"Butaspopulationincreases，andcanonlyincrease，bymorecomingintotheworldthangooutofit，everymanwhomarriesandraisesafamilyisapublicbenefactor，andthepracticeofcelibacy，sofarfrombeingavirtue，is，inreality，agreatpubliccrime。Thenumber，however，ofthosewhomarry，andhavechildren，inalltolerablyquietandpeaceabletimes，muchexceedsthatofthosewhoremainsingle；and，consequently，thenumberofalltheinhabitantsoftheearthhascontinuallyaugmented，and，haditnotbeenforthewarswhichtheambitionofprinceshasstirredup，wouldhavebeenstillmuchfartheraugmented。
"ThepopulationofEnglandisnowmuchgreaterthanattheRestoration。
ItwasgreaterattheRestorationthanattheaccessionofElizabeth，andthenthanduringthegreatcivilwars。EventhenitwasgreaterthanattheConquest，andatthattime，thanattheinvasionofJuliusCaesar。
"Ineachoftheseperiods，however，therewerenotonlymanyprivatefeudsandpublicdissensions；manybloodyandharassingwars；greatperversionofthepowersoftheinhabitantsfromtheproductiontothedestructionoflife；butsometimessuchdreadfulmassacresandbloodshed，sogreatmultitudesperishingbythesword，andbyfaminefollowingupitsravages，asmightbesupposednotonlytohaveretardedtheincreaseofthenumbersoftheinhabitants，buttohaveleftthemfewerattheendthanatthebeginning。Haditnotbeenfortheseevents，thegreaterpartofthosewhomtheycarriedoffwouldhavemarriedandhadchildren，whosewholenumberswouldnaturallyhavebeengreaterthanthatoftheparentswhoprocreatedthem。Inthismannereverygenerationwouldhaveexceededproportionablytheoneprecedingit。Thenumberofindustrioushandsthusproducedwouldhavebuiltmorehouses，wouldhaveimprovedmorelands，andwouldhavecultivatedbetterthosewhichhadbeenimprovedbefore；moremanufactureswouldhavebeenestablished，andthosewhichhadbeenestablishedbeforewouldhavebeenmoreextended，andhowfarthepopulationofthecountry，anditsrealwealthandstrength，mighthavebeencarriedbythistime，itisnotperhapsveryeasytoimagine。"
Theerrorofbothreasoningsarises，inthesamemanner，fromtakingwhatismerelyanecessaryconcomitant，foracause。Itisperfectlytrue，thattherealwealth，strength，andprosperityofacountry，cannotadvance，butasitspopulationadvances，andthatpopulationcanonlyadvancebymorebeingbroughtintotheworldthangooutofit。Itisalsotruethattheycannotadvancebutasitscapitaladvances，andthatitscapitalcanonlyadvancebymorebeingsavedthanisspent。Butwhenitissaidineithercase，thatastheycanonlyadvanceaspopulationadvances，orasaccumulationadvances，wehaveonlytoallowpopulationtogoonunrestrained，oronlytoallowaccumulationtogoonunchecked，wearedeceived，andledtounwarrantableconclusions，byasortofsleightintheuseofwords。
Thecontemplationofacouplecontendingwithunremittinglaboragainsttheevilsofpovertyandwant，and，howeveroccasionallypinchedbythemthemselves，wardingthemoffwithcareandsuccessfromtheiroffspring，andrearingupanumerousandindustriousfamily，isaverypleasingsight。
Itispleasingasanevidenceoftheexistenceofsomeofthebestandpurestaffectionsofournature；itispleasing，also，fromthemereviewofthehealthyadditionthusmadetothatsureststayofastate，anindustriousandfrugalpopulation。Butwhenitishenceassumed，thatnothingiswantingtoaugmentthenumbersofthecommunity，andcarryitforwardtogreatness，thanthatsimilarprinciplesandconductshouldbeallowedtogooninallitsmemberswithoutrestraint，ahastyandinaccurateconclusionisdrawnfromapartialviewofacomplicatedsubject。Thenumbersofastatecanneverexceed，whatitsresourcescansupport。Whentheseresourcesareaugmented，theprincipleswhichtendtothepreservationandmultiplicationofthespeciesare，inallwellregulatedcommunities，sufficientlyactivespeedilytofilluptheirnumberstotheamountoftheincreasedsupply。
Inlikemanner，thecontemplationofhonestindustry，andpatientfrugality，notonlymanfullybearingupagainstpresentnecessityandwant，butrepellingthem，andaccumulatingaplentifulstoretoanswerthedemandsoffuturity，isalsonounpleasingspectacle。Butforsuchprinciplesneitherpublicnorprivatecomfortoraffluencecouldexist，orbepreserved。But，whenitishencealsoassumed，thatnothingelseiswantingtocarrythecommunityforwardtothehighestdegreeofaffluenceandpower，thanthatsimilarprinciplesandconduct，throughallitsmembers，shouldbeencouraged，andallowedtogoonwithoutcheck，aconclusionequallyunwarrantedandequallyinaccurate，isdrawnfromalikehastyandimperfectviewofagreatsubject。Thecapitalofastateisamereinstrumentinthehandsofitsindustry，toenableittodrawforththeriches，withwhichtheconjoinedpowersofnatureandarthaveendowedit。Amultiplicationofinstrumentsisofnoavail，unlesssomethingadditionalbegivenonwhichtheymayoperate。Wheninventionsucceedsindiscoveringtheseadditionalriches，themereviewissufficient，ineverywellregulatedcommunity，toinduceitsmemberstoformthenewinstruments，necessarytodrawtheserichesforth。
Theremustbesomestronginherentviceinanycommunity，wherethecertainprospectofplentifulsubsistencedoesnotproduceanabundantpopulation。Itcanonlybe，also，fromtheeffectsofsomegreatinherentvice，that，inanycommunity，averyprofitableinvestmentforcapitalcanbeheldout，andyetcapitalnotaccumulatewithrapidity。Wherethereisnosufficientprospectofsubsistence，peoplemayberestrainedfrommarriagebythedreadoftheirfamiliessufferingwant。Wherethereisnosufficientprospectofprofit，peoplemaybewithheldfromaccumulatingcapital，becausetheymayseenosufficientlyprofitableadventureopentothemthattheywouldnotfeartoembarkin。Butthefactis，thatpeople，ratherthanlivesingle，areinclinedtomarryatallrisks，andhencepopulationiskeptdownbymisery，andprematuredeath；andtheyarealso，ratherthandonothing，enclinedtoembarkinadventureswherethechancesareagainsttheirsuccess；hencethevastnumbersofunsuccessfulprojectsthatinmostcommunitiesarecontinuallydissipatingpreviousaccumulationsofcapital。Toformarightjudgmentofthepowerofanycommunity，underthemostfavorablecircumstances，ofincreasingitspopulation，wemustconsidertheadditionalmarriageswhichwouldtakeplace，andthegreaternumbersthatwouldberearedtomaturityfromsuchasdotakeplace，ifplentifulsubsistencewereprovided。Inlikemanner，toformarightjudgmentofthepowersofanycommunity，underthemostfavorablecircumstances，toincreaseitscapital，wemustconsider，that，ifabundanceofsecureandprofitableinvestmentsforcapitalwerepresented，itsmemberswouldbemoreeagertopossessadditionalcapital，and，therefore，wouldbemorepromptedtoaccumulateit；andthecapitaltheypossessedwouldbemoreproductive，andwouldnotbesubjecttoberiskedandlostinimprudentspeculations。
Fromtheinconsiderablerudimentsofpopulationandcapital，whichGreatBritainfurnishedtoNorthAmerica，istobetracedthegreatamountofboth，ofwhichthatflourishingdivisionoftheglobeatpresentboasts。
Theformerhasincreasedsogreatly，becauseplentifulsubsistencehasbeenaffordedit：thelatter，becauseprofitableandsecureinvestmentshavebeenpresentedtoit。Haditbeenpossibletohaveafforded，andhadthesameabundantsubsistencebeenafforded，tothepopulation，andthesameprofitableandsecureinvestmentstothecapitalremainingwithinthekingdom，theywouldhavebothaugmented，wehaveeveryreasontobelieve，inaratioequaltothatatwhichthefragmentsofboththatwenttoNorthAmericahaveaugmented。ItcertainlywasnotthevoyageacrosstheAtlantic，buttherichsoilonwhichtheyfellontheothersideofit，thatexcitedthemtosoluxuriantagrowth。
Thisgreatproductivepowerofboththepopulationandcapitalofacountry，whenroomisaffordedthemtoshoot，seemssoeasilytofillupanygapwhichismadeinthenationalmembersorstock，thatacalculationfoundedontheassumption，thatanylossineitherwhichanationmaysustain，necessarilyoccasionsaitsfundsmustevidentlyproportionablypermanentdiminutionofbeinconclusive。ItisverydoubtfulifthepopulationofLondonorEnglandwouldhavebeengreaterthanitisatpresent，hadtherebeennoplague。ItisverydoubtfulalsoifthecapitalofLondonorofEnglandwouldhavebeengreaterthanitisatpresent，hadtherebeennogreatfire。Theadditionaldemandforlaborandcapital，whichthesedisasterscreated，mayverywellbesupposedsoontohavebroughtbothuptotheamounttheyhadpreviouslyattained。
Inallinstancesofsuch，orevenfargreatercalamities，destroyingapartofthepopulationorcapitalofacountry，whiletheprinciplesandelements，throughandfromwhichtheysprang，arenotconsumedalongwiththem，weseethemquicklyreproduced。When，forexample，thegreatdestroyerWarholdshiscoursethroughacountry，andclearingwidehispathwithfireandsword，leavespropertyandlifeawreckbehindhim，weseenotthatthetracesofhiswratharelongperpetuated；inthemidstoftheruinsofwhatwere，liethegermsofwhataretobe，andseizingontheelementsofexistencethatliewastearound，theyexpandwithavigorproportionedtothemagnitudeofthevoidthathasbeenmadeforthem，andspeedilyreplenishit。Likethetrackofthewhirlwindthroughtheforest，thepresentdesolationisquicklycoveredupandobliteratedbythefreshnessofthenewgrowth，towhichthatverydesolationgiveslight，andair，andthemeansofexistence。Weshouldthinkthecalculationratherfanciful，which，estimatingthetreesoverbornebytheblastforcenturies，andreckoningtheincreasethatmighthavepossiblycomefromeachofthem，shouldbringoutasacorrectresult，thatallthiswouldhavebeenaclearadditiontothevegetablelifeoftheforest；andthatsomuchgreateritmusthavebeento-day，hadnotthesedisastershadplace。
Calculationsproceedingontheassumptionoftheindefiniteincreaseofpopulationorcapital，withoutshowingalsothattherewillberoomforthem，arebutlittlemorelogical。
Beforepopulationcanadvance，theremustbesomethingonwhichitcansubsist；beforecapitalcanincrease，theremustbesomethinginwhichitmaybeembodied。Producesubsistence，and，ifvicepreventitnot，populationwillfollow；showthatifcapitaldidexist，itwouldproducegreatprofits，and，ifvicepreventitnot，capitalwillbeaccumulated。But，untiltherebesomemeansofsubsistingthepopulation，andemployingthecapital，theycannever，bysimplyurgingontheirproduction，berationally。expectedtobemuchaugmented。
Itisinvention，whichshowinghowprofitablereturnsmaybegotfromtheone，andhowsubsistenceprocuredfromtheother，thatmaymostfitlybeesteemedthecauseoftheexistenceofboth；andhencethispowerhasmosttitletoberankedasthetruegeneratorofstatesandpeople。Itiscertainly，therefore，veryfarfrombeingaself-evidenttruth，thatthelegislator，byemployingtheresourcesofthecountryinrousingthisprincipletoactivity，necessaryretards，insteadofadvancing，theincreaseofwealthandtheprosperityofthestate。
ChapterIIOftheIdentityofNationalandIndividualInterestsConsideredasaTheoreticalPrincipleThoughthedoctrineoftheidentityoftheinterestsofindividualsandcommunitiescannotbeestablishedasasimpleandself-evidentprinciple，fromtheassumptionthattheobjectswhichindividualsdesignedlypursue，fortheirprivateemolument，arepreciselythosewhichmostpromotetheprogressofthegeneralopulence；andthoughinthissense，aswehaveseen，theidentityoftheendswhichtheypursueisnominal，notreal，yetitfollowsnotfromthisthatthedoctrineisnecessarilyerroneous。
Manydoctrineswhicharefarmoresimpleorself-evidentareneverthelesstrue。Many，whichatfirstsightseemevencontradictorytoexperience，arefound，bycloserexamination，tobelegitimatelydeduciblefromit。
Itismanifestthatthegeneralopulence，howeverbroughtabout，results，insomewayoranother，fromtheactionandreactiononeachotherofthewholesystemofpersonsandthings，whichconstitutecommunities，orbelongtothem。Itisthenatleastpossibletoconceivethatitisentirelyproducedbytheeffortsofindividualstoadvancetheirprivatefortunes。That，thoughitistheobjectofindividualstoacquirewealth，andofnationstocreateit，yetthattheseriesofactionswhichtheformergenerate，inendeavoringtomaketheacquisition，arepreciselythosewhicharebestcalculatedtoforwardthecreation；andthatthus，unconsciouslytohimself，eachmemberofthecommunity，whileseekingmerelyhisownbenefit，necessarilyadoptstheverycoursewhichismostfortheadvantageofthesociety，and，touseourauthor'swords，"isledinthis，asinmanyotherinstances，byaninvisiblehand，topromoteanendthatwasnopartofhisintention。"
Inthisviewofthesubjectthedoctrinewouldputofftheshapeofasimpleprinciple，andassumethatofatheorydeducedfromanexaminationofthewholeseriesofactionsthatareconcernedintheproductionofthewealthofcommunities；andinthiswaywemayconceivethatitmightbesatisfactorilyprovedbyanextendedinquiryintotheNatureoftheWealthofNations。
Suchisthetheoryofthisdepartmentofhumanaction，whichtheauthorgives。Ifitbefoundnottobeinconsistentwiththephenomena，butfairlydeducedfromthem，thetruthofthepeculiardoctrine，whichitistheaimofhisworktomaintain，wouldbeestablishedbyit。
Beforeendeavoringtoexplainit，orattemptingtoshowwhereinitfails，itispropertoremarkthatitisblended，throughoutthewholework，withthatnotionoftheexactidentityoftheendswhichnationsandindividualspursue，thefallacyofwhichItrustIhave，insomemeasure，exposedintheprecedingchapter。Ishallafterwardshaveoccasiontoshowthatthisarrangementofhismaterialssometimesrendershisargumentsillogical。
Iamledtonoticeitatpresent，becauseIwishtoaccountfortheappearanceofthisassumption，unremarkedbyme，intheanalysisofthetheoryIamabouttogive。
Itmustbeapparenttoeveryoneacquaintedwiththesystem，thatitspartswouldnotinanywayhangtogether，ifdeprivedofthesupportwhichthispopularnotiongivestothem。Indeed，Iconceivethatthetruestaccountthatcouldbegivenofit，wouldbetosay，thatitisaltogetherfoundedontheassumptionthatnationalandindividualwealthandprosperityincrease，andmustincrease，inpreciselythesamemanner；andthatthetheoreticalpartofitmerelyservestoshowhowtheincreaseofindividualwealthdoes，inreality，producetheeventswhichweseeaccompanyingnationalwealth；thattheformeristhecause，andthesolecause，ofthelatter，andmustthereforeproduceallthephenomenaattendantonit，beingtakenforanundeniablefact，andtheauthorseemingmerelytohaveproposedtoshowhowitmaybesupposedtoproducethosephenomena。Thus，werewhatwasoncethepopulardoctrineconcerningpopulationstillheldtobethecorrectone，andwerewetotakeitforgrantedasanundeniabletruth，that，asthenationalstrength，andrevenue，andwealthcanonlyadvanceasthenumberofindustrioushandsthatformthemisincreased，soeveryaugmentationofthepopulationofanationisanadditiontothenationalfunds，andthat，therefore，thingsoughttobeallowedtotaketheirnaturalcourse，andallrestraintsonmarriagebedoneawaywith，theassumptionanddoctrinemightbesupportedbyatheory，showing，orendeavoringtoshow，howallthephenomenaattendingtheadvanceofmankindtowardsprosperityandaffluencedo，infact，resultfromtheirincreasingnumbers。
Itmight，perhaps，insupportofsuchaviewofthesubject，besaid，"that，asnecessityisthemotherofinvention，so，unlesspressedbywant，orthedreadofit，mankindmightneverhaveexercisedtheiringenuityindiscoveringeventherudimentsofthearts；andcertainlywouldnothaveadvancedthembeyondthemostunformedandimperfectelements。That，whileingenialclimatesthespontaneousfruitsoftheearthaffordedthemabundantnourishment，theycouldhavehadnomotivetotaxthelaborofeithertheirmindsorbodiestoproducethatforwhichtheyhadnoneed。
Thatitwastheincreaseoftheirnumbers，which，renderingthesuppliesthatnaturehaddealtouttotheminsufficient，imposedthetaskonthemofsearchingoutthemeansofprocuringadditionstothem：andthatthusnecessity，"Cutisacuensmortaliacorda*****
UtvariasususmeditandoextunderetartesPaulatim，&；c——"
"Whettinghumanindustrybycare。
Thatstudiousneedmightusefulartsexplore，"
isintruththedivinitythattaughtmankindthemostessentialarts。"
PrimoCeresferromortalesvertereterramInstituit；cumjamglandesatquearbutasacraeDefeceruatsylvaeetvictumDidonanegavit，"
"FirstCerestaughtthegroundwithgraintosow，Andarmedwithironsharesthecrookedplough；
WhennewDodonianoaksnomoresuppliedTheirmast，andtreestheirforestfruitdenied，"
"Thatthisurgentnecessity，thisimperiousmistress，whichnaturecausedtospringfromtheirincreasingnumbers，madethemspreadthemselvesovertheearth，andpeopleeventhemostrigorousclimates。Thatthe"rigidlore"ofthe"sternruggednurse"thusimposedonthem，thoughharsh，washealthful；asaproofofwhichwemayobserve，thatmeningeneralsubsistingreatestcomfortandabundance，wheretheclimateismostforbidding，andthesoilmoststubborn，becausethere，thattheymaysubsistatall，theyhavebeenobligedtocalltotheirsuccourthemostingeniousarts，andthemostindefatigableindustry，"LaboromniaviacitImprobusetdurisurgensinrebusegestas。"
"Whatcannotendlesslaborurgedbyneed？"
That，asitistheactionofthisprinciplewhichhasgivenrisetoallthearts，soitisitwhichhasbroughtthemtoperfection。That，whileaterritoryisscantilypeopled，anditsinhabitantsspreadoveritatagreatdistancefromeachother，theycanneversubdividethemselvesintodifferenttradesandemployments，andeachdevotinghimselftoaparticularbusinessandart，exercisehiswholeingenuitytobringthatparticularoccupationtoperfection；andthathenceartsareingeneralinthemostflourishingcondition，wherethepopulationisthemostdense。
"Thattothesecauses，thusnecessarilyproceedingfromthisgreatprinciple，wearetoascribeinparticularboththeopulenceandprosperityofourownnation，andthenecessarydiffusionofthearts，manners，language，andrace，withwhichtheyareconnected，andinwhichtheyareembodied，overtheremotestregionsoftheglobe。Thatthus，althoughmeninmarryingseekonlytheirowngood，theyneverthelessadoptthatcoursewhichismosttotheadvantageofsociety；andheretoo，asinmanyotherinstances，areledbyaninvisiblehandtopromoteanendwhichwasnopartoftheirintention。That，therefore，astherevenueandpowerofanationcanonlyincreaseasitspopulationincreases，andastheincreaseofpopulationtendstogiveabeginningtoeveryusefulart，andtocarryittothehighestperfection，legislatorsactaveryabsurdandculpablepartinattempting，inanyinstancetorestrainit，ortocheckwhatisundoubtedlythenatural，andapparentlythemostbeneficialcourseofevents。"
Suchatheory，likealmosteveryotherviewofonlyonesideofacomplicatedsubject，wouldprobablybepartlycorrect，andpartlyerroneous；butitmightbepossibletoembraceinitagreatmassoffacts，andperhapstogiveitconsiderableplausibility。
Inexaminingthesoundnessofthedoctrinefoundedonit，itmightfirstbeexpedienttoallowtheassumptionsnecessarilyinvolvedinittopassunnoticed，andtotestitsaccuracybyanapplicationtofacts。SuchisthecoursewhichImeantofollowinthisintroductoryexaminationofthesomewhatsimilartheory，asitseemstome，whichisthegroundworkforthevastandvariedaccumulationoffactsandopinionsembodiedintheWealthofNations。Ishallallowtheauthor'sassumptionstopassunquestionedinallcaseswheretheyaremixedwiththeexplanationofrealevents，thoughImayesteemthatexplanationerroneous；anditisonlywhere，aloneandunconnectedwithfacts，theyarebroughtforwardforthepurposeofargumentsasincontrovertibletruthsinordertoestablishtheparticulardoctrinewhichIcombat，thatIwillfeelmyselfcalledontoexposethefallaciesintowhichtheylead。
Thecelebratedauthorremarks，"thatitisfromhislaboralonethatmancandrawthenecessaries，theconveniences，theamusementsofhumanlife，fromthematerialswhichnaturehasplacedaroundhim。Astheamountofthesenecessaries，conveniences，andamusements，whichanymancanaffordtoenjoy，constituteshisriches；sotheamountofthemwhichallthemeninthenationcanenjoyconstitutesthenationalriches。Labor，then，beingthefirstprice，theoriginalpurchasemoney，thatispaidforallthings，aninquiryintonationalwealthis，infact，aninquiryintothemeansbywhichthelaboroftheindividualscomposinganationmayproduce，fromthematerialstheypossess，thegreatestamountofnecessaries，conveniences，andamusements。
"Thesemayeitherbetheimmediateproduceofthatlabor，orwhatispurchasedwiththatproducefromothernations。Hencesuchaninquirymaybedividedintotwoparts；thefirsttreatingofthemeansbywhichtheproduceofthenationallaborbecomesgreatest；thesecond，ofthemannerinwhichtheparttransferredtoothernationsprocuresfromthem，inreturn，thegreatestamountofnecessaries，conveniences，andamusements。
"First，then，maybeconsideredthesourcesofwealththatliealtogetherwithinthesociety，themeansofbringing，bythelaborofitsmembers，outofthematerialswhichitpossesses，thegreatestamountofproducts；
thatis，ofarticlesaffordingnecessaries，conveniences，oramusements。
"This，inanyparticularnation，mustberegulatedbytwocircumstances。
First，bytheskill，dexterity，andjudgmentwithwhichitslaborisgenerallyapplied；secondly，bytheproportionbetweenthenumberofthosewhoareemployedinusefullabor，andthatofthosewhoarenotsoemployed。"Itistothefirstofthesecircumstances，whichheobservesisofmuchthegreaterinfluence，thatourauthor'sreasoningchieflyrefer，andtotheconsiderationofit，therefore，wemayaltogetherconfineourselves。
"Thechiefcauseoperatingonthis，themainsourceoftheproductivenessoflabor，iscapital。Withoutcapital，industrycouldscarceatallexist。
Whileamanisexecutingapieceoflabor，hemusthave，tomaintainhim，astockofgoods，andhemusthavereadyprovidedforhimthetoolsandmaterialsnecessaryforperformingthework。Theseareallprocuredbycapital。Aweaver，forinstance，couldnotapplyhimselftomanufactureawebofcloth，unlessthereweresomewherestoredupforhimasupplyoffood，andothernecessaries，sufficienttomaintainhimtillhecompleteandsellit，andwerehenotprovidedbeforehandwithaloomandotherrequisitetoolsandmaterials。Itiscapitalwhichprovidesallthese，eitherhisownorthatofsomeotherperson。
"Ascapitalisthusthemostessentialelementinsettingindustryinmotion，soitisbytheamountofit，thattheproductivenessofthatindustryischieflydetermined。
"Everymanhavingcapitalnaturallyendeavorstomakethemostofit；
thatis，tocausethelaborwhichitputsinmotiontoyieldthegreatestamountofproductions。Thisheeffectsbythedivisionofthatlabor；thatis，byseparatingtheoperationsithastoperformintoasmanydistinctpartsaspossible，andallottingeachofthemtooneman，oronesetofmen，asapeculiaremployment。
"Theincreasearisingtotheproductivepowersoflabor，fromthisdivisionofit，isowingtothreedifferentcircumstances。First，totheincreaseofdexterityineveryparticularworkman；secondly，tothesavingofthetimewhichiscommonlylostinpassingfromonespeciesofworktoanother；
lastly，totheinventionofagreatnumberofmachineswhichfacilitateandabridgelabor。
"First，theimprovementofthedexterityoftheworkmannecessarilyincreasesthequantityoftheworkhecanperform；andthedivisionoflabor，byreducingeveryman'sbusinesstosomeonesimpleoperation，andbymakingthisoperationthesoleemploymentofhislife，necessarilyincreasesbymuchthedexterityoftheworkman。Acommonsmith，forinstance，willscarcemakemorethanthreehundrednailsaday，andthoseverybadones。
Aboywhohasdevotedhimselfentirelytothebusinessofmakingnails，canmakeupwardsoftwothousand。
"Secondly，timeisnotwastedinpassingfromoneworktoanother，andtheindolentsaunteringhabitsinducedbythefrequentchangeofemploymentareavoided。
"Thirdly，theinventionofallthosemachinesbywhichlaborissomuchfacilitatedandabridgedseemstohavebeenoriginallyowingtothedivisionoflabor。Inconsequenceofit，thewholeofeveryman'sattentioncomesnaturallytobedirectedtosomeoneverysimpleobject。Itisnaturallytobeexpected，therefore，thatsomeoneorotherofthosewhoareemployedineachparticularbranchoflaborshouldfindouteasierandreadiermethodsofperformingtheirownparticularwork，whereverthenatureofitadmitsofimprovement。Inthismodeagreatnumberofsuchimprovementsontheproductivepoweroflaborhavebeenmade。
"Theotherimprovementsinmachineryandmanufactures(16)havebeenalsoowingtothedivisionoflabor。Manyofthemhavebeenmadebytheingenuityofthose，who，fromthisseparationofemployments，havetakenupthetradeofmakingsuchmachines；others，bythatclassofcitizensofwhomalsophilosophyorspeculationbecomesthesoletradeandoccupation。
"Theperfectiontowhichthisdivisionoflabormaybecarrieddependsontheamountofcapitalthatsetsitinmotion；becausethesamenumberofworkmen，executingagreaterquantityofworkinproportionastheyarebetterclassifiedanddivided，requireconsequently，whensoclassified，alargerstockofmaterials，andtheextentofthestockofmaterialsprovidedmustberegulatedbytheamountofcapitalaccumulated。Again，whensodivided，theybothrequireandcausetobeinventedmanynewmachines。
Thesemachines，also，canonlybeprocuredby。acapitalpreviouslystoredup。Notonly，however，doestheaccumulationofcapital，byprovidingmoreabundantmaterialsandbettermachines，enablethesamenumberofworkmentobebetterdivided，andtoproducemorework，butitalsomaybeobservedthatthenumberofworkmeninanybranchofbusinessincreaseswiththedivisionoflaborinthatbranch。Thustheincreasedaccumulationofcapital，byeffectingamoreandmoreextendeddivisionoflabor，notonlyincreasestheproductivenessofthelaborofthesamenumberofworkmen，butaddstothatnumber。Bybothmeans，therefore，itgreatlyaugmentsthetotalrichesofthesociety，theamountofnecessaries，conveniences，andamusementsproducedbyitsmembers，andconsequentlyenjoyedbythem。
"Theseproductionswhichlabor，bytheaidofcapital，effectshavetobetransportedtotheplaceswheretheyaretobeconsumed，havetheretobestoreduptilltheymaybewanted，whentheyhavetobedividedintosmallportions，suitedtotheconvenienceofthepersonswhoaretousethem。Thedealersinwholesaleandretailareenabledtoperformtheseusefulofficesbytheinstrumentalityofcapital，andthegreatertheamountofthatcapitalthemoreeasilyandeffectuallytheycanperformthem。
Hence，everyadditiontheireconomymakestothatamount，tendsalsototheincreaseofthegeneralprosperity。
"Thedivisionoflaborislimitedbytheextentofthemarket。Beforeanyman，oranysetofmen，canincommonprudencedevotethemselvestoanyparticularemployment，theymustbeassuredthattheycandisposeofthecommoditywhichtheirexertionsintheprosecutionofthatemploymentwillproduce。Insituationswherethereisnotasufficientnumberofcustomersnearathandtoconsumethemanufacturedarticle，orwhereitcannotwithadvantagebetransportedtothoseatadistance，themakingofthatarticlecanneverbecometheexclusiveemploymentofanyman，orsetofmen。When，therefore，thereisnotasufficientlyextensivemarket，laborcannotbesomuchsubdividedasitotherwisewould，anditsproductivepowersarecrampedforwantofroominwhichtoexertthemselves。Theincreaseofcapitalextendsthemarketbyaddingtothenumbersandgeneralopulenceofthecommunity，andbyfacilitatingthemodesofcommunicationbetweenallpartsoftheterritorieswhichitpossesses，andthisextendingmarketgives，inturn，additionalceleritytotheincreaseofcapital。"
Tothisaccumulationofcapital，thiscontinualparsimonioussavingoutofrevenue，theprinciplethat，accordingtoourauthor，animatesthewholeprogressivemovementofthesociety，heassignsthefollowinglimit。
"Whenthestocksofmanyrichmerchantsareturnedintothesametrade，theirmutualcompetitionnaturallytendstoloweritsprofit；and，whenthereisalikeincreaseofstockinallthedifferenttradescarriedoninthesamesociety，thesamecompetitionmustproducethesameeffectonthemall。As，then，theprofitsofcapitalcontinuallylowerwithitsaugmentation，theremustarriveaperiodwhentheywillbesodiminishedastorenderitnolongerpossibletosaveanypartofthem。"Whenthisperiodarrives，thecountrywouldthen，Ithink，accordingtoourauthor，haveacquireditsfullcomplementofriches；everybranchofbusinessthereinhavingthegreatestquantityofcapitalthatcouldbeemployedinit。
"Butbesidestheimmediateproduceofitsownindustry，acountrythathasmadeanyprogressintheaccumulationofcapital，andconsequentdivisionoflabor，andfacilityofproduction，comestofurnishothercountrieswithmanyarticles，and，inexchange，toreceivefromthemmanyotherarticles。
Thisformsanothersourcefromwhencethenecessaries，conveniences，andamusementsofnationsmaybesupplied。Acountryisenabledtodothisfromtwocauses。Thesoil，climate，andnaturalproductionsofcountriesarevarious。Henceonecountryhasgenerallypeculiaradvantagesoverothersinmanufacturingcertainarticles。Again，onecountryexceedsanotherintheamountofcapitalitpossesses，andconsequentlyintheskillwithwhichitsindustryisapplied；hence，also，therearearticleswhichitcanproduceingreaterperfectionthanothercountries，withgreaterfacility，orboth。
"Thisistheorigin，andthesearetheadvantages，offoreigntrade。
Bymeansofittwoormorenationsareenabledtoexchangewithoneanotherwhatwouldotherwisehavebeentoeachsuperfluousforwhat，throughtheseexchanges，procurestoeachanadditionalamountofthenecessaries，conveniences，andamusementsoflife。
"Itiscapitalwhichenablesthemtoeffectthesebeneficialexchanges，andtheamountofthemmustbelimitedbytheamountofcapitalthatcanbeembarkedintheemployment。"Whatquantityofcapitalthisemploymentmayabsorb，whatquantityofproductionsmaythusbeexchangedbetweendifferentcountries，isaproblemwhichourauthorhasnot，asfarasI
perceive，givenuscertaindataforsolving。Someofhisfollowersthinkitillimitable，butitisclearthatthiswasnothisopinion，andthat，thoughhedidnotassignthelimits，heneverthelessbelievedtherewerelimitstoit。Accordinglyhemakesanotherchannel，throughwhich，whenthesearefilled，itmayflow，gatheringstillvolumetoitself，andaddingtothenationalprosperityasitproceeds。
"Thisiswhatiscalledthecarryingtrade，thecarryingthesurplusproduceofonenationtoanother。Twocountriesmayhaveproductswhichitwouldbeadvantageousforthemtoexchange，buttheymaynothavecapitalsufficienttoprovidethemeansnecessaryforeffectingthisexchange。
Insuchcase，anothernationhavingasuperabundantcapitalmayembarkpartofitinperformingthisofficeforthem，andintothisemploymentacountrysocircumstancednaturallydirectssuchacapital。Whenthecapitalstockofanycountryisincreasedinsuchadegree，thatitcannotbeallemployedinsupplyingtheconsumption，andsupportingtheproductivelaborofthatparticularcountry，thesurpluspartofitnaturallydisgorgesitselfintothecarryingtrade，andisemployedinperformingthesameofficestoothercountries。"(17)
Itmaybeobserved，however，withregardtothislastemployment，whichourauthorassignstocapital，thatitimpliesasuperiorityintheprogressoftheproductiveindustryofthecountryenjoyingthetrade，whichcannotbecalculatedonbeforehand。Anationcanonlypossessacarryingtrade，fromothernationswantingforeigntrade。Thoughitmay，therefore，formasourceofgaintoaparticularnation，itseemsnotsoproperlytobereckonedamongthecausesofthewealthofnations；for，withthegeneralprogressofthatwealth，accordingtothetheoryofourauthor，itwoulddecay。
Theingenioustheory，ofthemainelementsofwhich，Ihavethusattemptedtodelineatetheoutlines，itseminentauthorhasillustratedwithafelicityofobservation，andlaboriousnessofresearch，whichitwereasvaintoattempttodepreciate。assuperfluoustopraise。Heconceivesthatitestablishesthefollowingconclusions。
"Thenaturaleffortofeveryindividualtobetterhisowncondition，whensufferedtoexertitselfwithfreedomandsecurity，issopowerfulaprinciple，thatitisalone，andwithoutanyassistance，notonlycapableofcarryingonthesocietytowealthandprosperity，butofsurmountingahundredimpertinentobstructionswithwhichthefollyofhumanlawstoooftenencumbersitsoperations；thoughtheeffectoftheseobstructionsisalways，moreorless，eithertoencroachuponitsfreedomortodiminishitssecurity。"(18)That"everysystemwhichendeavors，either，byextraordinaryencouragementstodrawtowardsaparticularspeciesofindustryagreatershareofthecapitalofthesociety，thanwhatwouldnaturallygotoit，or，byextraordinaryrestraints，toforcefromaparticularspeciesofindustrysomeshareofthecapitalwhichwouldotherwisebeemployedinit，is，inreality，subversiveofthegreatpurposewhichitmeanstopromote。Itretardsinsteadofaccelerating，theprogressofthesocietytowardswealthandgreatness；anddiminishes，insteadofincreasing，therealvalueoftheannualproduceofitslandandlabor。"
Andtherefore，that"allsystems，eitherofpreferenceorrestraint，beingcompletelytakenaway，theobviousandsimplesystemofnaturallibertyestablishesitselfofitsownaccord。Everyman，aslongashedoesnotviolatethelawsofjustice，isleftperfectlyfreetopursuehisowninteresthisownway，andtobringbothhisindustryandcapitalintocompetitionwiththoseofanyotherman，ororderofmen。Thesovereigniscompletelydischargedfromaduty，inattemptingtoperformwhichhemustalwaysbeexposedtoinnumerabledelusions，andfortheproperperformanceofwhichnohumanwisdomorknowledgecouldeverbesufficient；thedutyofsuperintendingtheindustryofprivatepeople，andofdirectingittowardstheemploymentsmostsuitabletotheinterestofthesociety。"(19)
Iexpectinthesequeltoshowthatthesystemcontainscertainfundamentalerrorsinvalidatingverymanyoftheconclusions，whichtheauthordesirestoestablish。Inthemeantime，passingallsuchdiscussions，andviewingthesubjectinsomethingofthelightinwhichitseemstohavebeencontemplatedbyAdamSmithhimself，Iwouldobserve，thathissystem，ifcorrect，mustbeconsistentwithitself，andwithadmittedfacts。Histheorypretendstoshow，thatthesourceofthewealthofnations，theabundance，thatis，ofallthematerialsofcomfortandenjoyment，thenecessaries，theconveniences，theamusementsoflifewhichmenpossess，istobefoundinthegradualaccumulationofcapitalbytheundisturbedindustryandeconomyofindividuals，continually，throughthedivisionoflabor，introducingimprovementsinthemodesinwhichthislaboroperateswiththatcapital。
and，consequently，increasingwiththegreatestpossiblerapiditythereturnsfromthem。Hisdoctrineis，thattheaccumulationofcapitalbyindividuals，beingthustheonlythingrequiredtoproducethatabundancewiththegreatestpossiblerapidity，oughtnevertobeinterferedwithbythelegislature；
andthat，ifhedoesso，itmustnecessarilyhetothedetrimentofthesocietyforwhichhelegislates。If，therefore，evenaccordingtohim，thereareothersources，thanthemereaccumulationofcapital，andconsequentdivisionoflabor，onwhichnationsaredependentforturningtheirlaborandcapitaltothebestaccount，andthusdrawingfromtheirresourcesthemostabundantreturnsofnecessaries，conveniences，andamusements，thatisofwealth；insofar，histheorywouldseemimperfect，andhisdoctrineinapplicable。Ifwetheninparticularturntothepartofthesystemwithwhichwearespeciallyinterested，wefind，inreality，thatasfarasitisconcerned，thetheoryisthusinconsistentwitheventsadmittedbyitsauthor，thathencethisportionofitiscontradictorytoitself，andtoadmittedphenomena，andthatconsequentlythedoctrinedrawnfromitcannotherebemaintained。
Intheaccountoftheprogressofopulence，givenintheWealthofNations，wefindassigned，asoneofthecausesofit，theintroductionintoacountryofnewmanufactures。"Accordingtothenaturalcourseofthings，"wearetold，"thegreaterpartofthewealthofanygrowingsocietyisfirstdirectedtoagriculture，afterwardstomanufactures，andlastofalltoforeigncommerce。"(20)"Afteragriculture，thecapitalemployedinmanufacturesputsintomotionthegreatestquantityofproductivelabor。"(21)Theutilityofsuchmanufacturesisenlargedoninmanypartsofthework。"Theygiveanewvaluetothesurpluspartoftherudeproducebysavingtheexpenseofcarryingittothewaterside，ortosomedistantmarket，andtheyfurnishcultivatorswithsomethinginexchangeforit，thatiseitherusefuloragreeabletothem，uponeasiertermsthantheycouldhaveobtaineditbefore。
Thecultivatorsgetabetterpricefortheirsurplusproduce，andcanpurchasecheaperotherconvenienceswhichtheyhaveoccasionfor。Theyarethusencouragedandenabledtoincreasethissurplusproducebyafartherimprovementandbettercultivationoftheland；andasthefertilityofthelandhadgivenbirthtothemanufacture，sotheprogressofthemanufacturereactsupontheland，andincreasesstillfartheritsfertility。Themanufacturersfirstsupplytheneighborhood，and，astheirworkimprovesandrefines，moredistantmarkets。Forthoughneithertherudeproducenoreventhecoarsemanufacturecould，withoutthegreatestdifficulty，supporttheexpenseofaconsiderablelandcarriage，therefinedandimprovedmanufactureeasilymay。Inasmallbulkitfrequentlycontainsthepriceofagreatquantityofrudeproduce。"(22)"Therevenueofatradingandmanufacturingcountrymust，otherthingsbeingequal，alwaysbemuchgreaterthanthatofonewithouttradeormanufactures。
Bymeansoftradeandmanufacturesagreaterquantityofsubsistencecanbeannuallyimportedintoacountrythanwhatitsownlands，intheactualstateoftheircultivation，couldafford。Theinhabitantsofatown，thoughtheyfrequentlypossessnolandsoftheirown，yetdrawtothemselves，bytheirindustry，suchaquantityoftherudeproduceofthelandsofotherpeopleassupplythem，notonlywiththematerialsoftheirwork，butwiththefundoftheirsubsistence。Whatatownalwaysisinregardtothecountryinitsneighborhood，oneindependentstateorcountrymayfrequentlybewithregardtootherindependentstatesorcountries。(23)Commerceandmanufacturesgraduallyintroducedorderandgoodgovernment's(intoEurope)"andwiththemthelibertyandsecurityofindividuals，amongtheinhabitantsofthecountrywhohadbeforelivedalmostinacontinualstateofwarwiththeirneighbors，andofserviledependencyupontheirsuperiors。(24)
"Noforeignwar，ofgreatexpenseorduration，couldconvenientlybecarriedonbytheexportationoftherudeproduceofthesoil。Theexpenseofsendingsuchaquantityofittoaforeigncountryasmightpurchasethepayandprovisionsofanarmywouldbetoogreat。Fewcountries，too，producemuchmoreproducethanwhatissufficientforthesubsistenceoftheirowninhabitants。Tosendabroadanygreatquantityofit，therefore，wouldbetosendabroadapartofthenecessarysubsistenceofthepeople。
Itisotherwisewiththeexportationofmanufactures。Themaintenanceofthepeopleemployedinthemiskeptathome，andonlythesurpluspartoftheirworkisexported。Amongnationstowhomcommerceandmanufacturesarelittleknown，thesovereign，uponextraordinaryoccasions，canseldomdrawanyconsiderableaidfromhissubjects。(25)Inmodemwarthegreatexpenseoffirearmsgivesanevidentadvantagetothenationwhichcanbestaffordthatexpense；and，consequently，toanopulentandcivilizedoverapoorandbarbarousnation。"
Accordingtoourauthor，someofthesemanufacturesproceedfromtheoriginalrudeartsofthecountrycultivatedandrefinedbythegradualprogressofcapitalandofthedivisionoflabor；othersareintroducedfromforeignstates。Thistransfertakesplaceinthefollowingmanner。
Tradefirst，bydegrees，introducesatastefortheforeignmanufacture；
thedemandforitincreaseswithtimeandtheopulenceofthesociety。
Butwhenthistradehasbecomesogeneralastooccasionanextensiveconsumption，themerchantsofthecountry，tosavetheexpenseattendingthetransportofthearticlefromaforeigncountry，introducethemanufactureofitathome。
Insomecases，then，theincreaseofcapital，arisingfromtheaccumulationofindividuals，anddivisionoflaborthencearising，isnot，itwouldappear，sufficientalonetoaccountfortheprogressofimprovement，andconsequentproductionoffreshfundsoutofwhichwealthmaygrow。For，incaseswheretherawmaterialsexist，andcapitaltodividelaborandputitinmotionalsoexists，thesearesometimesconfessedlydependentontheimportationofnewartsfromothercountries，forthemeansofbeingadvantageouslydirected。Theseadmittedfactsarecertainlynotinaccordancewithourauthor'stheory。Passing，however，theconsiderationofthisatpresent，Ishouldwishtodirectthereader'sattentiontotheapplicationofhispeculiardoctrinestoeventsofthisclass；and，thatImaydoso，itisnecessarytoexaminethemwithsomewhatmoreattention。
Whengoodsaretransportedfromadistance，agreatpartoftheirpriceismadeupoftheexpense，attendingthetransport。Thisarisesnotmerelyfromthesimpleexpenseofcarriage，butfromtheriskattendingit，fromtheperilsoflandandwater，andthecarelessnessorknaveryofthosewhoareentrustedwithit；fromtheprofitswhichthedifferentcapitalists，throughwhomtheymaybetransferred，exact，andfromthedamagetowhichcommoditiesaresubjectbybeinglongkeptonhand。Thepriceofverymanycommoditiestransportedfromonecountrytoanotherisdoubledbytheinfluenceofthesecauses；notafewofthemderivemorethanthreefourthsoftheirvaluefromthem。
Hencethetransferofthemanufactureofsuchgoodstothecountriestowhich，whenmanufactured，theywerebeforesent，isveryhighlyadvantageoustothosecountries。Itisadvantageousfromthesavingtothenationalincomewhichiteffectsbydoingawaywiththeexpenseoftransport；fromfurnishing，accordingtoourauthor，anewandmoreprofitableemploymentforcapital；andfromthegeneraleffectsitproduceson。thenationalprosperity，asexemplifiedbyhiminthepassagesIhavequoted。Itmustbeallowed，however，thatthisintroductionofsuchmanufactures，bytheviolentoperation，ashetermsit，ofthestocksofparticularmerchantsandundertakers，whoestablishtheminimitationofsomeforeignmanufacturesofthesamekind，isamatterofgreatdifficulty。
For，inthefirstplace，thematerialswhichthehomesupplyaffordswill，inallprobability，benotaltogethersimilartothosethatareusedforthesamepurposeintheforeigncountry。Somemaybebetter，someworseadaptedtothepurpose，buttheycanscarcelybealtogetheralike。Theymustvary，too，intheirprice，somebeingcheaper，somedearer，thaninthecountryfromwhencethemanufactureisbrought。
Thegreaterpartofmanufacturesarealsoinfluencedbytheclimate。
Thedrynessormoistureoftheatmosphere，thedegreesofheatandcold，thebrightnessoftheskyandconsequentintensityofthelight，arecircumstanceswhichall，moreorless，affectmanymanufactures。
Theproportionbetweentheratesofwagesandprofitsofstockisalsoverydifferentindifferentcountries，anditconsiderablyinfluencesthedeterminationofwhatmaybethemostadvantageousmodeofconductinganyprocessinanycountry。
Whenthediscoveryofthatexactmodeofprocedure，whichtherelationsandconnexionsthatthesenewcircumstanceshavetoeachotherrendersmostexpedient，hasoncebeenmade，itmaybefoundthattheyareonthewholemorefavorable，andsuchaswillproduceabetterarticle，atlesscost，inthecountrytowhichthemanufactureistransported，thaninthatinwhichitwasoriginallyexercised。Tomakethediscovery，however，ofthisexactprocedureisalwaysamatterofdifficulty，andimpliesalmostnecessarilythepreviouscommissionofmanyerrorsandmistakes，andtheincurringofmuchneedlessexpenseandloss。Asingleindividual，whateverintelligenceandapplicationhemaypossess，canscarcehopetoarriveatit；itrequirestheeffortsofmanyindividuals，continuedthroughaconsiderablecourseoftime。
Butthesemodifications，intheprocessofanymanufacture，whichitsremovalfromonecountrytoanotherdemands，axefarfrombeingtheonlydifficultyattendingthatremoval。Anaccurateknowledgeoftheprinciplesofthemanufacture，andofthemannerinwhicheverypartofitiscarriedonintheforeigncountry，mustbeobtained；therequisitemachineryhastobeprovided，andworkmen，possessingtheskillanddexteritywhicheachpartoftheprocessrequires，mustbeprocured。Thesearegenerallymattersofgreatdifficulty。
Veryfewindividualshaveathoroughknowledgeofeverydifferentpartofanycomplicatedmanufacture。Inexamininganylargeandsuccessfulmanufacturingestablishment，wecommonlyfindthatthevariouspartsofitdepend，fortheperfectionwithwhichtheyareconducted，ontheeffortsofdifferentindividuals，whodevotetheirwholeattentiontotheirowndepartments，andarenotatallqualifiedtochangeplaceswitheachother；whilethedirectorofthewholehasonlysuchageneralknowledgeofeachasenableshimtosaywhenitisproperlyconducted，nothimselftopointouttheexactmodeofbestconductingit。Itishisbusinesstopreservetheeconomyofthewhole，andtosearchouttheindividualsbestfittedforcarryingoneverypart。Hencetheundertakerofanysuchwork，inacountrywhereithasnotbeenpractised，hasnotonlytoengageone，butgenerallymanyindividuals，inorderthatthedifferentprocessesofthemanufacturemaybeproperlyconducted。Thedifficultyoffindingpersonsofsufficientintelligenceandintegrityforthepurpose，whowillremovetoadistantcountry，withoutanextravagantreward，isverygreat，andtheriskofbeingimposedonbyengagingpersonsofinsufficientskill，andconsequentlysufferingconsiderableloss，isnotsmall。Thedifficultyoftransporting，orofconstructingthere，thenecessarymachinery，isoftenstillgreater；andwhentheseareprocured，workmenhavingtherequisiteskillanddexterityforperformingthemeremanualpartarestillwanting。
These，ifbroughtfromaforeigncountry，asmsoftennecessary，canonlybeinducedtoexpatriatethemselvesbythereceiptofexorbitantwages；
and，evenifthenativesofthecountrywherethenewmanufactureintobeestablishedcanbetrainedfromthefirsttoexecutethenecessarymanualoperations，besidesthelossarisingfromtheirdeficientdexterity，theywilldemandhigherwagesthanthoseengagedinestablishedemployments。
Amannaturallypreferscontinuinginanysortofworkwhichheunderstands，ratherthandisplayinghisawkwardnessinattemptingtoperformanoperationthatisstrangetohim。Besides，hehas，ingeneral，reasontoapprehendthat，shouldthenewmanufacturefail，hewillhavedifficultyinagainfindingemploymentinthetradehehadforsaken。Ontheseaccountsithappensthat"whenaprojectorattemptstoestablishanewmanufacture，hemustatfirstenticehisworkmenfromotheremploymentsbyhigherwagesthantheycaneitherearnintheirowntrades，orthanthenatureofhisworkwouldotherwiserequire；andaconsiderabletimemustpassawaybeforehecanventuretoreducethemtothecommonlevel。"(26)
Allthesecircumstancescreatesomanyobstaclestotheeffortsofprivateindividuals，intheirendeavorstocarryamanufacturefromacountryinwhichitalreadyprospers，toanotherinwhichitisunknown，thatitis，Ibelieve，veryrarelytheyhavesucceededindoingso，withouttheoccurrenceofsomefavorableconjunctureofevents，toaidthemintheproject。
Inpointoffactitwillbefound，thatthetransferofmanufacturesfromonenationtoanother，orratherthegeneralpropagation，throughallcountries，ofthismostimportantsourceoftheopulenceofeveryone，hasbeenchieflyowingtocauses，which，atfirstsight，wouldseemlittlecalculatedtoproducesobeneficialeffects。Warsandconquests，tyrannyandpersecution，thejealousyandhatredofrivalstates，have，strangetosay，beenthemainagentsindisseminatingartsandindustryovertheglobe，andthusamelioratingthesocialconditionofthewholehumanrace。
Events，that，tothosetowhomtheyhappened，broughtnothingbutcalamityandsuffering，haveprocuredprosperityandopulencetothegenerationsthathavesucceededthem；convulsions，thatdisturbandderangetheframeofcivilsociety，likethosewhichoccasionallyshakeanddesolatetheglobe，inthemidstofpresentdestructionanddevastation，carryingoftentheelementsoffuturefertilityandabundance。
Manufactureshavecommonlybeencarriedtoadistancebythemenwhohaveexercisedthosemanufactures。Butnoonewillinglyexpatriateshimself。
Theyeven，whowouldseemtohaveleasttoattachthemtotheirnativesoil，thepoormechanic，anddrudginglaborer，clingtoitwiththegreatesttenacity，andgenerallyquititnot，unlessforcedfromitbyinevitablenecessityorbythecontinuedpressureofsomeheavyevil。Inthiswaytheills，thatthetyrannyofdespots，orcivilandreligiousfactions，orwar，orfamine，bringsuponcommunities，haveoftencompelledgreatnumbersoftheirmostindustriouscitizens，toabandontheirhomes，andseekrefugeinforeigncountries。Theseemigrationshavebeenpowerfullyinstrumentalinimprovingtheartsofcivilizedlifeanddiffusingaknowledgeofthemovertheearth。Perhapsfewartswouldhavemuchpassedthenarrowlimitstowhichtheirfirstdiscoveryconfinedthem，hadnotcommunitiesbeensubjecttobetominpieces，andscatteredabroad，bytheviolenceoftheeventstowhichweallude。Theyhavebeentakingplaceineveryagesincetheworldbegan，andhavebeen，everynowandthen，forcinglargebandsofmentoquittheirnativehomesandseekrefugeinforeigncountries。Wheneversuchemigrationsoccur，theycarrytheknowledgeandskillofthecountriestheyleave，intothoseinwhichtheysettle，anddiffusethemoverthem；bybringingtogetherthedifferentartsofdifferentcountries，theyenableonetoborrowfromtheother，andraiseallnearertoperfection；
and，bygivingopportunitytothemtounitewithoneanother，fromthatunion，theyoccasionallyproducesomethatdidnotbeforeexist。Inallthesemodes，theyhavepromotedverygreatlytheprogressofhumanimprovement。
Theinfluenceofthesecauses，thoughmorepowerfulinremoteagesthaninthepresenttimes，hasnotyetceased。Itisshownineventsofveryrecentdateoractualprogress。Toitwechieflyowetheoriginofthoseflourishingstates，whichtheEuropeanracehaveraisedupinNorthAmerica；andtherapidprogressovertheWesternHemisphere，ofeveryimprovementthatartorscienceeffectsintheEastern。
Besidesthedirectagencywhichtheseoutbreakingsoftheviolentpassionsofmankind，bydisturbingandderangingthesmoothanduniformcourseofhumanexistence，havehadincastingitintonewandoftenimprovedforms，theyhaveproducedsimilareffectsinamannerlessconspicuousandevident。
Commerceintroducesatastefortheproductionsoftheartsofonecountryintoothers，whichareremotefromit。Theseproductions，atfirstregardedasmeresuperfluitiesorluxuries，pass，intimeandfromhabit，intothingsessentialtothecomfort，almosttotheexistence，ofthosewhohavebecomeaccustomedtotheiruse。Warinterruptsthiscommerceandthuscutsoffthesupplythatitaffordedofsucharticles。Excitedbytherewardsofferedbytheeagernessofademandthatcannotbesuppliedfromabroad，thedomesticindustryofthecountrythenexertsitself，first，toproducerudeimitationsoftheforeigncommodity，andatlength，rivalmanufactures。Thisisacausewhichhasextensivelyoperatedinmoderntimes，inspreadingmanufacturesfromcountrytocountry。ItistothewarsspringingoutoftheFrenchrevolution，andtheinterruptiontoEuropeancommercethattheyoccasioned，thatthefirstriseofmanymanufacturesindifferentpartsoftheoldandnewworld，whicharenowinaveryprosperouscondition，istobetraced。
Butbesidestheinfluencewhichtheviolentoperationofforeignwars，andintestinecommotions，hashadinpromotingthepropagationofartsovertheworld，manyofthemunquestionablyhavebeenencouragedandenabledtoextendthemselvesto，andtakerootin，countriesremotefromtheseatswheretheyoriginallyflourished，bythedirecteffortsofthelegislatorsofsuchcountries，todrawthemthere，tocherishtheirfirstfeebleadvances，andtopromotetheirsubsequentgrowthandvigor。Thereareveryfewproductionsofmodernart，thatdonotstandindebtedtothelegislatorsofthecountriesinwhichtheyaremanufactured，fortheiradvancementandperfection。
Thesethreecauseshave，generally，moreorlesscooperatedwitheachotherintheextensionandadvancementofeverybranchofart。Thecaseswheretheeffortsofprivateindividuals，unaidedbyoneorallofthem，have-beensuccessfullintransferringanymanufacturetoadistantcountry，are，asIhavealreadyobserved，exceedinglyrare。
Inaccordancewiththedoctrinewhichhesupportsthroughout，itisheremaintainedbyourauthorthatthelastofthesecausesoperatingintheproductionofnewarts，orintheirintroductionintoacountry，theinterference，viz，ofthelegislator，isimproper，becausenecessarilyinjurious；andthathisagency，sodirected，always，andfromitsverynature，insteadofpromotingtheadvancementofthegeneralopulenceandprosperity，operatesinamannerprejudicialtoboth。Allowingthatthisintroductionofnewartsandmanufacturesfromforeignstatesis，initself，beneficial，insomuchthatheassignsit，aswehaveseen，asoneofthecausesofcountriesbecomingwealthyandprosperous；hemaintains，thatthisparticularmodeofintroducingthemisnecessarilyinjurious。
Wehavethentoinquire，ifthereareanyothermeansbywhich，accordingtohisprinciples，thisacknowledgedmostbeneficialresultcanbebroughtabout。
Theviolentoperationofforeignwarsordomesticdisturbances，willscarce，Ithink，besaidtobemoreadvantageousmethodsofeffectingthispurpose，thantherestrictionsandbountiesofthelegislator。Atalleventssuchcausesarecontinuallydiminishingintheirfrequencyandthevigouroftheiroperations，andbecomingmoreandmorebeyondthereachofourcalculations。Forspreadingtheusefulartsfrompeopletopeople，thiselementconfessedlyofverygreatimportanceintheadvanceofthegeneralwelfareofmankind，thereremainsthen，accordingtotheseprinciples，buttheunaidedeffortsofprivateindividualsalone。
Itmustbekeptinmind，that，bytheeffortsofindividuals，aremeant，accordingtoourauthor，theirendeavorstobettertheircondition；thatis，ashedefinesit，toincreasetheirfortunes。But，inordertoaddtohisfortune，onemustgetmorethanhegives。Nosucheffortscaneverleadanyindividualtoembarkinaprojectthatwillprobablytakemorefromhim，thanitwillreturntohim。Now，totransferamanufacturefromonecountrytoanother，mustalwaysbeaverytediousandexpensiveoperation，foranyindividualtoperform。Theconsiderationofhisownprofit，thesolemotiveaccordingtoourauthor，whichdeterminestheownerofacapitaltoemployitinanyundertaking，wouldneverleadone，toengageintheenterpriseofestablishinganewmanufactureinanycountryunlessofsuchcommoditiesaswereofcommonconsumptioninit，andwhichhecouldthereforebesuretosell。Thosecommoditiesbeingofcommonconsumption，andnotproducedwithinthecountry，mustatthetimebefurnishedbysomeforeignstate，and，consequently，toprocuretheirsale，hemustbeabletosupplythem，atascheaparateasthatstate。Theeffectingthis，forreasonsIhavestated，wouldgenerallytakemoretimeandmoney，thananyprivateindividualcanafford。But，grantingthatthefundsofsomeprivateindividualscouldaffordthisrequisiteoutlay，andthattheyshouldsucceedmbringingthemanufacturetosuchperfectionastoenablethemtosellthecommodityontermsequaltothoseoftheforeignmerchant，orlowerthanhis，themoredifficultquestionis，howisthisgreatoutlaytobereimbursed？
Agreatpartofanindividual'scapitalhasbeenexpended。Thisexpenditurecan，evidently，bereimbursedtohimonlybyhisdrawingproportionallylargerprofits，thanheotherwisecould，fromwhatremains。Tobalancetheextraordinaryoutlay，hemusthaveextraordinaryreturns。
Butprofitsfarexceedingtheusualrateofprofitcanscarcelyeverbedrawn，foranytimefrom，anyemployment。"If，inthesameneighborhood，therewasanyemploymentevidentlymoreadvantageousthantherest，somanypeoplewouldcrowdintoit，thatitsadvantageswouldsoonreturnintothelevelofotheremployments。"(27)Itisnodoubttrue，thattheproprietorofsuchnewmanufacturemight，sometimes，notonlysucceedinestablishingit，butinkeepingsecretthegreatprofitshemadefromit，foraconsiderableperiod。Thisisapieceofgoodfortune，however，which，thoughitmightsometimesbefallanindividual，hecouldneverbeforehandfairlycalculateon。Itismuchmoreprobablethathissuccesswouldbeblazonedabroadandexaggerated，thatseveralprojectorswouldestablishthemselvesbesidehim，and，bybribinghisworkmenwithsomewhathigherwages，withcomparativeease，succeedindeprivinghimoftheprofitshemightotherwisehavedrawnfromhisextraordinaryoutlayoflaborandcapital。(28)Itmay，therefore，Ithink，besafelylaiddownasaprinciple，that，inallordinarycases，adueregardtotheirowninterestscannotbeamotivesufficienttopromptindividualstosuchundertakings。Itmaynodoubthappen，ascapitalistsareeverynowandthenengagingininjudiciousprojects，andsuchaseitherinjureorruinthem，thatsomeonemaybeimprudentenoughtoenteronsuchaprojectasthis，andmaysucceedinintroducingaparticularmanufacture，thoughwiththelossofpart，orofthewholeofhiscapital。But，evengrantingthatsuchanoccurrenceasthismaysometimestakeplace，itwouldbefarfromservingtohelpoutthetheorywearediscussing。"Everyinjudiciousandunsuccessfulprojectinagriculture，mines，fisheries，trade，ormanufactures，tendstodiminishthefundsdestinedforthemaintenanceofproductivelabor。Ineverysuchproject，thoughthecapitalisconsumedbyproductivehandsonly，yet，asbytheinjudiciousmannertheyareemployed，theydonotproducethefullvalueoftheirconsumption，theremustalwaysbesomediminutioninwhatwouldotherwisehavebeentheproductivefundsofthesociety。"(29)Thisprojectthen，beinginjudiciousandunsuccessful，foritwouldhaveoccasionedthelossofaportionofindividualcapital，must，bytheseprinciples，beinjurioustothesociety。
Ifitbesaidbyanysupporterofthesedoctrines，thatthisistoostrictandconstrainedaninterpretationofthem，andthatthelosswhichthesocietysustains，bythedestructionofthecapitaloftheoriginalintroducerofthemanufacture，mustbeallowedtobemadeupbythegainwhichitreceivesfromtheprofitsmadebythosewhoafterwardsengageinit；(30)Ireply，thatIperfectlyagreewithhiminhisconclusions。Itoothink，thatthesmallpresentexpenditureofthefundsofthesocietywhichtheprojectmayoccasion，maybemorethanrepaid，bythelargefuturerevenuethatitwillbringin。Theonlydifferencebetweenusis，thatthedoctrinesheadvocates，teachustowait，tillthemiscalculationsofsomeunfortunateprojectorconferonusapublicbenefit，whereas，Ihold，thatitwouldbemorejustandjudiciousthatthenecessaryfirstcostoftheschemeshouldbebornebythewholecommunity；morejust，asthustheburdennecessarytobebornetoprocureacommonbenefitwillbedividedamongstall，insteadofbeingsustainedbyone；morejudicious，asthesocietywillnothavetowait，fortheattainmentofadesirableobject，onsodoubtfulachanceasthefollyofprojectors。
Itmayalsohappen，thatanindividual，bysomerareconcurrenceofaccidents，maybecomeinitiatedintoallthesecretsofsomeforeignmanufacture，and，bysomeequallyrareandhappyunionofgoodfortuneandingenuity，maysucceedinintroducingitintohisowncountrywithprofittohimself。Towait，however，forthis，oranysuchlikeluckychance，orsingularlyfortunateconcurrenceofcircumstances，whilebettercouldbedone，wouldbeLikewaitingtillthenaturalactionsofthewindsandtidesshould，bysomestrangelypropitiousconcurrenceofevents，castuponourshoresavaluableplantorseed，thatwemightdirectlyprocureforthemeretroubleandexpenseofsendingforit。
Thereare，also，anotherclassofmotives，capable，nodoubt，ofleadingevenindividualsintosuchundertakings，andofcarryingthemsuccessfullythroughthem。Theloveofcountryorfame，orthedesiretogratifypersonalvanity，arepowerfulmotivesofhumanaction，andmaysometimesevenbedirectedintosuchchannelsasthis。But，asthetendencyofsuchmotivestopromotethegrowthofnationalwealthisopposedtotheprinciplesofourauthor，andisexpresslydeniedbyhim，weneednothereenterintoanyinquiryconcerningthem。
Thereis，however，onecase，inwhichitcannotbedenied，thattheeffortsofindividualstopromotetheirowninterestsmaybesufficienttointroduceanewmanufacture。If，intheprogressofevents，therequisitesforaforeignmanufacturecometobeproducedinsogreatabundance，andwithsomuchfacility，inanycountry，thataprojectortherefindsthathecanfromthefirstaffordtomanufacturethecommodity，andsellitataslowarateastheforeignmerchant，adueregardtoself-interestwillcertainlydirectaportionofthenationalcapitalintothatemployment。
But，acaseofthecircumstancesofacountrybeingsopeculiarlyfavorabletothepracticeofaforeignart，that，intheveryfirstessaysitmakesinit，itcansuccessfullycompetewithanother，wherethatarthasbeenlongestablished，isassuredlyveryrare；and，ifanysuchcaseoccur，wemaybesatisfiedthatthemanufacturemight，withmuchadvantage，havebeenpreviouslyintroduced。
Inapassagealreadyquoted，itisobserved，that，"whenatasteforforeignmanufacturesbecomesgeneral，themerchants，inordertosavetheexpenseofcarriage，naturallyendeavortoestablishsomemanufactureofthesamekindintheirowncountry。"Theseexpressionsaresomewhattooloosetocoincidewithourauthor'stheory。Itcannotbetosavetheexpenseofcarriage，buttoaddtohisownriches，thatamerchantwillendeavortodoanysuchthing。Theconsummationofsuchameasure，bysavingaconsiderableexpensetothecommunity，mightindeedaddlargelytothemeansofincreasingtheirwealthinpossessionofallthemerchants，orratherofallthemembersofthesociety；but"itishisownadvantage，andnotthatofthesociety，whicheverymemberofithasinview；"and，inthissystemofperfectlibertyandfreedomfromrestraint，whichisassertedtobethetrueplanofcarryingthegeneralprosperityofthecommunitytothehighestpitch，thedifficultyis，todiscoveramethodofinducinganindividualtoincuranunavoidableoutlay，thereturnsfromwhich，althoughverybeneficialtothewholesociety，arenomoresotohimwholaysoutagreatdeal，thantootherswholayoutnothing。Unionissaidtogivestrength。Butunioncannotexistunlesstherebeabondtounite，andthisbondmustconfineandrestrain。Therodstomakeabundleweretiedtogether。Menaretiedbylaw，abondbindingalltopursuethecoursesupposedtoconducemosttothegeneralhappiness。
Thisbond，thoughrestrainingindividualfreedomofaction，andpreventingindividualsfrompursuingthecoursewhichtheymightfindmostconducivetotheirownprivatehappinesshasnot，onthewhole，beenesteemedtohaveslightlypromotedthegreatendforwhichitexists，thegeneralwell-beingofmankind。Weseektorectifyitserrors，nottoabolishit。Thepeculiarityofthissystem，relatingtothisparticularpartofthefieldofhumanaction，is，thatitmaintainsthatmencannotinit，aselsewhere，unite，soastoattainacommongood。That，onthecontrary，whentheysounite，insteadofattainingacommongood，theynecessarilyburdenthemselveswithacommonevil。Itaims，nottoremedyanyerrorscommittedinadjustingthebond，but，tocutitasunderandcastitaway。Itiscalledasystemofcompletefreedomfromrestraintandperfectliberty。Theseterms，whenlookedatnearly，willbefoundtomeanadissolutionofallbondsandtotalisolationofinterests。Hence，inthisparticularcase，whereanendistobegained，theattainmentofwhichitisadmittedwouldbebeneficialtoall，itisyetmaintainedthatitisimpossibleforalltobringittopasswithouthurtinginsteadofbenefittingthemselves。
Itisimpossibletoshuttheeyestothefact，thattheintroductionofanartintoanycountry，enablingthelaborofitsinhabitantsatoncetotransmutetheproducts，whichnature，inconjunctionwiththeirownindustry，procuresforthem，intothecommoditiestheirwantsdemand，insteadofsendingthemtoadistancetootherpeopletoeffectthatchange，isagreatgoodtoall，wereitonlyforthemeresavingoftransportthuseffected；butitismaintained，thatitisimpossibleforallthemembersofthecommunityadvantageouslytouniteinbringingaboutthiscommonbenefit。Itisclearlyseen，thatanewchannelmightbeopenedfromtheexhaustlessriverofhumanpower，springingfromthemingledsourcesofnatureandart，andthat，ifso，aplenteousstreamwouldflowinonthecommunityfromwhichindividualsdrawingmightlargelyaddtothegeneralopulence。Butsomemeansmustbeemployedtoopenitup。Thereisanobstructioninthewaythatmustpreviouslybeovercome；arockblockingitupthatmustberemoved。Noindividualwillopenupthechannel，because，werehesotodo，hecouldderivenomorebenefitfromthelaborthanotherswhohadnotlabored。Thewholesociety，orratherthelegislator，thepoweractingforthewholesociety，mightdoso，andinsimilarcaseshasdoneso，and，tojudgeofthemeasurebytheeventsconsequentonit，withthehappiestsuccess。Why，then，shouldhenot？
TheargumentsadvancedbytheauthoroftheWealthofNations，toprovethatthelegislatorneveroughttolendhisaidtoeffectsuchapurpose，arechieflycontainedinthesecondchapterofthefourthbook。Theywillbefoundtorestalmostaltogetherontheassumption，thatnationalandindividualcapitalincreaseinpreciselythesamemanner。Thisnotion，IflattermyselfIhaveshown，cannot，byanymeans，betakenasaself-evidentprinciple，oronesofirmlyestablishedastoservetobuildanimportantpracticaldoctrineonit。But，evenadmittingthatthetwoprocessesaresimilar，theargumentsofAdamSmithwouldnotaltogetherbearouthisconclusions。
Itis，hesays，andthesentimentservesforamotto，andforms，indeed，thesubstanceoftwovolumesthathavecontributedgreatlytospreadhisdoctrinesoverEurope，"Itisthemaximofeveryprudentmasterofafamily，nevertoattempttomakeathomewhatitwillcosthimmoretomakethantobuy。Thetailordoesnotattempttomakehisownshoes，butbuysthemoftheshoemaker。Theshoemakerdoesnotattempttomakehisownclothes，butemploysatailor。Thefarmerattemptstomakeneithertheonenortheother，butemploysthosedifferentartificers。Allofthemfinditfortheirinteresttoemploytheirwholeindustryinawayinwhichtheyhavesomeadvantageovertheirneighbors，andtopurchasewithapartofitsproduce，or，whatisthesamething，withthepriceofapartofit，whateverelsetheyhaveoccasionfor。Whatisprudenceintheconductofeveryprivatefamilycanscarcebefollyinthatofagreatkingdom。"
Tomakethefancifulparallelhereassumedascomplete，inanysensejust，itwouldbenecessarytoplacethetailoratahundredmilesdistancefromtheshoemaker。Wereheatthisdistance，anddidhefindthattheexpenseofgettingapairofshoescarriedsofarwasconsiderable，perhapsexceedingtheirfirstcost，hemightfinditgoodeconomyeventomakethemhimself。Tobesure，theprocuringtherequisitetoolsandthelearningtheiruse，wouldrenderthemakingofthefirstfewpairsmuchmoreexpensivethanthepurchasingofthemwouldhavebeen。Butthisnecessarydearnessofthefirstarticlesproducedmightbecompensatedbythecheapnessofthoseproducedsubsequently。Inthesameway，thoughafarmer，ifthetailorandshoemakerwerenearathand，woulddowiselytoemploythem，yet，iftheywereatagreatdistance，hemightpossiblywithadvantagedispensewiththeirservices，andsetsomeofhisfamilytomakeclothesandshoesfortherest。Afarmer，indeed，wouldhavepeculiarinducementstopractisesometrades，those，namely，forwhichhesuppliedtherawmaterials，asbydoingsohewouldbesavedthecarriage，bothofthearticlesmade，andofthestuffformakingthem。Itisthus，that，infact，inmostcountrieswherethepopulationisscatteredandtheinternalcommunicationsarebad，manytradesarepractisedinthefarmers'housesandbytheirownfamilies。
Inthiswayitisthat，inverymanyoftherecentlysettledpartsofNorthAmerica，everyoperationthatthewoolundergoes，fromthetakingoffthefleecetothecuttingandmakingupthecloth，isperformedinthefarmer'shouseandbyhisownfamily。AsimilarstateofthingscausedasimilarpracticetoprevailinEnglandacenturyago，and，atpresent，keepsupmanyofthosemanufactureswhichareproperlytermeddomestic，inmanyotherpartsofEurope。InCanadaitisnotuncommonforthefarmertohave，notonlythewholeprocessesthatwoolundergoestillitcometobeworn，carriedonbythemembersofhisownfamily，butalsotogetagreatvarietyofotherthingsmadebythem，whichhecouldnotprocureotherwiseunlessbysendingtoaninconvenientdistance。
Themendingofshoes，verygenerally，themakingofthem，notunfrequently，andsometimeseventhemanufacturingtheleather，areinrecentandremotesettlementsthusperformed。Thelatterprocess，Imayadd，fromvariouscircumstances，butchieflyfromtheuseofthebarkofasortofpinepeculiartothecountry，andingeneralverycommon，andwhich，unlikethatoftheoak，isverythickandeasilycollected，ismuchlessexpensiveinCanadathaninBritain。
Iknewtwobrotherswhosefarmsorestateslayinoneoftheinteriordistrictsofthatcountry，inthemidstofitsforests，andconsequentlyataconsiderabledistance，perhapstwentyorthirtymiles，fromartificersofanydescription。Havingeachofthemlargefamiliesandproductivefarms，theyhadoccasionfortheservicesofvariousartificers，andhadthemeansofpayingthem。Nevertheless，theyveryrarelyemployedthem；almosteveryarticletheyrequiredwasmadebysomeoneofthetwofamilies。Astheywereprudentandsagaciousmen，ofwhichtheyproducedthebestevidenceinthegeneralsuccessoftheirundertakings，andtheprosperityofthesettlementofwhichtheywereatthehead，Ithinkitlikely，thatinthisalsotheyhadturnedtheirmeanstothebestaccount。Infact，astheywhoarefamiliarwiththedetailsofbeginningsettlementsinNorthAmerica，willadmit，bythisplantheyinagreatmeasureobviatedthetwochiefdrawbacksontheprosperityofnewandremotesettlements，theexcessivedearnessofeveryarticlenotproducedthere，fromthegreatexpenseattendingthetransportoftherawproduceandretransportofthemanufacturedgoods，andtheseriousinconveniencearisingfromthedifficulty，insuchsituations，ofsupplying，whennecessary，unforeseenhutpressingwants。
Amongotherthingswhichtheygotmadeontheirownfarms，wereboots，shoes，andleather。Thattheymightgetthisdone，theywereatthepainsandexpenseofsendingoneoftheyoungmentosomedistance，tomakehimselfsufficientlymasterofthosetradesfortheirpurpose。Theythought，however，thatthecosttheywerethusputtowasrepaid，thriceover，bythesavingoftimeandexpensewhichiteffectedforthem，inenablingthemtomake，outofleatherwhichcostthemverylittle，numerousarticlesthattheymustotherwisehavebeenconstantlysendingfortoagreatdistancebyroadsthatwerealmostimpracticableagreatpartoftheseason。Idonotknowwhetherinthistheirconductwasjudiciousorotherwise，but，itisverycertain，thathoweverapparentlyprudentthemeasuremayhavebeen，andhowevergreatthesavingeffectedbyitmighthavebeen，itwascompletelycontrarytoourauthor'sdoctrines，andmighteasilybeshownbythemtohavebeennecessarilyandinevitablyinjurious。
Wemaysupposethat，justatthetimewhenthesetwolegislatorsofthislittlecommunityhadcometothedeterminationoftakingmeanstodispensewiththeservicesofthedistanttannerandshoemaker，theywereaddressedonthissubjectbyaphilosopherofthisschool。Hisreasonswoulddoubtlesshavebeeninthefollowingstrain。"Youareassuredlywrongintheplanyouaregoingtoadopt，foritproceedsuponveryerroneousandilliberalprinciples，asIcaneasilyshowyou。Youareinwant，yousay，ofsomepairsofshoes，surelythenitisbestforyoutopurchasethemwhereyoucangetthemcheapest。But，bytheplanyouaretakingofgoingtoagreatexpensetohavethemmadeathome，theywillcertainlycostyoumorewhenmadethere，thanifboughtattheplacewhereyouhavehithertopurchasedshoes。And，ifthatplacecansupplyyouwiththiscommoditycheaperthanyouyourselfcanmakeit，betterbuyittherewithsomepartoftheproduceofyourownindustry。Thegeneralindustryofyoursettlementmustalwaysbeinproportiontothecapitalwhichemploysit，andwillnotbediminishedbybeinglefttobeemployedinawayinwhichyouhavesomeadvantage。Byforcingittoproduceanobjectwhichitcanbuycheaperthanitcanmake，itcertainlyisnotemployedtothegreatestadvantage。
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