PREFACE
ThefifteenthcenturymayberegardedasaperiodoftransitionfromtheidealsoftheMiddleAgestothoseofmoderntimes。Theworldwasfastbecomingmoresecularinitstendencies，and，asanecessaryresult，theoriesandprinciplesthathadmettillthenwithalmostuniversalacceptanceinliterature，inart，ineducation，andingovernment，werechallengedbymanyasuntenable。
Scholasticism，whichhadmonopolisedtheattentionofbothschoolsandscholarssincethedaysofSt。AnselmandAbelard，wascalledupontodefenditsclaimsagainsttheadvocatesofclassicalculture；thetheocratico-imperialconceptionofChristiansocietyasexpoundedbythecanonistsandlawyersofanearlierperiodwasforcedintothebackgroundbytheappearanceofnationalismandindividualism，whichbythistimehadbecomefactorstobereckonedwithbytheecclesiasticalandcivilrulers；theFeudalSystem，whichhadreceivedamortalblowbytheinterminglingoftheclassesandthemassesintheeraoftheCrusades，wasthreatened，fromabove，bythemovementtowardscentralisationandabsolutism，andfrombelow，bythegrowingdiscontentofthepeasantryandartisans，whohadbeguntorealise，butasyetonlyinavagueway，theirownstrength。Ineverydepartmentthebattleforsupremacywasbeingwagedbetweentheoldandthenew，andtheprinting-presswasathandtoenablethepatronsofbothtomouldthethoughtsandopinionsoftheChristianworld。
Itwas，therefore，anageofunrestandofgreatintellectualactivity，andatallsuchtimestheclaimsoftheChurchastheguardianandexpounderofDivineRevelationaresuretobequestioned。
NotthattheChurchhasneedtofearinquiry，orthattheclaimsoffaithandreasonareincompatible，butbecausesomedaringspiritsarealwaystobereckonedwith，who，bymistakinghypothesesforfacts，succeedinconvincingthemselvesandtheirfollowersthatthoseinauthorityareunprogressive，andassuch，tobedespised。
ThiswasparticularlytrueofsomeoftheHumanists。Atfirstsight，indeed，itisdifficulttounderstandwhytherevivalofclassicallearningshouldleadtothedangeroftherejectionofChristianRevelation，seeingthattheappreciationofthegreatliteraryproductsofGreeceandRome，andthat，eveninthedaysoftheRenaissance，thePopesandthebishopswerereckonedamongstthemostgenerouspatronsoftheclassicalmovement。Yettheviolenceofextremepartisansonbothsidesrenderedaconflictalmostunavoidable。
Ontheonehand，manyoftheclassicalenthusiasts，notcontentwithwinningfortheirfavouritestudiesamostimportantplaceontheprogrammesoftheschools，weredeterminedtoforceontheChristianbodytheideals，theculture，andtheoutlookontheworld，whichfoundtheirbestexpressioninthemasterpiecesofpaganliterature；
while，ontheother，notafewofthechampionsofScholasticPhilosophyseemedtohaveconvincedthemselvesthatScholasticismandChristianitywereidentifiedsocloselythatrejectionorcriticismoftheformermustimplydisloyaltytothelatter。TheHumanistsmockedattheScholasticsanddubbedthemobscurantistsonaccountoftheirbarbarousLatinity，theiruncriticalmethods，andtheirpointlesswranglings；theScholasticsretortedbydenouncingtheiropponentsaspagans，or，atleast，heretics。Inthiswaytheclaimsofreligionweredrawnintothearena，and，asneithertheextremeScholasticsnortheextremeHumanistshadlearnedtodistinguishbetweendogmasandsystems，betweenwhatwasessentialandwhatwastentative，therewasgravedangerthatreligionwouldsufferintheeyesofeducatedmenonaccountofthecrudemethodsofthosewhoclaimedtobeitsauthorisedexponents。
Undoubtedly，atsuchaperiodofunrest，theChurchcouldhardlyexpecttoescapeattack。NeversincethedayswhenshewascalledupontodefendherpositionagainstthecombinedforcesofthePaganworldhadshebeenconfrontedwithsuchaseriouscrisis，andseldom，ifever，wasshesobadlypreparedtowithstandtheonslaughtsofherenemies。TheresidenceatAvignon，theGreatWesternSchism，andtheconciliartheoriestowhichtheSchismgaverise，hadweakenedthepowerofthePapacyattheverytimewhenthebondsofreligiousunitywerebeingstrainedalmosttothesnappingpointbythegrowthofnationaljealousy。Partlyowingtothegeneraldownwardtendencyoftheage，butmainlyonaccountoftheinterferenceofthesecularauthoritieswithecclesiasticalappointments，thegravestabuseshadmanifestedthemselvesinnearlyeverydepartmentofclericallife，andthecryforreformroseunbiddentothelipsofthousandswhoentertainednothoughtofrevolution。ButthedistinctionbetweenthedivineandthehumanelementintheChurchwasnotappreciatedbyall，withtheresultthatagreatbodyofChristians，disgustedwiththeunworthinessofsomeoftheirpastors，werequitereadytoriseinrevoltwheneveraleadershouldappeartosoundthetrumpet-callofwar。
Norhadtheylongtowaittillamanarose，inGermany，tomarshaltheforcesofdiscontentandtoleadthemagainsttheChurchofRome。
ThoughinhispersonalconductLutherfellfarshortofwhatpeoplemightreasonablylookforinaself-constitutedreformer，yetinmanyrespectshehadexceptionalqualificationsforthepartthathewascalledupontoplay。Endowedwithgreatphysicalstrength，giftedwithamarvellousmemoryandacompletemasteryoftheGermanlanguage，asinspiringinthepulpitorontheplatformashewaswithhispen，regardlessofnicelimitationsorevenoftruthwhenhewishedtostrikedownanopponentortoarousetheenthusiasmofamob，equallyathomewithprincesinthedrawing-roomaswithpeasantsinatavern——Lutherwasanidealdemagoguetoheadasemi-religious，semi-socialrevolt。Hehadakeenappreciationofthetendenciesoftheage，andofthethoughtsthatwerecoursingthroughmen'sminds，andhehadsufficientpowersoforganisationtoknowhowtodirectthedifferentforcesatworkintothesamechannel。Thoughfundamentallytheissueraisedbyhimwasareligiousone，yetitisremarkablewhatasmallpartreligionplayedindecidingtheresultofthestruggle。Theworld-widejealousyoftheHouseofHabsburg，thedangerofaTurkishinvasion，thelong-drawn-outstrugglebetweenFranceandtheEmpireforsupremacyinEuropeandfortheprovincesontheleftbankoftheRhine，andtheselfishpolicyoftheGermanprinces，contributedmuchmoretohissuccessthanthequestionofjustificationortheprincipleofprivatejudgment。Withoutdoubt，inGermany，inSwitzerland，inEngland，intheNetherlands，andintheScandinaviancountries，theReformationwasmuchmoreapoliticalthanareligiousmovement。
Thefundamentalprincipleofthenewreligionwastheprincipleofprivatejudgment，andyetsuchaprinciplefoundnoplaceintheissuesraisedbyLutherinthebeginning。Itwasonlywhenhewasconfrontedwiththedecreesofpreviouscouncils，withthetraditionoftheChurchascontainedinthewritingsoftheFathers，andwiththeauthoritativepronouncementsoftheHolySee，allofwhichwereindirectcontradictiontohistheories，thathefelthimselfobliged，reluctantly，toabandontheprincipleofauthorityinfavouroftheprincipleofprivatejudgment。Intruthitwastheonlypossiblewayinwhichhecouldhopetodefendhisnovelties，andbesides，ithadtheadditionaladvantageofcateringfortherisingspiritofindividualism，whichwassocharacteristicoftheage。
Hissecondgreatinnovation，sofarasthedivineconstitutionoftheChurchwasconcerned，andtheonewhichsecuredultimatelywhateverdegreeofsuccesshisrevolutionattained，wasthetheoryofroyalsupremacy，ortherecognitionofthetemporalrulerasthesourceofspiritualjurisdiction。Buteventhiswasmoreorlessofanafter-
thought。KeenstudentofcontemporarypoliticsthatLutherwas，heperceivedtwogreatinfluencesatwork，one，patronisedbythesovereignsinfavourofabsoluterule，theother，supportedbythemassesinfavourofunrestrictedliberty。Herealisedfromthebeginningthatitwasonlybycombininghisreligiousprogrammewithoneorotherofthesetwomovementsthathecouldhaveanyhopeofsuccess。Atfirst，impressedbythestrengthofthepopularpartyasmanifestedinthenet-workofsecretsocietiesthenspreadthroughoutGermany，andbytherevolutionaryattitudeofthelandlessnobles，whowerepreparedtoleadthepeasants，hedeterminedtoraisethecryofcivilandreligiousliberty，andtorousethemassesagainsttheprincesandkings，aswellasagainsttheirbishopsandthePope。ButsoonthesuccessoftheGermanprincesinthePeasants'Warmadeitcleartohimthatanalliancebetweenthereligiousandthesocialrevolutionwasfraughtwithdangerousconsequences；and，atonce，hewenttotheotherextreme。
ThegradualweakeningoftheFeudalSystem，whichactedasacheckupontheauthorityoftherulers，andtheawakeningofthenationalconsciousness，preparedthewayforthepolicyofcentralisation。
France，whichconsistedformerlyofacollectionofalmostindependentprovinces，wasweldedtogetherintooneunitedkingdom；asimilarchangetookplaceinSpainaftertheunionofCastileandAragonandthefalloftheMoorishpoweratGranada。InEnglandthedisappearanceofthenoblesintheWarsoftheRosesledtotheestablishmentoftheTudordomination。AsaresultofthiscentralisationtheKingsofFrance，Spain，andEngland，andthesovereignprincesofGermanyreceivedagreatincreaseofpower，andresolvedtomakethemselvesabsolutemastersintheirowndominions。
Havingabandonedtheunfortunatepeasantswhohadbeenledtoslaughterbyhiswritings，Lutherdeterminedtomakeitclearthathisreligiouspolicywasincompleteharmonywiththepoliticalabsolutismaimedatbythetemporalrulers。Withthisobjectinviewheputforwardtheprincipleofroyalsupremacy，accordingtowhichthekingorprincewastoberecognisedastheheadofthechurchinhisownterritories，andthesourceofallspiritualjurisdiction。Bydoingsoheachievedtwoveryimportantresults。Hehadathandinthemachineryofcivilgovernmentthenucleusofanewecclesiasticalorganisation，theshapingofwhichhadbeenhisgreatestworry；and，besides，hewonforhisnewmovementthesympathyandactivesupportofthecivilrulers，towhomthethoughtofbecomingcompletemastersofecclesiasticalpatronageandofthewealthoftheChurchopenedupthemostrosyprospects。InGermany，inEngland，andinthenortherncountriesofEurope，itwastheprincipleofroyalsupremacythatturnedthescaleseventuallyinfavourofthenewreligion，while，atthesametime，itledtotheestablishmentofabsolutismbothintheoryandpractice。FromtherecognitionofthesovereignassuprememasterbothinChurchandStatethetheoryofthedivinerightsofkingsasunderstoodinmoderntimesfollowedasanecessarycorollary。
Therewasnolongeranypossibilityofsuggestinglimitationsorofcountenancingrebellion。Theking，inhisownterritories，hadsucceededtoalltherightsandprivilegeswhich，accordingtothedivineconstitutionoftheChurch，belongedtothePope。
SuchadevelopmentintheProtestantcountriescouldnotfailtoproduceitseffectsevenonCatholicrulerswhohadremainedloyaltotheChurch。Theybegantoaimatcombining，asfaraspossible，theProtestanttheoryofecclesiasticalgovernmentwithobediencetothePope，bytakingintotheirownhandstheadministrationofecclesiasticalaffairs，bymakingthebishopsandclergystate-
officials，andbyleavingtothePopeonlyaprimacyofhonour。Thispolicy，knownunderthedifferentnamesofGallicanisminFrance，andofFebronianismandJosephismintheEmpire，ledofnecessitytoconflictsbetweenRomeandtheCatholicsovereignsofEurope，conflictsinwhich，unfortunately，manyofthebishops，influencedbymistakennotionsofloyaltyandpatriotism，tookthesideoftheirownsovereigns。Asaresult，absoluterulewasestablishedthroughoutEurope；therightsofthepeopletoanyvoiceingovernmentweretrampledupon，andtherulesbecamemoredespoticthantheoldRomanEmperorshadbeenevenintheirtwo-foldcapacityofcivilrulerandhighpriest。
Meanwhile，theprincipleofprivatejudgmenthadproduceditslogicaleffects。ManyofLuther'sfollowers，eveninhisownlifetime，hadbeeninducedtorejectdoctrinesacceptedbytheirmaster，but，afterhisdeath，whentheinfluenceofTraditionandofauthorityhadbecomeweaker，Lutheranismwasreducedtoadogmaticchaos。Bytheapplicationoftheprincipleofprivatejudgment，certainleadersbegantocallinquestion，notmerelyindividualdoctrines，buteventheveryfoundationsofChristianity，and，inashorttime，AtheismandNaturalismwererecognisedasthehall-markofeducationandgoodbreeding。
ThecivilrulerseveninCatholiccountriestooknoveryactivestepstocurbtheactivityoftheanti-Christianwritersandphilosophers，partlybecausetheythemselveswerenotunaffectedbythespiritofirreligion，andpartlyalsobecausetheywerenotsorrytoseepopularresentmentdivertedfromtheirownexcessesbybeingdirectedagainsttheChurch。But，inashorttime，theyrealised，whenitwastoolate，thattheoverthrowofreligiousauthoritycarrieswithitasaruletheoverthrowofcivilauthorityalso，andthattheattempttocombinethetwoprinciplesofprivatejudgmentandofroyalsupremacymustleadofnecessitytorevolution。
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Iwishtoexpressmysincerethankstothemanyfriendswhohaveassistedme，andparticularlytotheVeryRev。ThomasO'Donnell，C。M。，President，AllHallowsCollege。MyspecialthanksareduealsototheRev。PatrickO'Neill(Limerick)，whorelievedmeofmuchanxietybyundertakingthedifficulttaskofcompilingtheIndex。
JamesMacCaffrey。
St。Patrick'sCollege，Maynooth，FeastoftheImmaculateConception。
HISTORYOFTHECATHOLICCHURCH
FromtheRenaissancetotheFrenchRevolutionCHAPTERI
CAUSESOFTHEREFORMATION
(a)TheRenaissance。
Baudrillart，/TheCatholicChurch，TheRenaissance，andProtestantism(Tr。)/，1908(chap。i-iii。)。Guirard，/L'EgliseetlesOriginesdelaRenaissance/，1902。Burckhardt，/DieCulturderRenaissanceinItalien/，11auf。，1913(Eng。Trans。byMiddlemore，1878)。ABaumgartner，S。J。，/GeschichtederWeltiteratur/，vol。
iv。，1900。/TheCambridgeModernHistory/，vol。i。(/TheRenaissance/，1902)。Stone，/TheReformationandRenaissance/，1904。Janssen，/GeschichtedesdeutschenVolkes/，1887(Eng。
Trans。byMitchellandChristie，London，1896sqq。)。Pastor，/GeschichtederPapsteimZeitalterderRenaissance/，Freiburg，1886sqq。(Eng。Trans。byAntrobus，London，1891sqq。)。Muntz，/LaRenaissanceenItalieetenFranceal'epoquedeCharlesVIII。/，1885。Gasquet，/TheEveoftheReformation/。Mourret，/LaRenaissanceetlaReforme/，1912。
Thegreatintellectualrevival，thatfolloweduponthesuccessfulissueofthestruggleforfreedomwagedbyGregoryVII。andhissuccessors，reachedthezenithofitsgloryinthethirteenthcentury。
Scholasticism，asexpoundedbymenlikeAlexanderofHales，AlberttheGreat，RogerBacon，St。Bonaventure，andSt。Thomas，andillustratedbyawealthofmaterialdrawnalikefromtheScriptures，thewritingsoftheFathers，thewisdomofPaganphilosophers，andtheconclusionsofnaturalscience，wasalonedeemedworthyofseriousattention。
Classicalstudieseitherwereneglectedentirelyeveninthecentresoflearning，orwerefollowedmerelyfortheassistancetheymightrenderinthesolutionofthephilosophicalandtheologicalproblems，thatengagedmen'smindsinanagewhenChristianfaithreignedsupreme。
TheCatholicChurch，indeed，hadneverbeenhostiletoclassicalstudies，norunmindfuloftheirvalue，asameansofdevelopingthepowersofthehumanmind，andofsecuringbothbreadthofviewandbeautyofexpression。Somefewteachershereandthere，alarmedbythedangerofcorruptingChristianyouthbybringingitintocontactwithPaganideals，raisedtheirvoicesinprotest，butthemajorityoftheearlyFathersdisregardedthesewarningsasharmfulandunnecessary。
Origen，St。ClementofAlexandria，St。GregoryofNazianzen，St。
Basil，andSt。Jerome，whilenotignoringthedangersofsuchstudies，recommendedthemwarmlytotheirstudents，andinthespiritofthesegreatleaderstheCatholicChurchstrovealwaystocombineclassicalcultureandChristianeducation。
WiththefalloftheEmpire，consequentuponitsinvasionbythebarbarianhordes，classicalstudieswerebanishedtosomeextenttotheWesternIsles，IrelandandBritain，fromwhichtheyweretransplantedtotheContinentprincipallyduringtheCarlovingianrevival。[1]Inthecathedral，collegiate，andmonasticschoolstheclassicswerestillcultivated，thoughbeyonddoubtcompilationswereusedmorefrequentlythanweretheoriginalworks；andeveninthedarkestdaysofthedarkagessomeprominentecclesiasticscouldbefoundwellversedatleastinthelanguageandliteratureofRome。Itlooked，too，foratime，asiftheintellectualrevivalofthetwelfthcenturyweretobeturnedtowardstheclassics；buttheexampleofmenlikeJohnofSalisburywasnotfollowedgenerally，andthemovementdevelopedrapidlyinthedirectionofphilosophy。Asaconsequence，thestudyofLatinwasneglectedorrelegatedtoasecondaryplaceintheschools，whileGreekscholarshipdisappearedpracticallyfromWesternEurope。TheScholastics，moreanxiousaboutthelogicalsequenceoftheirargumentsthanaboutthebeautiesofliteraryexpression，inventedforthemselvesanewdialect，which，howeverforcibleinitself，musthavesoundedbarbaroustoanyoneacquaintedwiththeproductionsofthegoldenageofRomanliteratureorevenwiththewritingsoftheearlyFathersoftheLatinChurch。Norwasitthelanguagemerelythatwasneglected。Themonumentsandmemorialsofanearliercivilisationweredisregarded，andeveninRomeitself，theCityofthePopes，thevandalismoftheignorantwroughtdreadfulhavoc。
Socompleteaturningawayfromforcesthathadplayedsuchapartinthecivilisationoftheworldwascertaintoprovokeareaction。
Scholasticismcouldnotholdthefieldforevertotheexclusionofotherbranchesofstudy，especially，sinceinthelesscompetenthandsofitslaterexpoundersithaddegeneratedintoanemptyformalism。
ThesuccessorsofSt。ThomasandSt。Bonaventurehadlittleoftheiroriginality，theiralmostuniversalknowledge，andtheirpowersofexposition，and，asaresult，studentsgrewtiredoftheendlesswranglingsoftheschools，andturnedtheirattentiontootherintellectualpursuits。
Besides，men'sideasofpolitics，ofsocialorder，andofreligionwerechangingrapidly，and，inaword，thewholeoutlookoftheworldwasundergoingaspeedytransformation。IntheMiddleAgesreligionheldthedominantpositionandwastheguidingprincipleinmorals，ineducation，inliterature，andinart；butasthefaithofmanybegantogrowcold，andastherightsofChurchandStatebegantobedistinguished，secularisttendenciessoonmadethemselvesfelt。
Philosophyandtheologywerenolongertooccupytheentireintellectualfield，andothersubjectsforinvestigationmustbefound。Inthesecircumstanceswhatwasmorenaturalthanthatsomeshouldadvocateareturntotheclassicsandallthattheclassicsenshrined？Again，theexamplesetbythetyrantswhohadgraspedthereinsofpowerintheItalianStates，bymenlikeAgnelloofPisa，theViscontisandFrancescoSforzaofMilan，FerranteofNaples，andthede'MediciofFlorence，wascalculatedtolowerthemoralstandardoftheperiod，andtopromoteanabandonmentofChristianprinciplesoftruth，andjustice，andpurityoflife。Everywheremenbecamemoreaddictedtothepursuitofsensualpleasure，ofvainglory，andmaterialcomfort；andcouldillbrookthedominantideasoftheMiddleAgesconcerningthesupernaturalendofman，self-denial，humility，patience，andcontemptforthethingsthatministeronlytoman'stemporalhappiness。WithviewsofthiskindintheairitwasnotdifficulttopersuadethemtoturntothegreatliterarymasterpiecesofPaganRome，wheretheywerelikelytofindprinciplesandidealsmoreinharmonywiththeirtastesthanthosesetbeforethembytheCatholicChurch。
Thethirteenth，fourteenth，andfifteenthcenturies，then，markaperiodoftransitionfromtheMiddleAgestomoderntimes。Theysawasharpstrugglebeingwagedbetweentwoidealsinpolitics，ineducation，inliterature，inreligion，andinmorality。Inthisgreatupheavalthatwascharacterisedbyademandforunrestrictedlibertyofinvestigation，areturntothestudyofnatureandofthenaturalsciences，theriseanddevelopmentofnationalliteratures，andtheappearanceofanewschoolofart，theHumanistmovementortherevivalofthestudyoftheclassics，the/literaehumaniores/，playedthefundamentalpart。InmoresensesthanoneitmaybecalledtheAgeoftheRenaissance。
NorwasitamatterofchancethatthisrevivalofinterestinclassicalstudiesshouldhavemadeitselffeltfirstinItaly，wherethedownfalloftheEmpire，andthesubsequentdevelopmentofpettystatesseemtohaveexercisedamagicalinfluenceupontheintellectualdevelopmentofthepeople。TheItalianswerethedirectheirstothegloryofancientRome。Eveninthedaysoftheirdegradation，whenthecapitaldesertedbythePopeswasfastgoingtoruin，andwhenforeignersandnativetyrantswerestrugglingforthepossessionoftheirfairestterritories，thememoryoftheimperialauthorityoftheircountry，andthecrumblingmonumentsthatborewitnesstoitstillstandingintheirmidst，servedtoturntheirpatrioticardourtowardsthegreatliterarytreasuresbequeathedtothembyPaganRome。Greekliterature，too，wasnotforgotten，thoughinthethirteenthcenturyfewwesternscholarspossessedanyacquaintancewiththelanguage。Manycauses，however，combinedtopreparethewayforarevivalofGreek。ThecommercialcitiesofItalywereinclosetouchwiththeEasternEmpire，especiallysincetheCrusades；ambassadors，sentbytheEmperorstoseektheassistanceofthePopeandoftheWesternrulersinthestruggleagainsttheTurks，werepassingfromcourttocourt；thenegotiationsforareunionoftheChurches，whichhadbeengoingonsincethedaysofthefirstCouncilofLyons，renderedaknowledgeofGreekandofthewritingsoftheGreekFathersnecessaryforsomeoftheleadingecclesiasticsoftheWest；while，finally，thefallofConstantinoplein1453forcedmanyGreekscholarstoseekarefugeinItalyorFrance，andprovidedtheagentssentbythePopesandItalianrulerswithasplendidopportunityofsecuringpricelesstreasuresfortheWesternlibraries。
ThoughDante(1265-1321)issometimesregardedastheearliestoftheHumanistschool[2]onaccountofhisprofessedadmirationforsomeofthePaganmastersandoftheblendinginhis/DivinaComedia/ofthebeautiesofRomanliteraturewiththeteachingoftheFathersandScholastics，still，thespiritthatinspiredhimwasthespiritofChristianity，andhisoutlookonlifewasfranklytheoutlookoftheMiddleAges。ToPetrarch(1304-74)ratherbelongsthehonourofhavingbeenthemostprominent，ifnottheveryfirstwriter，whoseworkswereinfluencedlargelybyHumanistideals。BorninArezzoin1304，heaccompaniedhisfathertoAvignonwhenthelatterwasexiledfromFlorence。Hisfriendswishedhimtostudylaw；but，hispoetictendenciesprovingtoostrongforhim，heabandonedhisprofessionalpursuitstodevotehisenergiestoliterature。ThepatronageandhelpaffordedhimwillinglybytheAvignonesePopes[3]andotherecclesiasticsprovidedhimwiththemeansofpursuinghisfavouritestudies，andhelpedhimconsiderablyinhissearchesformanuscriptsoftheclassics。Thoughonlyaclericinminororders，hewasappointedCanonofLombez(1335)，papalambassadortoNaples(1343)，prothonotaryapostolic(1346)，andarchdeaconofParma(1348)。Thesepositionssecuredtohimacompetentincome，and，atthesametime，broughthimintotouchwithlibrariesandinfluentialmen。
TheruinofItalyandRome，causedingreatmeasurebytheabsenceofthePopesduringtheirresidenceatAvignon，rousedallthepatrioticinstinctsofPetrarch，andurgedhimtostrivewithallhismightfortherestorationoftheancientgloryofhiscountry。Henceinhispoliticshewasstronglynationalist，andhence，too，hethrewthewholeweightofhisinfluenceonthesideofColadiRienzi，whenin1347thelatterproclaimedfromtheCapitoltheestablishmentoftheRomanRepublic。NordidhehesitatetoattackthePopes，towhomhewasindebtedsodeeply，fortheirneglectofRomeandthePapalStates，aswellasfortheevilswhichhethoughthadfallenuponItalyowingtothewithdrawalofthePopestoAvignon。HehimselfstrovetoawakeninthemindsofhiscountrymenmemoriesofthepastbyformingcollectionsofoldRomancoins，byrestoringorprotectingwhereverpossiblethePaganmonuments，andbysearchingafterandcopyingmanuscriptsoftheclassicalwriters。Inpoetry，Virgilwashisfavouriteguide。AsarulehewroteinItalian，buthiswritingsweresaturatedwiththespiritoftheearlyPaganauthors；whileinhispursuitofgloryandhislovefornatural，sensiblebeauty，hemanifestedtendenciesopposeddirectlytotheself-restraint，symbolism，andpurityoftheMiddleAges。Hislongestpoemis/Africa/，devotedtoarehearsalofthegloriesofancientRomeandbreathingaspiritofpatriotismandzealforalonglostculture，butitisratherforhislovesongs，the/canzoni/，thatheisbestremembered。
Petrarch，thoughaHumanist，[4]wasnoenemyoftheChristianreligion，nordidheimagineforamomentthatthestudyofthePaganclassicscouldprovedangerousintheleastdegreetorevealedreligion。ItistruethathisprivatelifedidnotalwayscorrespondtoChristianprinciplesofmorality，anditisequallytruethatattimeshispatriotismledhimtospeakharshlyoftheruleofthePopesinItalyandRome；butheneverwaveredinhisreligiousconvictions，andneverrecognisedthatPaganliteratureandidealsshouldbejudgedbyotherthancurrentChristianstandards。
TheexampleofPetrarchwasnotfollowed，however，byseveralofthelaterHumanists。Hisfriendanddisciple，Boccaccio(1313-75)，imitatedhismasterinhislovefortheclassicsandinhiszealforclassicalculture，andexcelledhimbyacquiring，whatPetrarchhadfailedutterlytoacquire，agoodknowledgeofGreek。LikePetrarch，hewasassistedlargelybythePopes，andtookserviceatthepapalcourt。ButhisviewsoflifeandmoralitywerecolouredbyPaganismratherthanbyChristianity。Manyofhisminorpoemsaresteepedinindecencyandimmorality，andreflectonlytooclearlythetendencytotreacheryanddeceitsocharacteristicoftheItalianrulersofhisday；whilethe/Decameron/，hisgreatestwork，ismoreliketheproductionofaPaganwriterthanofoneacquaintedwithChristianethicsandideals。Hedelightedinlampooningtheclergy，particularlythemonks，chargingthemwithignorance，immorality，andhypocrisy。
SuchalineofconductwasnotlikelytorecommendtheapostlesofthenewlearningtotheadmirersofScholasticism，nortocreateandfosterafriendlyalliancebetweenthetwocamps。Yet，personally，BoccacciowasnotanenemyofChristianity，andneveraimed，asdidsomeofthelaterHumanists，atrevivingPaganismundertheguiseofpromotingliterature。HewasunshakeninhisacceptanceoftheChristianrevelation，and，astheyearsadvanced，hebegantorealisetheevilofhiswaysandthedangerouscharacterofhiswritings。
Strangetosay，itwastoabodyofthemonks，whomhedelightedinattacking，thathebequeathedthevaluablelibrarywhichhehadbroughttogetherwithsuchlabour。
HadtheHumanistscontentedthemselveswithadvocatingmerelyareturntoclassicalstudies，andhadtheScholasticsrecognisedthatphilosophywasnottheonlypathtoculture，itmighthavebeenpossibletoavoidaconflict。But，unfortunatelyforreligion，therewereextremistsonbothsides。Ontheonehand，someofthelaterHumanists，influencedlargelybythelowmoraltoneoftheage，aimedatnothinglessthantherevivalofPaganism，pureandsimple；while，ontheother，notafewoftheScholasticsinsistedstronglythatPaganliterature，howeverperfect，shouldhavenoplaceinChristianeducation。Betweenthesetwoconflictingpartiesstoodalargebodyofeducatedmen，bothlayandcleric，whocouldseenoirreconcilableoppositionbetweenChristianityandthestudyoftheclassics，andwhoaimedatestablishingharmonybyassigningtotheclassicstheplaceineducationwillinglyaccordedtothembymanyoftheFathersoftheChurch。
Buttheinfluenceofthislatterbodycouldnoteffectareconciliation。AlargesectionoftheHumanistsopenlyvindicatedforthemselvesfreedomfromtheintellectualandmoralrestraintsimposedbyChristianity。LaurentiusValla[5](1405-57)inhiswork，/DeVoluptate/，championedfreeindulgenceinallkindsofsensualpleasures，attackedvirginityasacrimeagainstthehumanrace，andridiculedtheideaofcontinenceandself-denial，whileinhisownlifeheshowedhimselfafaithfuldiscipleoftheEpicurianismthathepropoundedinhiswritings。Hisdenunciations，too，ofthePopesastheusurpingtyrantsofRomeinhisworkontheConstantineDonationwerelikelytodoseriousinjurytotheheadoftheChurchinhisspiritualaswellasinhistemporalcapacity。ButbadaswerethecompositionsofValla，theywereharmlesswhencomparedwiththebooksandpamphletsofBeccadelli，thePanormite，whodevotedhimselfalmostexclusivelytowhatwasindecentandrepulsive。PoggioBraccioliniinhiswork，/Facetiae/，andFilelfo，thoughnotequallybad，belongtothesamecategory。InthehandsofthesementheRenaissancehadbecome，toagreatextent，aglorificationofPaganimmorality。Theirbookswerecondemnedbymanyofthereligiousorders，butwithoutavail。Theywerereadandenjoyedbythousands，inwhomthewholesalecorruptionprevalentinFlorence，Siena，andVenice，haddeadenedallsenseofmorality。
AlargenumberofthelaterRenaissanceschoolwereChristiansonlyinname。Ifthegreatbodyofthemwerejudgedbytheheathenfiguresandphraseologywithwhichtheirworksabound，theycouldhardlybeacquittedofPagantendencies；butincaseofmanyofthemtheseexcessesaretobeattributedtopedantryratherthantodefectionfromthefaith。Incaseofothers，however，althoughtheywerewaryintheirexpressionslesttheymightforfeittheirpositions，Christianteachingseemstohavelostitsholdupontheirmindsandhearts。
CarloMarsuppini，ChancellorofFlorence，GemistosPlethon，thewell-
knownexponentofPlatonicphilosophy，MarsilioFicino，RinaldodegliAlbizzi，andthemembersoftheRomanAcademy(1460)，undertheleadershipofPomponiusLaetus，wereopenlyPaganintheirlivesandwritings。HadthemeninauthorityinItalybeenlessdepravedsuchteachingandexamplewouldhavebeensuppressedwithfirmness；orhadthevastbodyofthepeoplebeenlesssoundintheirattachmenttoChristianity，Neo-Paganismwouldhavearisentriumphantfromthereligiouschaos。[6]
ButnotalloftheHumanistsbelongedtotheschoolofValla，Beccadelli，Poggio，andMarsuppini。TheCamaldolesemonk，AmbrogioTraversari，hispupilGiannozzoManetti(1431-59)，alaymanthoroughlydevotedtotheChurch，andthefirstoftheHumaniststoturnhisattentiontotheOrientallanguages，LionardoBruni，solongApostolicSecretaryatthepapalcourtandafterwardsChancellorofFlorence，MaffeoVegio(1407-58)，theRomanarchaeologist，whoinhisworkoneducationendeavouredtocombineclassicalculturewithChristianrevelation，VittorinodaFeltre，amodelinhislifeandmethodsforChristianteachers，PicodellaMirandola，Sadoleto，andBida，wereallprominentintheclassicalrevival，butatthesametimethoroughlyloyaltotheChurch。TheywerethemoderatemenbetweenthePaganHumanistsandtheextremeScholastics。Theiraimwastopromotelearningandeducation，andtowidenthefieldofknowledgebytheintroductionoftheancientliterarymasterpieces，notattheexpenseofanabandonmentofChristianity，butundertheauspicesandinsupportoftheCatholicChurch。FollowinginthefootstepsofOrigen，St。Gregory，St。Basil，andSt。Augustine，theyknewhowtoadmirethebeautiesofPaganliteraturewithoutacceptingitsspiritorideals，andhencetheyhavebeencalledtheChristianHumanists。
TherevivalofGreekinItaly，whereGreekliteraturewaspracticallyunknown，isdueingreatmeasuretothearrivalofGreekscholars，whowereinducedtocomebypromisesofasalaryandposition，orwhotravelledthitheronpoliticalorecclesiasticalmissions。OfthesetheprincipalwereManuelChruysolorasengagedatworkinFlorencefrom1396，CardinalBessarion(1403？-72)whocamewestwardfortheCouncilofFlorenceandendedhisdaysinVenicetowhichhebequeathedhislibrary，GemistosPlethon(1355-1450)theprincipalagentintheestablishmentofthePlatonicacademyatFlorence，GeorgeofTrebizond，TheodoreGaza，Lascaris，AndronicusCallistus，andotherswhofledfromGreecetoescapethedominationoftheTurks。
WiththehelpofthesemenandtheirpupilsaknowledgeofGreekandofGreekliteraturewasdiffusedthroughItaly，andinashorttimethroughouttheContinent。EverywherecollectionsofGreekmanuscriptsbegantobeformed；agentsweresenttotheEasttobuythemwherevertheycouldbediscovered，andcopyistsandtranslatorswerebusyatworkinalltheleadingcentresofItaly。ThefallofConstantinoplein1453tendedtohelptheGreekrevivalintheWestbythedispersionofbothscholarsandmanuscriptsthroughItaly，France，andGermany。
HumanismowesitsrapiddevelopmentinItalynotindeedtotheuniversities，fortheuniversities，committedentirelytotheScholasticprinciplesofeducation，weregenerallyhostile，butrathertotheexertionsofwanderingteachersandtothegeneroussupportofpowerfulpatrons。InRomeitwasthePopeswhoprovidedfundsforthesupportofHumanistscholars，forthecollectionandcopyingofmanuscripts，andfortheerectionoflibrarieswherethegreatliterarytreasuresofGreeceandRomemightbeavailableforthegeneralpublic；inFlorenceitwasthede'Medici，notablyCosmo(1429-64)andLorenzotheMagnificent(1449-92)，bywhoseexertionsFlorencebecamethegreatestcentreofliteraryactivityinEurope；inMilanitwastheViscontisandtheSforzas；inUrbinoDukeFederigoandhisfriends；andinFerraraandMantuathefamiliesofd'EsteandGonzaga。Academiestooktheplaceofuniversities。OfthesetheacademyofFlorence，supportedbythede'MediciandpatronisedbytheleadingGreekandItalianscholars，wasbyfarthemostinfluentialandmostwidelyknown。TheacademyofRome，founded(1460)byPomponiusLaetus，wasfranklyPaganinitstoneandassuchwassuppressedbyPaulII。Itwasrevived，however，andpatronisedbySixtusIV。，JuliusII。，andLeoX。SimilarinstitutionsweretobefoundinmostoftheItalianStates，notablyatVeniceandNaples。Innearlyallthesecitiesvaluablemanuscriptlibrarieswerebeingamassed，andwereplacedgenerouslyatthedisposalofscholars。
AnotherimportantaidtothepopularisationoftheworksoftheGreekandLatinwriterswastheinventionofprintinganditsintroductionintoItaly。ThefirstprintingpressinItalywasestablishedattheBenedictinemonasteryofSubiaco，whenceitwastransferredtoRome。
FromthispresswereissuededitionsoftheLatinclassics，suchastheworksofLactantius，Caesar，Livy，AulusGellius，Virgil，Lucan，Cicero，andOvid。AldoManuzio，himselfanenthusiasticstudentofGreekliterature，settledatVenicein1490，andestablishedaprintingpresswiththeintentionofbringingouteditionsoftheprincipalGreekauthors。HishousewasthegreatcentreforGreekscholarsfromallpartsofItaly，andfromtheAldinePresswereissuedcheapandaccurateeditionsoftheGreekclassics。LateronwhenFlorenceandMilanweredisturbedbytheinvasionofCharlesVIII。ofFrance(1483-98)，andwhenNapleswascapturedbytheSpaniardstheHumanistmovementfoundagenerouspatroninLeoX。，ascionofde'Medicifamily。FromthepressfoundedbyLeoX。manyclassicaltextswereissuedtillthepillagingofthecitybytheimperialtroopsin1527dealtadeathblowtotherevivalinItaly。
ThattherewasnooppositionbetweenthestudyoftheclassicsandtheteachingofChristianityisevidencedbythefriendlyattitudeadoptedbythePapacytowardstheHumanistmovement。TheAvignonPopes，BenedictXII。(1334-42)andClementVI。(1342-52)，heapedhonoursandemolumentsuponPetrarchandprovidedhimwiththemeansofacquiringmanuscriptsandofmeetingscholarslikelytoassisthim。AsimilarattitudetowardsthemovementwasadoptedbyUrbanV。(1362-70)。TheleadingclassicalscholarssuchasColuccio，Salutati，FrancescoBruni，Lionardod'Aretino，etc。，wereemployedatthePapalcourt，andtheapostoliccollegeofsecretariesbecameoneofthegreatestcentresforthepropagationofHumanism。ThetroublesthatfellupontheChurchduringtheGreatWesternSchismdivertedtheattentionoftherivalPopesfromliterarypursuits；butassoonaspeacehadbeenrestoredbytheCouncilofConstanceMartinV。(1417-31)assembledaroundhiminRomemanyoftheablestclassicalscholars，andviedwithhiscardinalsinhisprotectionoftheHumanistmovement。EugeneIV。(1431-47)was，ifanything，morefavourable，butyethissympathiesdidnotblindhimtothedangeroustendenciesoftherevivalasmanifestedinthebooksofmenlikeBeccadelli。[7]
WiththeelectionofNicholasV。(1447-55)[8]thetriumphofHumanismatRomeseemedsecure。ThenewPopewashimselfoneoftheparty。AsatutorinFlorencehehadbeenbroughtintocontactwiththegreatliterarymenofthetimeandhadbecomeanardentstudentoftheclassics，nordidhisenthusiasmloseanyofitsardourwhenheascendedthePapalthrone。HisaimwastomakeRometheintellectualaswellasthereligiouscapitaloftheworld，andwiththisobjectinviewheinvitedtohiscourtthemostdistinguishedscholarsoftheage，andbestoweduponnotafewofthem，suchasAlbergati，Capranica，andCaesarinitherankofcardinal。Thathefullyrecognisedtheadvantageswhichreligionmightderivefromtherevivalofletters，andthatheaimedatemployingtheservicesoftheHumanistsindefenceofChristianityisevidentfromtheworkstowhichhedirectedtheattentionofscholars。ThetextsoftheScripture，thetranslationsoftheGreekFathers，andthepreparationofcriticalstudiesontheLivesoftheSaintswereamongsttheworksrecommendedtohisliteraryfriends。AtthesametimehedidnotproclaimwaruponthelessorthodoxoftheHumanistschool。MenlikeValla，Poggio，Filelfo，andMarsuppiniweretreatedwithfriendlinessandevenwithfavour。Whethersuchalineofconductwasdictatedbyprudenceandbythehopeofwinningoverthesescholarstoabetterunderstanding，orwhetherhisanxietyforthesuccessofhisownliteraryschemesblindedhimtotheseriousexcessesofsuchleadersitisdifficulttosay；but，atanyrate，itservestoshowthegreatlibertyenjoyedbyliterarymenatthisperiodevenintheverycityofthePopes。
AsameansofensuringtoRomethemostprominentplaceintherevival，agentsweredispatchedtoGreece，Turkey，Germany，France，andeventoSwedenandNorway，tohuntformanuscripts。Noexpensewassparedtosecureeverythingthatcouldbepurchasedortohavecopiesmadewherepurchasewasimpossible。InordertopreservethesetreasuresandmakethemavailableforscholarstheVaticanLibrarywasundertakenbyordersofthePope。ThoughlongbeforethistimethelibraryofthePopeswasofconsiderableimportance，yetonaccountoftheimmensenumberofvolumesproducedbyNicholasV。heisgenerallyregardedasthefounderoftheVaticanLibrary。Thenumberofvolumeswhichitcontainedatthetimeofhisdeathisvariouslyestimatedatfromonetoninethousand。TheworksoftheFathersoftheChurch，andtheScholasticsandCanonistswerewellrepresented。[9]
AfterthedeathofNicholasV。thePagansideoftheHumanistmovementbecamemoreandmoreapparent。PiusII。(1458-64)，who，asAeneasSylvius，waswellknownasacleverwriteroftheHumanistschool，seemsasPopetohavebeendecidedlysuspiciousofhisformerfriends。
HisownprivatelibrarywasfilledwithChristianauthors，andcarewastakentoshowfavouronlytothoseclassicalscholarswhosewritingswereabovereproach。Yetthecaresofhisofficeandthepromotionofthecrusadeonwhichhehadsethisheartpreventedhimfromtakingthenecessarystepsforthepurificationofhiscourt，and，asaresult，manyofthemembersoftheCollegeofAbbreviatorswereallowedtoremaininofficethoughtheywerereallyPaganatheart。PaulII。couldnottoleratesuchastateofaffairs。HepromptlyabolishedtheCollegeofAbbreviators，suppressedtheRomanAcademy，andarresteditstwoprominentleaders，PomponiusLaetusandPlatina。
IfPaulII。erredonthesideofseveritysomeofhissuccessorswenttotheotherextremeoflaxity。TheperiodofthepoliticalPopes，fromSixtusIV。toJuliusII。(1471-1513)，wasmarkedbyaseriousdeclineinthereligiousspirit，norcanitbesaidthatthepolicyofthePopeswascalculatedtocheckthedownwardtendency。TheirattentionwasoccupiedtoomuchbythepoliticsofthepettyItalianStatestopermitthemtofulfilthedutiesoftheirhighoffice；and，asaconsequence，theinterestsofreligionwereneglected。SixtusIV。
adoptedthefriendlyattitudeofNicholasV。towardstheRenaissance。
TheCollegeofAbbreviatorswasrestored，theRomanAcademywasrecognised，andPlatinawasappointedlibrarian。ThemanuscriptsintheVaticanLibrarywereincreased，moreampleaccommodationwasprovided，andeveryfacilitywasgiventoscholarstoconsultthepapalcollection。HenceitisthatSixtusIV。isregardedgenerallyasthesecondfounderoftheVaticanLibrary。
Therevolutionsandwars，causedbytheinvasionofItalybytheFrenchandtheSpaniardsduringtheclosingyearsofthefifteenthcenturyandtheearlyportionofthesixteenth，dealtaseriousblowtoHumanisminFlorence，Milan，Venice，andotherItaliancentres。ButthemisfortunesofthosecitiesservedtostrengthenthemovementatRome。JuliusII。(1503-13)provedhimselfagenerouspatronofliteratureandinaspecialmannerofart。MenlikeGiulianodaSangello，Sansovino，Bramante，MichaelAngelo，andRaphaelwereinvitedtoRomeandinducedtodevotetheirgeniustotheserviceofreligionandthegloryofthePapacy。OnthedeathofJuliusII。in1513thecompletetriumphoftheHumanistmovementinRomewasassuredbytheelectionofGiovannide'MediciwhotookthenameofLeoX。
(1513-21)。[10]AsthesonofLorenzotheMagnificent，towhomFlorenceowesitsliteraryrenown，andasthepupilofthecelebratedHumanists，PolizianoandMarsilioFicino，hewascommittedalmostofnecessitytotheHumanistmovement。ScholarsandartistsflockedtoRomefromallsidestogreetthenewPopeandtoassurethemselvesofhisfavourandprotection。Underthenewregimeliterarymeritwastheprincipalqualificationsoughtforincandidatesaspiringtothehighestecclesiasticalhonours。TheRomanUniversitywasreorganised；
thesearchformanuscriptswasrenewedwithvigour；anewcollegeforthepromotionofGreekstudiesinRomewasfounded，andtheservicesofLascarisandMusuroweresecured；andartistslikeRaphaelandBramantereceivedeveryencouragement。HumanismwasatlasttriumphantinRome，but，unfortunately，itstriumphwassecuredattheexpenseofreligion。NorwasHumanismdestinedtoenjoythefruitsofthevictoryforalengthenedperiod。TheoutbreakoftheReformationandthecaptureofRomebythesoldiersofCharlesV。turnedtheattentionofthePopestomorepressingconcerns。
TheRenaissancemovementinGermanyisduelargelytotheinfluenceofItalianscholarsandtotheteachingoftheBrothersoftheCommonLifeintheirschoolatDeventer。[11]TheclosepoliticalrelationsexistingbetweentheGermanStatesandthecitiesofNorthernItaly，themissionofPetrarchtothecourtofCharlesIV。，theinterminglingofGermanandItalianscholarsatthecouncilsofConstance，Florence，andBasle，andtheexertionsofAeneasSylvius，afterwardsPiusII。，duringhistermofofficeasChancellorofFrederickIII。，helpedlargelytopromotethestudyoftheclassicsinGermany，especiallywhentheinventionanddevelopmentoftheartofprintinghadsolvedthedifficultyofprocuringmanuscripts。AsinItaly，HumanismowesmuchofitssuccesstothegenerosityofpowerfulpatronssuchastheEmperorMaximilianI。，FrederickElectorofSaxonyandhiskinsman，DukeGeorge，JoachimI。ofBrandenburg，andPhilipofthePalatinate，BishopJohnvonDalbergofWorms，andArchbishopAlbrechtofMainz；
andasinItalytheacademieswerethemostpowerfulmeansofdisseminatingclassicalculture，soalsoinGermanylearnedsocietieslikethe/Rhenana/，foundedbyBishopDalberg，andthe/Danubiana/inVienna，weremostsuccessfulinpromotingtheliterarypropaganda。
But，unliketheItalian，theGermanrevivalwasassistedlargelybytheuniversities。Basle，Erfurt，Heidelburg，andLeipzigshowedunmistakablytheirsympathytowardsthemovement，andinashorttimetheprogrammesofuniversitystudiesinnearlyalltheleadingcentresweremodifiedinaccordancewiththenewideasofeducation。
Scholasticismwasobligedtomakewayfortheclassicsandnaturalscience。Cologne，aloneinGermany，refusedtoabandonitsoldsystem，and，thoughnotunfriendlytotheclassics，asisevidentbythepresenceofOrtwinGratiusonitslistofprofessors，stillitshoweditselfhighlydistrustfulofthetendenciesofsomeoftheHumanistleaders。YetGermanHumanismhadlittle，ifanything，incommonwiththeflagrantirreligionandimmoralityoftheItalianschool。WithoneortwoexceptionsGermanHumanistsneverassailedrevealedreligionassuch，butattackedinsteadtheprevailingeducationalsystem，whichtheyheldtoberesponsibleforthewidespreadignoranceandgeneraldeclineofthereligiousspirit。ManyoftheleadingGermanscholarswereexemplaryintheirmoralcharacterandintheirloyaltytotheChurch，andfew，evenofthosewhowereregardedashostile，showedanysympathywithLutheroncetheyunderstoodthatheaimedatrevoltratherthanreform。
SomeofthegreatestoftheGermanHumanistsdifferedfromtheirItaliancontemporariesalsointhefactthattheyturnedtheintellectualrevivalintoscientificchannels，andmadethestudyoftheclassicssubservienttomathematicalandastronomicalresearch。
CardinalNicholasofCusa(1400-64)，GeorgePeurbachofVienna(d。
1461)，JohnMullerofKonigsberg(1436-76)，betterknownbyhisLatinnameRegiomontanus，andthegreatchurchmanandastronomerCopernicus(1473-1543)belongedtothissection，whichpreparedthewayformodernscientificdevelopments。Withthesemenreligionandsciencewenthandinhand。
OnthepurelyliterarysidethemostfamousoftheGermanHumanistswereConradCeltes(1459-1508)themostactiveofthepromotersoftheclassicalrevivalbeyondtheAlpsandoneoftheearliestoftheGermanpoets；Pirkeimer(1470-1528)，whohopedforgreatthingsfromtheLutheranmovementatfirst，buthavingrealiseditsrealnatureremainedloyaltotheChurch；MutianusRufus(1471-1526)，acanonofGothaandatthesametimeawell-knownfree-thinker；GrotusRubeanus(1480-1504)，whoatfirstfavouredLuther；JakobWimpheling(1450-
1528)，andJohannesTrithemius(1462-1516)，thelearnedhistorianandabbotofSponheim；UlrichvonHutten(1488-1523)，andJohannReuchlin(1455-1522)。
OfthesethemostimportantfromthepointofviewofecclesiasticalhistoryarevonHutten[12]andReuchlin。Theformerwasbornintheyear1488andwassentforhiseducationtothemonasteryofFulda，fromwhichhefledwithverylittlementalequipmentexceptalastinghatredanddistrustforallmonksandecclesiastics。AsawanderingstudenthevisitedtheleadingcentresoflearninginGermanyandNorthernItaly，wherehewasparticularlyremarkableforhisdissolutelife，hisungovernabletemper，andhisbitingsarcasm。TakingadvantageoftherisingspiritofunfriendlinessbetweentheTeutonandtheLatincountries，heposedasapatriotburningwithloveforGermanyandtheGermans，anddespisingtheFrench，theItalians，andinparticularthePope。Againstthemonksandtheologianshedirectedhisbitterestsatires，tothedelightofmany，whodidnotforeseethedangersofsuchattacksatatimewhentheGermannationgenerallywasgrowinglessfriendlytothePapacy。
Adispute，whichbrokeoutaboutthedestructionorsuppressionofJewishbooks，affordedhimasplendidopportunityofventinghisspleenagainsttheChurch。AconvertedJewofColognenamedPfefferkornadvocatedthesuppressionofallJewishreligiousbooksexcepttheOldTestament，asthebestmeansofconvertinghisformerco-religionists。TheEmperor，Maximilian，wasnotunwillingtolistentosuchadvicesupportedasitwasbytheuniversitiesofCologne，Mainz，andErfut。Reuchlin，aprofessorofHeidelbergandhimselfawell-knownHebrewscholar，opposedsuchapolicyasbadinitselfandasinjurioustotheproperunderstandingoftheOldTestament。Awarmcontroversythereuponensued。TheDominicansofCologneespousedthecauseofPfefferkorn，whiletheHumanists，scentingintheattackuponJewishliteratureanonslaughtdirectedagainsttheentireliteraryrevival，supportedthecontentionsofReuchlin。Itwasawarbetweentwoopposingschools——theTheologiansandtheHumanists；and，unfortunatelyfortheTheologians，theyhadselectedtheirgroundbadly，andwerebutpoorlyequippedforabattleinwhichvictorywastobedecidedbypopularopinion。
ReuchlinwassummonedtoappearbeforetheInquisitortoanswerfortheviewsputforwardinhis/Augenspeigel/(1511)，andwascondemned。
HeappealedtoRome，andtheBishopofSpeierwasorderedtoinvestigatethecase。TheresultwastheacquittalofReuchlin(1514)，buthisadversaries，havingobjectedtothemodeoftrial，thecasewastransferredoncemoretotheRomancourts。MeanwhilethecontroversywascarriedoninGermanywithgreatbitterness。Reuchlinpublishedavolumeofsympatheticletters[13]receivedbyhimfromtheleadingscholarsofGermany，andErasmusissuedanewedition(1515)
ofhis/PraiseofFolly(EncomiumMoriae)/inwhichheridiculedespeciallythemonksandtheologians。
ButthebookwhichwasmostdamagingtotheopponentsofHumanismwasbeyonddoubtthe/Epistolaevirorumobscurorum/。Itwasaworkconsistingoftwovolumes，thefirstbroughtoutbyGrotusRubeanusin1514，andthesecondmostlyfromthepenofUrichvonHutten(1517)。
LikeReuchlin'sworkitpurportedtobeacollectionoflettersaddressedbythetheologianstoOrtwinGratius，thechampionofCologneuniversityand，indeed，ofthewholeScholasticparty。Itwasfullofbitternessandvulgarity，but，asahumorouscaricatureofthetheologians，theirargumentsandmodesofexpression，itwascalculatedtomakethemridiculousespeciallyintheeyesoftheuniversitystudents。Againstanattackofthiskindseriousargumentswereunavailing，and，unfortunately，therewasnoapologistoftheologycapableofproducingareplycouchedinastrainsimilartothatofthe/Epistolae/。Gratiushimselfdidundertakethetaskinhis/Lamentationesobscurorumvirorum/，butwithoutsuccess，andundoubtedlyintheeyesofthegeneralpublicthevictoryrestedwiththeHumanists。Thewholecontroversywasextremelyunfortunate，becauseithelpedtoblindmanytotherealissuesatstakewhentheLutheranmovementbegan。ByittheTheologiansandHumanistsweredividedintotwohostilecamps，withtheresultthatthelatterwereinclinedtosupportLutheragainsttheirownformeropponentsandinvindicationoftheliberalpolicywhichtheyhadadvocated；whiletheTheologian，havingbeendiscreditedasnarrow-mindedobscurantistsintheeyesofalargebodyofuniversitymen，werehandicappedseriouslyinastrugglewithLuthereventhoughtheirstrugglewasforfundamentalreligiousprinciples。[14]
Themostremarkableofthemen，who，thoughnotGermans，werecloselyidentifiedwithGermanHumanists，wasDesideriusErasmus(1466-
1535)。[15]HewasbornatRotterdam，wassenttoschoolwiththeBrothersoftheCommonLifeatDeventer，enteredamonasteryoftheCanonsRegularattractedbyitslibraryratherthanbyitsrule，andleftitaftertwoyearstobecomesecretarytotheBishopofCambrai。
HestudiedclassicsattheUniversityofParis，andafterhisordinationaspriestbytheBishopofUtrechthebecameatutortoanEnglishnobleman。LateronhepaidavisittoEngland，wherehereceivedawarmwelcomefromscholarslikeFisher，BishopofRochester，Colet，DeanofSt。Paul's，andSirThomasMore，andwherehewashonouredbyanappointmentasProfessorofGreekinOxford。Butthefeveroftravelwasuponhim。HereturnedtoParis，madeabriefstayatLouvain，andstartedouttovisittheleadingliterarycentresofItaly，notablyBologna，Venice，andRome，inthelatterofwhichhewaswellreceivedbyJuliusII。
OntheaccessionofHenryVIII。hereturnedtoEnglandandlecturedforsometimeatCambridge。LateronheremovedtoBasleandsettleddowntotheworkofpreparingeditionsoftheNewTestamentandoftheFathers。ThetriumphoftheReformationpartyinBasledrovehimforatimetoseekarefugeinFreiburg，buthereturnedtodieatBaslein1536。
InhiswanderingsErasmuswasbroughtintocontactwiththeleadingscholarsofFrance，England，Germany，andItaly，andwasthoroughlyacquaintedwiththelightsandshadowsoftheRenaissancemovement。InhisknowledgeofGreekhewassurpassedbyfewofhiscontemporaries，andinthepurityandeaseofhisLatinstylehestoodwithoutaseriousrival。LikemanyothersoftheHumanistschoolhedelightedinattackingtheignoranceofthemonksandScholastics，andindenouncingtheabusesoftheage，though，aswasthecasewithmostoftheliteraryreformersofthetime，hisownlifeasanecclesiasticwasfarfromexemplary。
YetErasmushimselfwasneveranenemyofChristianity，nordidhedesiretheoverthrowofecclesiasticalauthority。Hedid，indeed，advocatereform，andinhisadvocacyofreformhemayhavebeencarriedtoofarattimes，butinhisheartErasmushadlittlesympathywithdoctrinalchanges。Ignorancehebelievedtobeattherootofthedeclineofreligion，andhencehewouldhavewelcomedacompletechangeintheeducationalsystemoftheChurch。InsteadofScholasticismheadvocatedstudyoftheScripturesandoftheearlyFathers，andinordertopreparethewayforsuchapolicyhedevotedhimselfatBasletothetaskofpreparinganeditionoftheNewTestamentandoftheGreekFathers。HewasontermsoftheclosestintimacywiththeleadingHumanistsofGermany，andsharedalltheircontemptforscholastictheologiansandmuchoftheirdistrustofthePopeandtheRomanCuria。HencethesympathyandencouragementofErasmuswerenotwantingtoLutherduringtheearlydaysofhisrevoltandbeforethetrueobjectofthemovementwasrightlyunderstood；butonceErasmusrealisedthatunionwithLuthermeantseparationfromtheChurchhebecamemorereservedinhisapproval，andfinallytookthefieldagainsthim。Inhiswork，/DeLiberoArbitrio/，heopposedtheteachingofLutheronfreewill，andbeforehisdeathhereceivedabeneficefromPaulIII。whichheaccepted，andanofferofacardinal'shatwhichhedeclined。Hislifeasanecclesiasticwascertainlynotedifying，andhishatredofignorance，antiquatededucationalmethods，andabusesmayhaveledhimintoexcesses，buthistheologywasstillthetheologyoftheMiddleAgesratherthanthatoftheGermanReformers。
InFrancetheearliestoftheHumanistswereNicholasofClemangesandGerson，bothrectorsofParisUniversity，andbothwell-knowntheologians。TheywerespeciallyactiveinputtinganendtotheGreatWesternSchism，butindoingsotheylaiddowncertainprinciplesthatledalmostinevitablytoGallicanism。Theinfluenceofthesetwomendidnot，however，changethepolicyofParisUniversity。ForyearsFrancelaggedbehindintheclassicalmovement，anditwasonlyintheearlyportionofthesixteenthcenturythatFrenchHumanismmadeitselffelt。
Themovementgainedgroundbytheexertionsofindividualsandofliterarysocieties，bytheresultsoftheactivityoftheprintingpress，andtheprotectionofinfluentialpatronsattheCourtofFrancisI。(1515-47)。ParisUniversitybecamemorefriendlytotheclassics，andeminentscholarslikeLascarisandAleandrowereinvitedtolectureonGreek。TheCollegeofSt。Barbebecameagreatclassicalstrongholdwithintheuniversity，andthemovementbegantodevelopsorapidlyastoexcitethejealousyandsuspicionsofthetheologians。
ThisunfortunatedivisionwasrenderedmoreacutebythefoundationoftheCollegedeFrancein1529。ItwashandedoverentirelytotheHumanisticpartyinspiteoftheoppositionofthemoreconservativeschool，andservedasacentreforallkindsofliterary，philological，andantiquarianresearches。
ThemosteminentoftheFrenchHumanistswereBudaeus(1467-1540)，regardedinhisowntimeasbutslightlyinferiortoErasmus，GermanusBrixius(GermaindeBrie)，CanonofNotreDameandtranslatorofportionoftheworksofSt。JohnChrysostom，StephenPoncher，BishopofParisandadvocateoftheHumanistpartyattheCourtofFrancisI。，theDominican，WilliamPetit，Robert(1503-59)andHenri(1528-98)
Estienne(Stephanus)towhomweareindebtedforthetwomonumentalworks，/ThesaurusLinguaeLatinae/and/LinguaeGraecae/，Scaliger(1540-1609)thewell-knownauthorityonchronologyandepigraphy，andthephilologistandclassicistIsaacCasaubon(1559-1614)。
InFrancetherewasasharprivalryfromthebeginningbetweentheScholasticsandtheHumanists。Theuniversitywasdividedintoseparatecamps。ThecollegeofSt。BarbewasopposedbytheMontaigueCollege，therectorofwhichwastheleaderoftheScholasticparty。
TheHumanistsregardedtheTheologiansasantiquated，whiletheTheologianslookedupontheiropponentsassupportersoftheReformationmovement。Incaseofafewofthese，asforexampleLefevred'Etaples，[16]GerardRoussel，andothers，thesesuspicionswerefullyjustified；butincaseofmanyotherstheirfaithwassound，andhowevermuchtheymayhavewaveredinlifetheypreferredtodieatpeacewiththeChurch。TothislattersectionbelongsMargueriteofValois，[17]sisterofFrancisI。ShewasapatronessoftheHumanistsandReformersinParisandwasopposedundoubtedlytomanyCatholicpractices；butitisnotsoclearthatshewishedforareligiousrevolution，andatanyrateitiscertainthatshediedaCatholic。ThisrivalrybetweentheTheologiansandHumanistsandthemisunderstandingstowhichitgaverisearelargelyresponsiblefortherapiddevelopmentofCalvinismamongstcertainclassesofFrenchsociety。
TheclassicalmovementinEnglandisduelargelytoItalianinfluences，thoughthevisitoftheGreekEmperorManuelin1400，andthesubsequentvisitsofGreekenvoysandscholarsmusthavecontributednotalittletoawakenaninterestamongEnglishstudentsinGreekstudies。IndividualEnglishmenbegantoturntowardsthegreatcentresofItalianHumanism，andtoreturntotheirowncountryimbuedwithsomethingoftheliteraryzealoftheirItalianmasters。
Ofthesethetwowho，morethanothers，contributedtogiveGreekandLatinagoodstandingintheschoolsofthecountrywereWilliamSellingandWilliamHadley，bothBenedictinemonksofCanterbury。TheystudiedatBologna，PaduaandRome，andwerebroughtintocontactwithPolitianandotherdistinguishedHumanists。SellingwasrecognisedasanaccomplishedGreekscholar，andonhisreturnhesethimselftoremodelthecourseofstudiesatCanterburysoastoensurefortheclassicstheirproperplace。TheinfluenceofCanterburyandofPriorSellinghelpedverymuchtospreadtheclassicalrevivalinEngland。
Selling'smostremarkablepupilwasThomasLinacre(1460-1524)，whowenttoOxfordafterhavingcompletedhisearlyeducationatCanterbury，andwaschosenFellowofAllSoul'sCollege。LateronheaccompaniedhisoldmastertoItaly，wherehehadanopportunityofmasteringtheintricaciesofLatinstylefromPolitian，thetutorofthechildrenofLorenzode'Medici，andofGreekfromDemetriusChalcondylas。HeturnedhisattentiontomedicineandreceivedadegreebothatPaduaandOxford。HispositionatthecourtsofHenryVII。andHenryVIII。gavehimanopportunityofenlistingthesympathiesoftheleadingecclesiasticalandlayscholarsofhisdayinfavouroftheliteraryrevival。Inhislateryearshewasordainedpriestandheldsomeimportantecclesiasticaloffices。OtherdistinguishedscholarsandpatronsoftherevivalinEnglandwereGrocyn，acompanionofLinacreatOxfordandinItalyandafterwardslectureronGreekatExeterCollege，Oxford；JohnColet(1467-1519)，DeanofSt。Paul's，thefriendofBudaeus，Erasmus，Linacre，andGrocyn，andfounderofSt。Paul'sSchool；WilliamLilly，appointedbyDeanColetasfirstmasterinthisschool；Fisher(1459-1535)BishopofRochester；andSirThomasMore(1480-1535)。
TheHumanistmovementinEngland，unlikethecorrespondingmovementinItaly，wasinnosensehostiletoreligionortotheCatholicChurch。
Manyofitsleadersdesiredreform，butnotasingleoneoftheprominentscholarsoftheperiodshowedanysympathywithLuther'srevolt。TheveryfoundersoftherevivalinEngland，Selling，Hadley，LinacreandGrocyn，wereecclesiasticswhosefaithwasbeyondsuspicion；Coletdiedashehadlived，thoroughlydevotedtotheChurch；whileFisherandSirThomasMoresealedtheirloyaltytotheancientfaithwiththeirblood。[18]
TherevivalinSpainowesmuchtothepatronageofQueenIsabellaandtheexertionsofCardinalXimenez(1436-1517)。Theleadinguniversities，Seville，Alcala，andSalamanca，werenotunfriendly，andthewholeeducationalsystemwasremodelledinfavouroftheclassics。
CardinalXimenezdevotedhimselftothepreparationofthePolygloteditionoftheBible，theNewTestamentportionofwhichwasprintedsoearlyas1514，andthewholeworkwaspublishedin1522。TheleadingHumanistscholarswereLebrixa，orasheiscalledinLatinLebrissensis，Nunez，andLudovicoVives(1492-1540)，thelatterofwhomwasdeemedbyhiscontemporariesnotunworthyofbeingcomparedwithErasmusandBudaeus。
TheHumanistmovementandthegeneralrevivalofliterary，scientific，philologicalandhistoricalstudiestowhichitgavebirthwerenotinthemselvesanti-religious，nordidtheyfindintheCatholicChurchadeterminedopponent。Suchstudies，onthecontrary，mighthavecontributedmuchtopromoteamoreenlightenedunderstandingoftheology，andmoreespeciallyoftheScriptures，afactwhichwasunderstoodthoroughlybytheablestecclesiasticsofthetime。InItaly，Germany，France，andEngland，bishopsandabbotsviedwithsecularprincesintheirpatronageofscholars，whiletheinfluenceofthePopes，notablyNicholasV。，SixtusIV。，JuliusII。，andLeoX。wasentirelyinfavouroftheHumanistparty。
Yet，whileallthisistrue，theHumanistmovementdidmuch，undoubtedly，topreparemen'smindsforthegreatreligiousrevoltofthesixteenthcentury。SpringingintolifeasitdidatatimewhenthefaithoftheMiddleAgeswasonthewane，andwhenmanyeducatedmenweregrowingtiredofthecoldformalismandantiquatedmethodsoftheSchoolmen，ittendedtodevelopaspiritofrestlessinquirythatcouldillbrookanyrestriction。ThereturntotheclassicsrecalledmemoriesofanearliercivilisationandcultureopposedinmanyparticularstothegeniusofChristianity，andthereturnofnaturetendedtopushintothebackgroundthesupernaturalideauponwhichtheChristianreligionisbased。Buttherevivaldidmore。Thestudyoftheclassicsbroughtintoprominenceseriousproblemsregardingtheauthenticity，age，andvalueofcertainwritingsandmanuscripts，andbysodoingitcreatedaspiritofcriticismandofdoubtforwhichtheTheologiansofthedaywerebutpoorlyprepared。Inaword，itwasaperiodoftransitionandofintellectualunrest，whennewidealsineducationwereendeavouringtosupplanttheoldones，andwhenneitherthefriendsoftheoldnorofthenewhaddistinguishedclearlybetweenwhatwasessentialinChristianityandwhatwaspurelyaccidental。
InsuchatimeitwastobeexpectedthatardentHumanists，filledwiththeirnew-bornzealforclassicalstudies，shouldadvancetoorapidly，andbyconfoundingreligionwiththecrudemethodsofsomeofitsdefendersshouldjumptotheconclusionthatareconciliationbetweentherevivalandreligionwasimpossible。NorshoulditbeamatterofsurprisethattheTheologians，confidentinthestrengthoftheirownpositionandnaturallysuspiciousofintellectualnovelties，werenotinclinedtolookwithfavouronamovementwhichoweditsinspirationlargelytoPagansources。Moderatemen，onthecontrary，whetherHumanistsorScholastics，aimedatacompletereconciliation。
Theyrealisedthatthegreatliteraryandscientificrevivalcoulddomuchforthedefenceofreligion，andthatthePaganclassicsmustbeappraisedaccordingtoChristianstandards。
Butthisworkofreconciliationwasrenderedverydifficultbytheattitudeofextremistsonbothsides。ManyoftheItalianHumanists，ashasbeenshown，wereChristiansonlyinname。IntheirwritingsandintheirlivestheyshowedclearlythattheywerethoroughlyimbuedwiththespiritofPaganism。Suchmenmeritedseverecondemnation，anditistoberegrettedthatthePopes，particularlySixtusIV。andLeoX。，didnotadoptafirmerattitudetowardsthissectionoftheItalianschool。ButbeforejudgingtooharshlythefriendlyrelationsmaintainedbySixtusIV。andLeoX。withtheItalianHumanists，itiswelltorememberthattheageinwhichtheylivedwasnotedforitsgenerallaxityandforthedeclineofaproperreligiousspirit，thatthePagantoneandPaganformsofexpressionusedbythesewriterswereregardedasexhibitionsofharmlesspedantryratherthanasclearproofsofoppositiontoChristianity，thatmostofthesewriterswerealwaysreadytoexplainawaywhatevermightappearobjectionableintheirworks，andthat，finally，mildnessinthecircumstancesmayhavebeendeemedthebestpolicy。TheattitudeofthePopesatanyratepreventedanopenconflictbetweentherepresentativesofthetwoschoolsinItalyuntiltheoutbreakoftheReformationandtheinvasionofRomeputanendtothedangerbydestroyingtheHumanistmovement。
InGermanyandFrancetherewerefewtracesofananti-Christiantendencyamongstthesupportersofthenewlearning。Butinbothcountries，moreespeciallyintheformer，thesupportersofthenewlearningcriticisedseverelytheignoranceofthemonksandTheologians，andtooklittlepainstoconcealtheircontemptfortheScholasticmethodsofeducation。TheyblamedthePopesfortheirneglectofthetrueinterestsoftheChurch，andheldthemresponsibleinalargemeasureforthegeneraldeclineofreligion。AccordingtothemthestudyoftheologymustbereformedsoastogiveamoreprominentplacetotheScripturesandthewritingsoftheearlyFathers；thedevelopmentoftheinternalspiritofreligionasdistinctfrommereexternalformalismwastobeencouraged，andmanyoftheexistingpracticesmightbediscardedassuperstitious。SuchviewstendednaturallytoexcitetheoppositionoftheTheologiansandtounsettlethereligiousconvictionsofeducatedmenwhowatchedthestrugglewithindifference。
Inthiswaythegroundwaspreparedforacompletereligiousrevolt。
Luther'smovementwasregardedbymanyasmerelythelogicalsequenceofHumanism，butthattheHumaniststhemselveswerenotwillingtoacceptthisviewisclearfromthefactthatoncetheearlymisunderstandingshadbeenremoved，andoncetherealissueswereapparent，mostoftheHumanistsinGermanyandFranceremainedtruetotheChurch。InsteadofregardingLutherasafriendtheylookeduponhimastheworstenemyoftheircause，andontheReformationasthedeath-knelloftheRenaissance——
[1]Sandys，/HistoryofClassicalScholarship/，2ndedition，1906。
Rogers，/L'Enseignementdeslettresclassiquesd'AusoneaAlcuin/，1905。Gougaud，/LesChretientesCeltiques/，1911，chap。viii。(Anexcellentbibliography。)Esposito，/GreekinIrelandduringtheMiddleAges/(/Studies/，i。，4，665-683)。
[2]Monnier，/LaRenaissancedeDanteaLuther/，1884。
[3]Guirard，/L'EgliseetlaRenaissance/，chap。iii。
[4]Nolhac，/Petrarqueetl'Humanisme/，1892。
[5]Mancini，/VitadiLorenzoValla/，1891。
[6]Pastor，/HistoryofthePopes/，i。，pp。12-33。
[7]Pastor，op。cit。，p。24。
[8]Muntz，/LesartsalacourdesPopespendantleXVe。etleXVIe。
siecle/，1878-9。
[9]Muntz-Fabre，/LaBibliothequeduVaticanauXVe。siecle/，1887。
[10]Pastor，op。cit。，vol。vii。Conforti，/LeoneX。edilsuosecolo/，1896。Roscoe，/LifeandPontificateofLeoX。/，1883。
[11]Delprat，/DieBruderschaftdesgemeinsamenLebens/，1840。
[12]Strauss，/UlrichvonHutten/，2auf。，1871(Eng。Trans。，1874)。
[13]/ClarorumvirorumEpistolaelatinaegraecaeethebraicae/，1514。
[14]Janssen，/HistoryoftheGermanPeople/，iii。，pp。44-79。
[15]Capey，/Erasmus/，1901。
[16]/Lefevred'EtaplessoninfluencesurlesoriginesdelareformeFranc。/，1900。
[17]Lalanne，/MemoiresdeMe。deValois/，etc。，1858。
[18]OntheHumanistmovementinEngland，cf。Gasquet，/EveoftheReformation/，1900，chap。ii。Seebohm，/OxfordReformers/(Colet，Erasmus，More)，1867。Einstein，/TheItalianRenaissanceinEngland/，1902。
(b)PoliticalandSocialConditionofEurope。
SeetheworksofPastor，JanssenandGasquetcitedinsection(a)。
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