness。TiredofattackingthePapacy，heturnedhisattentiononcemoretotheJews，uponwhomheinvokedthevengeanceofHeaveninthelastsermonthathewasdestinedtopreachonearth。HewastakensuddenlyillinEisleben，wherehehadcometosettlesomedisputesbetweentheCountsofMansfeld，andonthe18thFebruary1546，hepassedaway。[36]

Lutherisamanwhosecharacteritisdifficulttoappreciateexactly。

Attimeshespokeandwroteasifhewereendowedwithadeeplyreligiousfeeling，convincedofthetruthofhisdoctrines，andanxiousonlyforthesuccessoftheworkforwhichheprofessedtobelievehehadbeenraisedupbyGod。SomeofhissermonssoundedlikeatrumpetcallfromHeaven，warningthepeoplethatthehourforrepentancehaddrawnnigh，whilehisconversationswithhisintimatefriendsbreathedattimesaspiritofpietyandfervourredolentoftheapostolicage。This，however，wasonlyonefeatureofLuther'scharacter，and，unfortunately，itwasafeaturethatmanifesteditselfonlytoorarely。Asageneralrulehiswritings，hissermonsandspeeches，and，inaword，hiswholelineofconductwereindirectoppositiontoeverythingthatisassociatedgenerallyinthepopularmindwiththetruereligiousreformer。Hisrepliestohisopponents，eventothosewho，avoidingpersonalities，addressedthemselvesdirectlytohisdoctrines，werecouchedinthemostviolentandabusivelanguage。Hiswildonslaughtsandhisdemandsforvengeanceonanyonewhoventuredtoquestionhisteaching，whethertheywereCatholics，Zwinglians，SacramentariansorAnabaptists，weretheveryantithesisofthespiritofcharityandmeeknessthatshouldcharacteriseafollower，nottosayanapostle，ofChrist。Norwerehisover-weeningprideandself-confidenceinkeepingwiththespiritofmeeknessandhumilityinculcatedsofrequentlyinthewritingsoftheNewTestament。

Inhisletters，andmoreespeciallyinhisfamiliarintercoursewithhisfriends，[37]hisconversationwasfrequentlyriskyandindecent；

hisrelationswithwomen，atleastbeforehismarriagewithCatherineBora，were，toputitmildly，notabovesuspicion，asisevidentfromhisownlettersandthelettersofhismostdevotedsupporters；whilehisreferencestomarriageandvowsofchastityinhissermonsandpamphletswerefilthyandunpardonableeveninanagewhenpeopleweremuchmoreoutspokenonsuchsubjectsthantheyareatpresent。ThoughheinsistedstronglyonthenecessityofpreachingthepureWordofGod，hehadlittledifficultyinhavingrecoursetofalsehoodwhentruthdidnotservehispurpose，orinjustifyinghisconductbyadvocatingtheprinciplethatnotallliesweresinfulparticularlyiftheyhelpedtodamagetheRomanChurch。HisfrequentandenthusiasticreferencestothepleasuresofthetableweremorelikewhatoneshouldexpecttofindinthewritingsofaPaganepicurethaninthoseofaChristianreformer。Hewasnot，asissometimesasserted，ahabitualdrunkard。Histirelessactivityasawriterandpreacherisinitselfasufficientrefutationofsuchacharge，buthewasconvincedthataharddrinkingboutwasattimesgoodforbothsoulandbody，andinthisrespectatleasthecertainlyliveduptohisconvictions。[38]

ItwouldbeamistaketojudgehimbyhisLatinwritings，which，bothinmannerandstyle，seldomriseabovethelevelofmediocrity。ItisinhisGermanbooksandpamphletsthatLutherisseenathisbest。

There，heappearsasamanofgreatabilityandlearning，giftedwithaprodigiousmemory，astrikingliterarystyle，andahappyknackofseizingupontheweakpointsofhisadversariesandofpresentinghisownsideofthecaseinitsmostforcibleandattractiveform。Nomanknewbetterthanhehowtoadapthimselftothetastesofhisaudienceortheprejudicesofhisreaders。HecouldplaytheroleofthejudgeortheprofessoralmostaswellasthatoftheimpassionedfanaticconvincedthatbehindhimwerearrayedallthepowersofHeaven。Indealingwithmenofeducation，whowerenotlikelytobecaptivatedbyrhetoric，hecouldbecalmandargumentative；butwhenheaddressedhimselftothemassesofthepeopleheappearedinhistruecharacterasapopulardemagogue，hesitatingatnothingthatwaslikelytoarousetheirindignationagainsttheRomanChurchandtheirenthusiasmforthemovementtowhichhehaddevotedhislife。InwordsoffieryeloquenceherecalledtotheirmindstherealandimaginarygrievancesoftheirnationagainstRome，theover-weeningprideandtyrannyofthespiritualprinces，thescandalouslivesofmanyoftheecclesiastics，andthefailureofthePopeandcouncilstocarrythroughaschemeofwholesalereform。Hecalleduponthemtothrowofftheyokeimposedbyforeignersontheirfathersandthemselves，andtosupporthiminhisstruggleforthelibertyofthepeople，theindependenceoftheGermannation，andtheoriginalpurityoftheGospel，promisingthemthatifonlytheywouldrangethemselvesunderhisbanner，alltheirgrievances，bothspiritualandtemporal，mustsoonberedressed。HadLutherneverappeared，orhadhebeenlessgiftedasanorator，awriterandapopularleaderthanhewas，acrisismusthavearisenatthetime；buthisgeniusandenthusiasmturnedwhatmighthavebeenatricklingstreamintoaragingtorrent，threateningdestructiontobeliefsandinstitutionshithertoregardedasinviolable。Thetimewasripeforareformer，andLuther'sonlyclaimtogreatnesswashiscapacityofutilisinginamasterlywaythematerials，politicalandreligious，thatlayreadyathishand。

Religiousabuses，socialunrest，politics，personalvanities，andtheexcessesalwaysattendantuponagreatliteraryrevival，werepressedintohisservice，andweredirectedagainsttheRomanChurch。Andyethissuccessfellfarshortofhisexpectations。BeyonddoubthecontrivedtodetachindividualsandkingdomsfromtheirobediencetothePopeandtheirsubmissiontoecclesiasticalauthorityonlytosubjectthemtothespiritualyokeofsecularprinces，andtoexposethemtodoctrinalanarchysubversiveofdogmaticreligion；buttheCatholicChurchandtheSeeofRome，fortheoverthrowofwhichhehadlabouredsoenergetically，emergedtriumphantfromtheterribletrialthathadbeenpermittedbyGodonlyforitspurification。

Duringtheperiodthatintervenedbetweenthe/RatisbonInterim/andthedeathofLuther(1541-6)CharlesV。，hardpressedbythewarwithFranceandtheunsuccessfulexpeditionsagainsttheBarbarypirates，wasobligedtoyieldtotheincreasingdemandsoftheProtestantprinces；norcouldPaulIII。，howevermuchhedesiredit，realisehisintentionofconvokingaGeneralCouncil。ButatlastthePeaceofCrepy(1544)whichputanendtothewarwithFrance，andtheconvocationofaGeneralCounciltomeetatTrentinMarch1545，strengthenedthehandsoftheEmperor，andenabledhimtodealeffectivelywiththereligiousrevolution。TheProtestantprincesannouncedtheirdeterminationtotakenopartinaCouncilconvokedandpresidedoverbythePope。Charlesleftnostoneunturnedtoinducethemtoadoptamoreconciliatoryattitude，butallhiseffortshavingprovedunavailing，heletitbeknownpubliclythathewouldnotallowhimselftobeintimidatedbythreatsofviolence，andthatifneedbehewouldinsistonobedienceatthepointofthesword。

JohnFrederickofSaxonyandPhilipofHesse，alarmedbythethreateningaspectofaffairs，determinedtoanticipatetheEmperor，andtookthefieldattheheadofanarmyoffortythousandmen(1546)。

CharlesV。，relyingupontheaidofthePopeandtheco-operationoftheCatholicprinces，issuedaproclamationcallinguponallloyalsubjectstotreatthemasrebelsandoutlaws。MauriceofSaxonydesertedhisco-religionistsonpromiseofsucceedingtotheElectorship，joinedthestandardofCharlesV。，andinconjunctionwithFerdinanddirectedhisforcesagainstSaxony。TheElectorwasdefeatedandcapturedatMuhlberg(April1547)。Hewascondemnedtodeathasatraitor，buthewasreprievedanddetainedasaprisonerinthesuiteoftheEmperor，whilehisnephew，MauriceofSaxony，succeededtohisdominions。PhilipofHesse，too，wasobligedtosurrender，andCharlesV。foundhimselfeverywherevictorious。HeinsistedontherestorationoftheBishopofNaumburgandofHenryofBrunswicktohiskingdomaswellasontheresignationofHermannPrincevonWied，ArchbishopofCologne。Hewasunwilling，however，toproceedtoextremeswiththeProtestantprinces，wellknowingthathecouldnotrelyonsomeofhisownsupporters。Besides，hehadbecomeinvolvedinseriousdifficultieswithPopePaulIII。，whocomplained，andnotwithoutreason，ofthedemandsmadeuponhimbytheEmperor，andoftheconcessionsthattheEmperorwaswillingtomaketotheLutherans。

CharlesV。summonedaDiettomeetatAugsburg(1547)，wherehehopedthatapermanentunderstandingmightbesecured。Adocumentknownasthe/AugsburgInterim/，preparedbyCatholictheologiansinconjunctionwiththeLutheran，JohnAgricola，wasacceptedprovisionallybybothparties。Thedoctrineswereexpressedinaverymildform，thoughnot，however，altogetherunacceptabletoCatholics。

Protestantswerepermittedtoreceivecommunionunderbothkinds；

theirmarriedclergywereallowedtoretaintheirwives；anditwasunderstoodtacitlythattheymightkeeppossessionoftheecclesiasticalpropertytheyhadseized。The/AugsburgInterim/，asmighthavebeenanticipated，wasdispleasingtobothparties。MauriceofSaxony，unwillingtogiveitunconditionalapproval，consultedMelanchthonandothersofhisschoolastohowfarhemightacceptitsterms。Intheirreplytheydistinguishedbetweenmattersthatwereessentialandthosethatwereonlyofsecondaryimportance。ThelattermightbeacceptedunreservedlyinobediencetotheordersoftheEmperor。Inregardtodoctrines，theywerewillingtocompromiseonthequestionofjustificationandgood-works，toacceptthesacraments，includingconfirmationandExtremeUnction，theMasswiththeadditionofsomeGermanhymns，andinacertainsensethejurisdictionofthebishops。SuchconcessionswereadistinctdeparturefromLuther'steachingandwouldhavebeenimpossiblehadhebeenalive。

TherelationsbetweenthePopeandtheEmperortookamorefriendlyturnwhentheGeneralCouncilwastransferredfromBolognatoTrent(1551)。TheProtestantprinces，invitedtosendrepresentatives，declinedatfirst，butinashorttimeseveralofthemagreedtoaccepttheinvitation。SafeconductswereissuedfortheirrepresentativesbytheCouncilin1551andagainin1552。EventheWittenbergtheologianswerenotunfavourablydisposed，andMelanchthonwasactuallyonhiswaytoTrent。ButsuddenlyMauriceofSaxony，whohadassembledalargearmyunderpretextofreducingMagdeburg，andhadstrengthenedhimselfbyanalliancewithseveralprincesaswellasbyasecrettreatywithHenryII。ofFrance，desertedtheEmperorandplacedhimselfattheheadoftheProtestantforces。WhenallhisplanswerecompletedheadvancedsuddenlythroughThuringia，tookAugsburg，andwaswithinaninchofcapturingtheEmperorwhothenlayillatInnsbruck(1552)。AtthesametimetheFrenchforcesoccupiedLorraine。Charles，findinghimselfunabletocarryonthestruggle，openednegotiationsforpeace，andin1552theTreatyofPassauwasconcluded。PhilipofHessewastobesetatliberty；aDietwastobecalledwithinsixmonthstosettlethereligiousdifferences；inthemeantimeneithertheEmperornortheprincesshouldinterferewithfreedomofconscience；andalldisputesthatmightariseweretobereferredtoacommissionconsistingofanequalnumberofProtestantandCatholicmembers。

OwingtothewarwithFranceitwasnotuntiltheyear1555thattheproposedDietmetatAugsburg。TheProtestantparty，encouragedbytheirvictories，wereinnohumourforcompromise，andasitwasevidentthattherewasnolongeranyhopeofhealingthereligiousdivisionintheEmpire，itwasagreedthatpeacecouldbesecuredonlybymutualtoleration。InSeptember1555thePeaceofAugsburgwasconcluded。AccordingtothetermsofthisconventionfullfreedomofconsciencewasconcededintheEmpiretoCatholicsandtoallProtestantswhoacceptedtheAugsburgConfession。ThelatterwerepermittedtoretaintheecclesiasticalgoodswhichtheyhadalreadyacquiredbeforetheTreatyofPassau(1552)。Forthefutureeachprincewastobefreetodeterminethereligionofhissubjects，butincaseasubjectwasnotcontentwiththereligionimposedonhimbyhissovereignhecouldclaimtherighttomigrateintoamorefriendlyterritory。

AgreatdifficultyaroseinregardtothedisposaloftheecclesiasticalpropertyincaseaCatholicbishoporabbotshouldapostatise。NotwithstandingtheprotestsoftheProtestantparty，itwasdecreedthatifsuchaneventshouldoccurthesecedercouldclaimhisownpersonalproperty，butnotthepropertyattachedtohisoffice。Thisclause，knownasthe/EcclesiasticumReservatum/，gaverisetomanydisputes，andwasoneoftheprincipalcausesoftheThirtyYears'War。

Bythe/PeaceofAugsburg/ProtestantismwasrecognisedasadistinctandseparateformofChristianity，andthefirstblowwasstruckatthefundamentalprinciplesonwhichtheHolyRomanEmpirehadbeenbuilt。CharlesV。wasblamedatthetime，andhasbeenblamedsinceforhavinggivenhisconsenttosuchatreaty，butifallthecircumstancesofthetimebedulyconsidereditisdifficulttoseehowhecouldhaveactedotherwisethanhedid。ItisnottheEmperorwhoshouldbeheldaccountablefortheunfavourablecharacteroftheAugsburgPeace，but"themostCatholicKingofFrance"whoalliedhimselfwiththeforcesofGermanProtestantism，andtheCatholicprinceswhoweremoreanxioustosecuretheirownpositionthantofightfortheirsovereignortheirreligion。CharlesV。，brokendowninhealthandweariedbyhismisfortunesandhisfailuretoputdownthereligiousrevolt，determinedtohandovertoayoungermantheadministrationoftheterritoriesoverwhichheruled，andtodevotetheremainderofhislifetopreparationfortheworldtocome。InapartingaddressdeliveredtotheStatesoftheNetherlandshewarnedthem"tobeloyaltotheCatholicfaithwhichhasalwaysbeenandeverywherethefaithofChristendom，forshoulditdisappearthefoundationsofgoodnessshouldcrumbleawayandeverysortofmischiefnowmenacingtheworldwouldreignsupreme。"AfterhisresignationheretiredtoamonasteryinEstremadura，wherehediedin1558。SpainandtheNetherlandspassedtohislegitimateson，PhilipII。，whileaftersomedelayhisbrother，Ferdinand，wasrecognisedashissuccessorintheEmpire。

【推荐阅读】幽幽深宫，醒来一梦似千年，重生于下堂妃身躯中的她，将如何手刃仇人? 点击阅读