Letthingsthereforetaketheirnaturalcourse，andshoeswillbemadeatyourdoorswhenitisfitforthemtobemadethere。"

Tothesereasonsourlegislatorsmightpossiblyreply，"Weconfessthatthefirstpairsofshoesthatweget，willcostusmuchmore，thusmadeathome，thantheywoulddowerewetobuythemabroad。Butthenitwillonlybeforthefirstarticlesmanufacturedthatweshallpaysohigh，intheendtheywillcomecheapertousathomethanfromabroad；anditistoeffectthisdesirableresult，thatwearegoingtoundertaketheproject。Wedon'tunderstandverywellwhatyoumeanbythenaturalcourseofaffairs，butwethinkthesoonerwecangetthemtotakeacourse，thatwillbeforelongmakethingscheapertous，thebetter。"Theanswertothisinthewordsofourauthorwouldbe："Idon'tatalldispute，that，bymeansofthisproject，thisparticularmanufacturemaybeacquiredsoonerthanitcouldbeotherwise，andafteracertaintime，maybemadeathomeascheap，orcheaper，thanabroad。But，thoughtheindustryofyoursocietymaybethuscarriedwithadvantageintoaparticularchannelsoonerthanitcouldhavebeenotherwise，itwillbynomeansfollowthatthesumtotal，eitherofitsindustry，oritsrevenue，caneverbeaugmentedbyanysuchproject。Theindustryofyoursocietycanaugmentonlyinproportionasitscapitalaugments，anditscapitalcanaugmentonlyinproportiontowhatcanbesavedoutofitsrevenue。Buttheimmediateeffectofthisprojectofyoursistodiminishitsrevenue；andwhatdiminishesitsrevenueiscertainlynotverylikelytoaugmentitscapitalfasterthanitwouldaugment，wereyoutoleavecapitalandindustrytofindtheirnaturalemployments。"

Ourlegislatorsmightstillpossiblyanswer。"Asfaraswecancomprehendyourargumentstheyreducethemselvestothis。Wehavetogiveoutwhatisaconsiderablesumtous，beforewecancarrythisprojectintoeffect，and，forthisoutlay，youthinkweshallgetnoadequatereturn。Nowinthisouropiniondiffersfromyours。Weknowindeedthatwemustexpendsomething，butwethinkthatinthelongrunweshallbebetterrepaidforthisexpenditure，bythisundertaking，thanbyanyotherinwhichwecouldemployourfinds。Weneveryetgotanythingwithoutgivingsomethingforit，and，althoughweinthisinstancegivemoneyormoney'sworth，andgetchieflyknowledgeandskillinreturn，yetifyouwilltakethetroubleofexaminingthecalculationswehavebeenmakingofthesavingwhichweshallinafewyearseffect，chieflybymeansofthisknowledgeandskill，onwhatweannuallypayforshoesandboots，wethinkyouwillagreewithusthatweshallgatherinthreetimeswhatwegaveout。"

"Nono，"ourphilosopherwouldexclaim，"thisisquiteunnecessary，Iseenowhowthecasestands。IperceiveyouhavegotatheoryaswellasIhave。Butyourtheoryisthatofpracticalmenwhoreasonuponfacts，whereasmytheoryisbuiltupongeneralaxioms。Nowthereisthisgreatdifferencebetweentwosuchtheories，thatwhentheyareopposedtoeachotherthelatter，suchasminemustalwaysberight，theformersuchasyourswrong。Mymainaxiomonwhichisfoundedagreatsystemis，thatcapitalalwaysaugmentsbyaccumulation。Thisyouperceiveisageneralaxiom，andhoweveritmaybethattheremaybeapparentexceptionstoityetasitisageneralaxiom，itisaphilosophicalconsequencethattheseexceptionscanonlybeapparent。Yourtheoryisopposedtothisaxiomofmine，foryoupretendtosaythatcapitalmaybeaugmentedbyothermeansthansimpleaccumulation，andverystrangelyassertthat，aftergivingitoutofyourhands，youwillgetitreplacedtoyou，withlargeprofit，outoftheskillandknowledgewhichtheoutlayhasprocuredyou。But，asinproofofthisyoubringmeonlyfactsandfigures，youwillseeofcoursethatitisquiteunnecessaryformetonoticesucharguments；for，howeverplainlyitmightfromthemappearthatyourschemeispracticableandmustultimatelyliberallyrepayyouradvances，yet，thisconclusionbeingprovedbyreasoning，isatheory，andthattheoryhavingthedisadvantageofnotbeingdrawnlikeminefromgeneralaxioms，andbeingmerelyalaboriousdeductionfromparticularobservations，itmustofnecessityfollowfromindubitablephilosophicalprinciples，thatitiswrong，andmineright。

Thecasebeingso，youare，Ihope，menoftoogoodsensetodisputethematterfarther。ShouldyouhoweverpersevereImusttakethelibertyoftellingyouthatyouaretoonarrow-mindedtheorists，andthat，byinterfering，inthemanneryouareabouttodo，withthenaturalcourseofevents，youwillinfalliblywastetheresourcesofyourinfantcommunity，andretarditsprosperity。"

Iapprehendsuchphilosophicargumentswouldnothavehadmuchsuccesswiththemorothermenofpractice，andthat，evenshouldwetaketheprocedureadoptedbyindividuals，asafitmodelforthatofnations，wewouldnotfindthatitaltogetheragreedwiththeruleswhichthedoctrinesofAdamSmithinculcate。Thereasonis，thatindividuals，aswellasnations，acquirewealthfromothersourcesthanmeresavingfromrevenue；thatskillisasnecessary，andconsequentlyasvaluable，acooperatorwiththeindustryofboth，aseithercapitalorparsimony；andthatthereforetheexpenditurewhicheithermaybecalledontomaketoattaintherequisiteskill，isverywellbestowed。

But，thoughskillisvaluablebothtonationsandtoindividuals，therearemanycircumstancesthatrenderitmoresototheformer，thantothelatter。Inthefirstplace，itismoredurable。Whatevermaybetheperfectiontowhichanindividualmayhavebroughthisskill，dexterity，andjudgment，inconductinganyparticularsetofoperations，thatperfectionperisheswithhim。Whateverexpenseitmayhavecosthimtoacquirethispossession，andhowevervaluableitmaybetohimself，hecannottransmitittohisheirs。Butanyadditionwhichasocietymakes，totheskilldexterity，andjudgment，withwhichitsmembersexerciseanybranchofindustry，isnotofthisfleetingnature。Insteadofthebenefitsderivedfromit，beingboundedbytheshortspaceoftimethattheactivelifeofanindividualembraces，theyarecontinuouswiththenationalexistence。Ifitbeworthwhilepayingaconsiderableapprentice-fee，fortheacquisitionofanart，whichcanprobablyonlybeexercisedfortwentyorthirtyyears，itmustbebetterworthwhiletopayforone，theadvantagesderivedfromthepossessionofwhich，mayberetainedforhundredsorthousandsofyears。

Again，whateveranindividualmayexpendinacquiringanydegreeofskillis，toacertainextent，losttohim；thoughhemaydrawarevenue，hecannotdrawacapitalfromit。Noportionofthefutureskilledlaborofanindividualcanhesold，becauseitcanonlybesoldwithhimself，andsuchbargains，sanctionedinancient，arenotsoinmoderntimes。Nowherecanoneeffectuallymakeoverhisservicesforacertaintimetoanyotherperson，because，nowherecanhegivethatpersonthepowerofenforcingtheirexertion。Onthecontrary，anyportionofthefuturerevenue，yieldedbytheskilledindustryofanation，maybesold，and，consequentlyanadditiontothenationalskillgivesaproportionaladditiontothecommandofnationalresources，tomeetanysuddenemergency。TheproduceofthegeneralindustryofGreatBritain，standsmortgagedforasum，whichitwouldhaveappearedacenturyagoutterlyimpossibletoconceivethatindustrycouldsustain，because，acenturyago，itwasimpossibletoconceivethevastincreasewhichhassincebeenmadetotheskill，dexterity，andjudgment，withwhichitwasthendirected。

Besidestheseandotherdifferencesbetweentheeffectsresultingfromtheacquisitionofskillinthepursuitsofindustrybynations，andbyindividuals，thereisoneonwhichIhavealreadyenlarged。Anincreaseofskillseemstobealwaysanecessaryconcomitantoftheincreaseofnationalwealth，whereasitisnotalwaysaconcomitantoftheincreaseofindividualwealth。Itisnotthereforetrue，thatnationsandindividualsincreasetheirwealthinthesamemanner，nor，wereitso，dotherules，whichmodernpoliticaleconomistslaydownfortheincreaseofnationalwealth，agreewiththosewhichindividualsadoptintheirendeavorstoaugmenttheirprivatestocks。

Themainarguments，however，whichtheauthorbringsforward，arebuiltonwhatheassumestobegeneralprinciples。Thedoctrineliemaintainsthroughouthiswholesystem，andmoreparticularlyinthechaptertowhichIhavealluded，turnsonthefollowingpassage。

"Ifaforeigncountrycansupplyuswithacommoditycheaperthanweourselvescanmakeit，betterbuyitofthemwithsomepartoftheproduceofourownindustry，employedinawayinwhichwehavesomeadvantage。

Thegeneralindustryofthecountrybeingalwaysinproportionstothecapitalwhichemploysit，willnottherebybediminished，nomorethanthecapitalofanartificerisdiminishedwhopurchasesanarticlefromanotherpractisingadifferentartinsteadofmakingithimself。Itwillonlybelefttofindoutthewayinwhichitcanbeemployedwiththegreatestadvantage。Itiscertainlynotemployedtothegreatestadvantage，whenitisthusdirectedtowardsanobjectwhichitcanbuycheaperthanitcanmake。Thevalueofitsannualproduceiscertainlymoreorlessdiminished，whenitisthusturnedawayfromproducingcommoditiesevidentlyofmorevaluethanthecommoditywhichitisdirectedtoproduce。Accordingtothesupposition，thatcommoditycouldbepurchasedfromforeigncountriescheaperthanitcanbemadeathome；itcouldthereforehavebeenpurchasedwithapartonlyofthecommodities，or，whatisthesamething，withapartonlyofthepriceofthecommodities，whichtheindustryemployedbyanequalcapitalwouldhaveproducedathome，haditbeenlefttofollowitsnaturalcourse。Theindustryofthecountry，therefore，isthusturnedawayfromamoretoalessadvantageousemployment；andtheexchangablevalueofitsannualproduce，insteadofbeingincreased，accordingtotheintentionofthelaw-giver，mustnecessarilybediminishedbyeverysuchregulation。

"Bymeansofsuchregulations，indeed，aparticularmanufacturemaysometimesbeacquiredsoonerthanitcouldhavebeenotherwise，andafteracertaintimemaybemadeathomeascheap，orcheaper，thanintheforeigncountry。Butthoughtheindustryofthesocietymaybethuscarriedwithadvantageintoaparticularchannelsoonerthanitcouldhavebeenotherwise，itwillbynomeansfollowthatthesumtotaleitherofitsindustryorofitsrevenue，caneverbeaugmentedbyanysuchregulation。Theindustryofthesocietycanaugmentonlyinproportionasitscapitalaugments，anditscapitalcanaugmentonlyinproportiontowhatcanbegraduallysavedoutofitsrevenue。Buttheimmediateeffectofeverysuchregulationistodiminishitsrevenue；andwhatdiminishesitsrevenueiscertainlynotverylikelytoaugmentitscapitalfasterthanitwouldhaveaugmentedofitsownaccord，hadbothcapitalandindustrybeenlefttofindouttheirnaturalemployments。

"Though，forwantofsuchregulations，thesocietyshouldneveracquiretheproposedmanufacture，itwouldnotuponthataccountnecessarilybethepoorerinanyoneperiodofitsduration。Ineveryperiodofitsdurationitswholecapitalandindustrymightstillhavebeenemployed，thoughupondifferentobjects，inthemannerthatwasmostadvantageousatthetime。

Ineveryperioditsrevenuemighthavebeenthegreatestwhichitscapitalcouldafford，andbothcapitalandrevenuemighthavebeenaugmentedwiththegreatestpossiblerapidity。

"Thenaturaladvantageswhichonecountryhasoveranother，inproducingparticularcommodities，aresometimessogreat，thatitisacknowledgedbyalltheworldtobeinvaintostrugglewiththem。Bymeansofglasses，hot-beds，andhot-walls，verygoodgrapescanberaisedinScotlandandverygoodwine，too，canbemadeofthem，ataboutthirtytimestheexpenseforwhichatleastequallygoodcanbebroughtfromforeigncountries。

Woulditbeareasonablelawtoprohibittheimportationofallforeignwines，merelytoencouragethemakingofclaretandburgundyinScotland？

Butiftherewouldbeamanifestabsurdityinturningtowardsanyemploymentthirtytimesmoreofthecapitalandindustryofthecountrythanwouldbenecessarytopurchasefromforeigncountriesanequalquantityofthecommoditieswanted，theremustbeanabsurdity，thoughnotaltogethersoglaring，yetexactlyofthesamekind，inturningtowardsanysuchemploymentathirtieth，orevenathreehundredthpartofeither。Whethertheadvantageswhichonecountryhasoveranotherbenaturaloracquired，isinthisrespectofnoconsequence。Aslongastheonecountryhasthoseadvantagesandtheotherwantsthem，itwillalwaysbemoreadvantageousforthelatterrathertobuyoftheformerthantomake。Itisanacquiredadvantageonly，whichoneartificerhasoverhisneighborwhoexercisesanothertrade；andyettheybothfinditmoreadvantageoustobuyofoneanother，thantomakewhatdoesnotbelongtotheirparticulartrades。"

Imustbeexcusedforrunningsomewhatintorepetitioninobserving，thatthestrengthofthispassageevidentlyliesintheaxioms，"Theindustryofthesocietycanaugmentonlyasitscapitalaugments，anditscapitalcanaugmentonlyinproportiontowhatcanbegraduallysavedoutofitsrevenue；"andthattheproperanswertotheseaxiomsis，either，thattheyprovenothing，or，thattheyproveitbyabeggingofthequestion，byassumingthattobeprovedwhichisinprocessofproof。Theexpression，theindustryofthesocietycanaugmentonlyasitscapitalaugments，maysignify，either，thattheaugmentationofasociety'scapital，andanincreaseofitsproductiveindustryalwaysaccompanyeachother；or，thateveryaugmentationoftheproductivenessofthegeneralindustry，isproducedbyanaugmentationofcapital，andcanbeproducedbynothingelse。Inlikemanner，theexpression，thecapitalofthesocietycanaugmentonlyinproportiontowhatcanbegraduallysavedoutofitsrevenue，maysignify，either，merelythatthesavingfromrevenueisanecessarypartoftheincreaseofthegeneralcapital，andmeasuresitsamount，or，thattherearenoothermeansofaugmentingitscapitalbutit。Intheformerofthesetwosensestheaxiomsprovenothing；inthelattertheyproveallthingsdesired，becausetheyassumethemasacknowledgedtruths。Thedoublemeaningoftheassumptionscontainedintheseaxioms，andthefallacyintowhichtheymay，inconsequence，bemadetolead，maybeeasilyperceivedbyanapplicationofthemtothetransactionsofanindividual。

ApersonresidinginEngland，ownsanestateintheWestIndies，whichheproposestovisit。Hismotivestodosoare，thathethinks，that，byhispersonalsuperintendence，hecangiveabetterdirectiontotheindustryemployedonit，andrenderthereturnsgreater。Inordertodoso，itisnecessaryforhimtoprocureandexpendacertainsumtopayfortheexpenseofthevoyage，andthecostofthevariousarticleswhichhisprivateaccommodationwillrequirethere，andhethereforetakesmeasurestoapplytothispurposeaconsiderablepartofoneyear'srevenueoftheestate。Onaccountofthisdisbursement，someoneobjectstotheproject，andendeavors，inthefollowingmanner，toprovetohimthatitmustbehurtfultohisinterests：

"Theaugmentedproductivenessofyourestate，andtheincreasedamountofcapitalatwhichitwillbeestimated，mustgoontogether。But，toaddtocapital，itisnecessarytosavefromrevenue。Nowtheschemeyouareabouttoembarkinrequiresfirstalargeexpenditureofrevenue。Itmustthereforetendtopreventyouraugmentingyourcapital，andconsequentlytheproductiveindustryofyourestate，whichtwothingsalwaysgoontogether。"

Theanswertothisreasoningwouldbe："ItischieflybecauseIamawarethattheproductivenessofmyestate，andwhatitisworth，areinseparablyconjoined，that1amabouttobeatthisexpenseandtrouble，forIbelievetheywillenablemetoputthingsinsuchatrainthatitsproductivenesswillgreatlyincrease，and，asitsvalueIknowdependsonthe。revenueityields，mycapitalwillconsequentlybeaugmentedbymuchmorethanthesumIamgoingtoexpend。"

"IperceiveIhavenotexpressedmymeaningproperly，"repliestheadviser，"Ishouldhavesaid；anincreasedproductivenessofyourestate，canbeproducedbynoothermeansthanbyanaugmentationofthecapitalemployedonit，andtheamountofcapitalyoucanpossessandcanemployonit，canbeaugmentedinnootherwaythanbysavingfromyourrevenue。Butthisplanofyourscausesanexpenditureofyourrevenue，itmustthereforepreventyoufromaddingtoyourcapital，and，consequently，fromincreasingtheproductivenessoftheindustrywhichissetinmotionbyitonyourestate。"

TheWestIndiaproprietormightundoubtedlyreply："MydearSiryouarecompletelywrong。Theproductivenessofmyestatedepends，notonlyontheamountofthecapitalwhichsetstheindustryemployedonitinmotion，butonthesortofmotionitgivesit；andIhopesotoimprovethis，byamorejudiciousregulationofit，thatthesamepowerwillproduceafargreatereffectthanitdoesatpresent，andthustoshowyou，thatthereareothermeansofaugmentingcapitalthansimplesaving。ForItakeit，thatifIaddtomygains，withoutincreasingmyexpenditure，theproceduremaybejustaseffectivetothisend，asifIweretodiminishmyexpenditure，andnotaddtomygains。

Ifweunderstandtheaxiomsofourauthorintheformersenseoftheexpressions，itisclear，thatwhenappliedtonationalcapital，theyprovenothingmorethanwhenappliedtoindividualcapital。

For，ifitbemerelymeantthattheproductivenessofnationalindustry，andtheaugmentationofnationalcapitaladvancetogether，theproprietyofaproposedmeasuremayaswellbeinferredfromitstendencytorendertheindustryofthecommunitymoreproductive，asitsimproprietymaybeinferredfromitsrequiringasmallimmediateexpenditureofrevenue。Thequestiontobedeterminedineverysuchcase，wouldthenbesimilartothatwhichanindividualdetermineswhendeliberatingonanyschemefortheaugmentationofhisprivatecapital，andwouldresolveitselfintoaninquiry，whetherornottheprobablereturnsfromtheproposedmeasure，belikelytobeasufficientremunerationfortheexpenseofcarryingitintoeffect。But，itisveryclear，thatthiswouldbeaconstrainedinterpretationoftheimportofthepassage；andthattheinferencetheauthorwishedhisexpressionstoconvey，is，thatanincreasedproductivenessoftheindustryofthesocietycanbeproducedbynoothermeansbutbyaugmentingitscapital，andthattheonlymeansenteringintotheprocessofaugmentingitscapitalaresavingfromitsrevenue。

Theproperanswertotheseaxioms，sounderstood，is，thisisyourtheorynodoubt，butitisatheorywhichismerelyinprocessofproof，andnotyetestablished。Surely，then，itisscarcelogicaltoansweraveryobviousobjectiontoit，whichtheobservationofhumanaffairspresents，byassumingitstruth；or，todeducetheimproprietyofapracticalmeasure，drawnfromthephenomenawhichhumanaffairspresent，andapparentlyverybeneficial，byshowingthatsuchmeasureiscontrarytoitsprinciples。

Thequestionhithertostandsthus。Youpretendtoaccountforthephenomenaoftheaugmentationofnationalwealthbyshowing，thatanincreaseofnationalcapitaltendstofacilitatethedivisionoflabor；thatthisdivisionoflaborinitselfgreatlyimprovestheproductivepowersoflabor，andisthecauseofallotherimprovementsinthem。Thatthisincreaseoftheproductivepowersoflabor，beingequivalenttoanincreaseoftherevenueofthesociety，addstoitspowerofaccumulatingfreshcapitalandgivingfartherextenttothedivisionoflabor，thegreatgenerator，accordingtoyoursystem，ofallwealth。Itisinthiswaythat，accordingtoyou，theaugmentationoftheindustryofthesocietyisproducedbyanaugmentationofitscapital，andinnoothermanner，anditscapitalaugmentedbysavingfromrevenueandnothingelse，andthat，fromtheactionandreactionoftheseprinciplesoneachother，thewholephenomenaofthegrowthofnationalcapitalarededucible。

Now，admittingforthepresentthatnofallacycanbedetectedmtheprinciplesthemselves，theymuststillbeadmittedtobeonlypossibleorprobabletheoreticalassumptions，tobeprovedbytheobservationoftheircoincidencewithfacts。Admittingthenalsothat。，asfarasthefactswhichrelatetowhatwemaycallthehistoryoftheinternalprogressofnationalwealthareconcerned，theysufficientlyaccordwiththem，thereisanotherclassoffactsadmittedbyyou，whichtheseprinciplesdonotexplain，andtowhich，onthecontrary，theyseemtobeopposed。

Artsandmanufactures，thegreatsourcesofincreasetotheproductivepowersoflabor，do，itisgranted，passfromcountrytocountry。Itwouldappearthen，thatthegradualincreasewhichtheaccumulationofcapitalproducesontheproductivepowersofanysociety，isnotalonesufficienttocallforthalltheresourceswhichthatsocietypossesses；but，thatitisoftennecessarytoseekinothercountriesforthemeans，whichgivetheseresourcesfullefficiency。Insuchcases，atleast，therefore，theaugmentedwealthofthesocietycannotbesaidaltogethertoflowfromthegradualincreaseofitscapitalbyaccumulation，theconsequentdivisionoflabor，andtheimprovementsthenceresulting。Yourtheoryis，therefore，sofarmostcertainlydefective，asitacknowledgestheexistenceofaclassofphenomena，thelawsregulatingwhichitsprinciplesbynomeansexplain。

Instead，however，ofattemptingtoanswertheobjectionstoyoursystem，whichthisclassofphenomenapresent，youpretendtosay，thatthepracticalrulesdirectly，andinthesimplestmanner，deduciblefromthem，areofnecessityerroneous，becausecontrarytotheprinciplesofyoursystem。

Itbeingacknowledgedbyeveryone，evenbyyourself，thattheimprovementsoftheproductivepowersoflaborthuseffectedbythecontinuedspreadoftheartsofcivilizedlifefromcountrytocountry，areamongthechiefcausesoftheprogressofnationalwealthandprosperity，theywhohavehadthemanagementofnationalaffairs，haveindifferentcasescometotheunavoidableconclusion，thattheydidwellinevensacrificingasmallportionofthenationalrevenue，providedthisoutlayservedtointroduceacknowledgedimprovementinthenationalindustry，andsourceofnationalwealth。Theyhaveactedinthisasanindividualwoulddointhemanagementofhisprivateaffairs，theyhaveendeavoredtointroduceanimprovementintothemanagementofthefundswithwhichtheywereintrusted，andhaveconsideredthepricetobepaidforsuchimprovementwarrantedbytheincreasedproductivepowersitwouldgivetothesamecapital，andconsequentincreasetothenationalrevenue，andnationalfunds，whichitwouldtendtoproduce。Likeindividualschemestheirprojectsseemsometimestohavesucceeded，andsometimestohavefailed。Butthough，whenheacts，itisincidenttoman'simperfectnatureoccasionallytoerr，tositdownthereforeinresoluteinactivitywouldbetheworsterrorhecouldcommit。

Thecelebratedauthoradmits，thatamanufacturemaybeintroducedbytheoperationsofthelegislator，soonerthanitcould，otherwisebe，andthuscometobemadeathomeascheap，orcheaper，thanabroad。Butthen，hesays，inspiteoftheseapparentadvantagesofsuchaproceedingonhispart，itmustbewrong，becauseitiscontrarytomysystem。And，beforeyoucanprovethatitisjustifiable，youmustprovethatthebenefitsresultingfromitcouldnotpossiblyhavehappenedsomeotherway。"Though，forwantofsuchregulations，thesocietyshouldneveracquiretheproposedmanufacture，itwouldnotuponthataccountnecessarilybethepoorerinanyoneperiodofitsduration。Ineveryperiodofitsduration，itswholecapitalandindustrymightstillhavebeenemployed，thoughupondifferentobjects，inthemannerthatwasmostadvantageousatthetime。Ineveryperioditsrevenuemighthavebeenthegreatestwhichitscapitalcouldafford，andbothcapitalandrevenuemighthavebeenaugmentedwiththegreatestpossiblerapidity。

Now，Iconceive，thatinsteadofcallingonhisopponentstoprove，thatalltheadvantagesarisingfromanysuchschememightpossiblycometopasswithoutit，hehimselfhastoshow，thattheymustcometopasswithoutit。And，thathehastodoso，notbyassuminghistheoreticalprinciplesastrue，for，iftheyareso，hisaxiomsembraceanddecidethisandeverycaseatonce，butbyanexaminationofthecourseofhumanaffairs，andaregulardeductionfromthem，ofthecertaintyoftheseapparentadvantages，orothersequivalenttothem，flowinginfromsomeotherchannelthanthatofwhichhewouldbartheopening。

Anationimportsfromadistanceamanufacturedcommodity，whichitisgranteditcouldmakeascheap，orcheaper，athome，werethemanufactureintroducedthere。Tointroducethemanufactureis，however，tooexpensiveaprojecttobecarriedintoeffectbyanyprivateindividual。Thewholesocietymightdoso，throughtheexpenditureforafewyearsofaportionofitsrevenue，muchlessthanwhatanequalnumberofyearssucceedingthemwillreturntoitinthediminishedcostofthearticle。He，orthey，wholegislateforthesociety，embracetheapparentbenefit，and，bymeansofasmallexpenditure，effectanincreaseoftheproductivepowersofthecommunity；thatis，theygivethosepowersthecapabilityofproducingthesamequantityofanarticlewithlessexpense，whichcertainlymustbeallowedtobeanincreaseofthem。Inthisthelegislatoractsinamannerthatwouldbeaccountedprudenceinaprivateperson，whoconductedanysystemofindustryforhisownemolument：inaplanter；forinstance，whoownedandmanagedaWestIndiaestate。Weshouldundoubtedlyapproveofsuchaperson'sbeingatconsiderableexpense，ininstructinghisoverseersandnegroes，inanyimprovedmodeofconductingthebusinessoftheplantation，ifthisimprovementmorethanproportionablyaugmentedhisrevenue。Neitherhavetheproceedingsoflegislators，inmanycasesparallelinprincipletothis，beeneverobjectedto。Itsometimeshappens，forinstance，thatthoseengagedincultivatingthegroundknowthattheycanprocureseedsofplants，orracesofanimals，atadistance，betterfittedfortheirpurposesthanthosetheyhaveathome。Iftheexpenseofprocuringthemissmall，andsuchaswillberemuneratedtoanindividualbythegain，individualssendforsuchseedsandanimals。Ifitisgreater，theysometimesclubinsocietiesforthepurpose。Ifitbetoogreatforthesesocieties，thelegislatoraidsthemintheirscheme，orcarriesitintoeffecthimself。

Inthiswayitwas，that，itbeingthoughtthatthecultureofthebreadfruittree，aplantindigenoustothePacificOcean，coulditbeintroducedintoourWestIndiaIslands，wouldbeofadvantagetothem，governmentwereattheexpenseofsendingmorethanonevessel，onthatlongvoyage，inordertotransporttheplantthere。Noonedid，orcouldobject，totheoutlayofaportionofthepublicrevenueforapurposesolaudable。

Inthisinstance，itwillbeallowedbyall，thatitwouldhavebeenasabsurdtohavewaitedinexpectationthatsomeindividualshouldfind，orshouldimaginehewouldfinditforhisownprivateadvantagetoundertakesoexpensiveascheme，asitwouldbetocomplainofthecomparativelytriflingexpenditureofthecommonfunds，whichtheaccomplishmentofthisprojectconducivetothecommongoodrequired。Buttheexpenditureofacertainamountofnationalrevenue，forthepurposeoftransportinganusefulartfromadistantcountry，bears，surely，acloseanalogytoasimilarexpenditure，forthepurposeoftransportinganusefulplant。Iftheonebepraiseworthy，theothercanscarcedeservethecensurethathasbeenheapedonit。

Ourauthorfurtherobserves："Thenaturaladvantageswhichonecountryhasoveranother，inproducingparticularcommoditiesaresometimessogreatthatitisacknowledgedbyalltheworldtobeinvaintostrugglewiththem。"And，asaninstance，hegivestheprojectofraisinggrapes，forthepurposeofmakingwine，inScotland。

Extremecasesareuseful，but，tobeso，theyshouldbecorrectlyput。

Themainquestionindisputeis，whetherornotitispropertointroduceamanufacturefromabroad，bytheaidofthelegislator，which，whensointroduced，willfurnishacommodityforhomeconsumptionataslow，oratalowerprice，thanitcanbeboughtforintheforeigncountry。Thesupposedcaseofacommoditywhich，ifthemanufactureofitbeintroducedathome，willcostthirtytimesmore，orathirtieth，orthreehundredthpartmoretherethanabroad，canhavenothingtodowiththedeterminationofsuchaquestion。

"Whethertheadvantageswhichonecountryhasoveranotherbenaturaloracquired，isinthisrespectofnoconsequence。"Onthecontrary，inmyopinion，itisofthegreatestconsequence，and，forthisveryreason，thatitisonly"aslongastheonecountryhasthoseadvantages，andtheotherwantsthem，thatitwillbemoreadvantageousforthelatterrathertobuyoftheformerthantomake。"Nownaturaladvantagescannotbeprocuredbyanyexpenditureofrevenueorcapital，butacquiredadvantagesmayoftenbegotbymeansofaverysmallexpenditure。Onecountrycannot，atanypurchase，acquirethesoil，theclimate，thecommodiousnessofsituationforconductingtrade，oranyoftheothernaturaladvantageswhichanothercountrypossesses；wereitso，thepricewouldbeverylargethatwouldnotbewillinglypaidforthem。Butonecountrycanoftenwithease，andatatriflingexpense，acquirethepracticalskillandtheknowledgeofparticularartsandmanufactureswhichanotherpossesses，and，bydoingso，gaintheadvantageofprocuringforitselftheproductsofthisskillandknowledgeathome，insteadofhavingtogoabroadforthem。Inthepassagequoted，naturaladvantagesandacquiredarereckonedequivalents，andsoundoubtedlytheyare。Theyarebothvaluableonaccountoftheproductstheyyieldtohumanlabor。Buttheydifferinthis，thatthelattercanbetransferredfromonecountrytoanother，theformercannot。CouldScotlandacquirethesunnyskiesandmoregenialclimateofFrance，itshillsmightbecoveredwithvineyards，insteadofheather，anditsinhabitantsmightprocuremanycommoditiesatafourthofthepricewhichtheynowcostthem。Noonewouldobjecttoaconsiderableexpendituretoacquiresogreatanadvantage。

Ifthen，theacquisitionofnaturaladvantageswouldbeworthpayingfor，whyobjecttoasmallexpendituretoprocureadvantageswhichareallowedtobeequivalenttothosenaturaladvantages？

Astheauthorhasgivenonesupposedcase，asheconceivedillustrativeofthequestion，Imaybepermittedtogiveanother，alsoillustrativeofit，notlikehis，however，springingfromassumptionsliabletobeobjectedto，but，aswillbeseen，frameduponhisveryprinciplesandadmissions。

Acertaincountryhastheacquiredadvantageoveranotherofpossessingtheknowledgeofaparticularart，whichthisotherwants。Thelatter，therefore，importsfromtheformerallthegoods，theproductofthatart，whichithasoccasionfor。Asithastopayforthesegoods，itluckilyhappensthatit，onitsside，hasalsoacquiredadvantagesinpossessingtheknowledgeofanotherart，whichtheformerwants，andthecommoditiesproducedbywhichithasoccasionfor。Inthisway，theonesortofgoodspaysfortheother。Thenaturalandacquiredadvantagesofthesetwocountriesareeithersimilarorequivalent。Thatis，theirsoil，climate，convenienceofsituationfortrade，andtheirknowledgeofotherarts，thoughnotexactlythesame，areonthewholeequallybalanced，theirpopulationandcapitalareequal。Inshort，theyasmuchresembletwoneighboringartificers，accordingtothecomparisonofourauthor，exercisingdifferenttrades，asextensivecommunitiesinhabitingseparatecountrieswellcanresemblesingleworkmenwhosedwellingsarecontiguous。Thepeculiarmanufactureoftheonenationishats，oftheothersilkgoods。Thesilkgoodswhichtheoneannuallyconsumescostit&pound；2，000，000；thehatswhichtheotherconsumes，thesamesum。Ofthesesums25percent。ismadeupoftransport，includingintheterm，notthemerefreight，butthewholechargespaidforinternaltransport，forwarehousing，andfortheprofitsofthedifferentcapitals，andwagesofthevariousindividualsconcernedincollectingthecommoditiesintheonecountry，carryingthemto，anddistributingthemovertheother。Thustheannualsumwhichthesecommoditiescosteachcountry，overandabovetheexpenseofproducingthem，is&pound；400，000。Inthissituationthingshavelongremained，andmustcontinuetoremain，unlessalteredbysomechangeinthepolicy，orgreatrevolutionintheaffairsofthetwocountries。"Itbeingonlyforthesakeofprofitthatanymanemploysacapitalinthesupportofindustry，"and，fromtheacquiredadvantageswhicheachcountryenjoysovertheotherintheproductionofitspeculiarmanufacture，itbeingimpossibleforanyprojectortomanufacturehats，inthecountrywherehatshavenothithertobeenmade，orsilks，inthecountrywheresilkshavenothithertobeenmade，butatanoutlayofmorethan25percentoverwhattheycostinthecountrywheretheserespectivemanufacturesareestablished，nosuchprojectwillbeenteredon。Thelegislatorsofthetwocountries，havehithertoagreedwithourauthor，that，asitisthemaximofeveryprudentmasterofafamily，nevertomakeathomewhatitwillcosthimmoretomakethantobuy；whatisprudenceintheconductofeveryprivatefamilycanscarcebefollyinthatofagreatkingdom；

andthat，whethertheadvantageswhichonecountryhasoveranotherbenaturaloracquired，isofnoconsequence，itbeinganacquiredadvantageonly，whichoneartificerhasoverhisneighbor，whoexercisesanothertrade，thoughtheybothfinditfortheiradvantage，rathertobuyofoneanother，thantomakewhatdoesnotbelongtotheirpeculiartrade。Actingontheseprinciples，theyhavethoughtitimpropertomakeanyalterationinthesystem。

Aboutthistimehoweverachangetakesplaceintheiropinions，andtheybegintothink，thatas，thoughitwouldnotbeveryprudentinthetailor，thathemighthavehisshoesmadeinhisownworkshopinsteadofhisneighbors，tosetaboutmakingthem。himself，ortheshoemaker，forthesamereason，tosetaboutmakinghisowncoat，yet，iftherewereatowninwhichtherewerenoshoemakers，butmorethanenoughoftailors，andanother，adozenmilesoff，inwhichtherewerenotailors，hutmorethanenoughofshoemakers，itwouldbeabeneficialchangeforsomeofthetailorstoremovetotheonetown，andsomeoftheshoe-makerstotheother，thattheinhabitantsofbothmighthavethearticlesfabricatedbythesedifferentsortsoftradesmen，madeathome，thatis，withintheirrespectivetowns，so，twocountries，ofwhichtheonemadenohats，andtheothernosilkgoods，mightmutuallybenefitbytheintroductionofthemanufactureinwhicheachwasdeficient，theinhabitantsofeachinlikemannerastheinhabitantsofeachtown，havingthatprovidedathome，whichtheymustotherwisegoabroadfor，andthusbeingsavedlikethem，theexpenseandinconvenienceoftransportation。

Thoughsuchachange，ineithercase，couldnothebroughtaboutwithoutexpense，andthough"itsimmediateeffectwouldthereforebetodiminishtherevenueofthesociety，"yet，asafteracertaintime，itwouldbelikelythatthenewmanufacturewouldbemadeathomeineachcase"ascheaporcheaperthanabroad，"itsultimateeffectwouldbe，morethanproportionably，toincreasetherevenuesofbothtownsandbothcountries。

Actingonthesenewviews，thelegislatorsofbothcountries，aboutthesametime，commenceencouragingthemanufacturesinwhichtheirrespectivecountriesaredeficient；and，bymeansofasystemofpremiums，bounties，andduties，onthedetailofwhichitisunnecessarytoenter，inthecourseofyears，succeedsofar，thatsilkgoodscomeactuallytobefabricatedinthecountrywherenosilkgoodsweremanufactured，ascheaplyaswheretheywereexclusivelymanufactured，andhatstobemade，wherenohatsweremade，ascheaplyaswherehatswereexclusivelymade。Partofthecapitalandindustrywhichwentintheonecasetothemanufactureofhats，goestomanufacturesilkgoods，and，intheothercase，partofthecapitalandindustrywhichwenttomanufacturesilkgoods，goestomanufacturehats。Bothcountriesproducethatathome，whichtheybeforeimportedfromabroad，andarethereforesavedtheexpenseattendingthatimportation。

Completelytoeffectthischangerequiresanoutlay，inbothcases，of&pound；1，000，000。Beingeffectedhowever，itofcoursesaveseachcountrytheexpenseoftransport，which，at25percentontheimportedgoods，makesanannualsavingofitsexpenditure，andincreasethereforeofitsrevenue，of&pound；400，000，sothat，intwoorthreeyearstime，thesumexpendedisrepaid，andeachcommunitysuppliedwithanewfundtofurnishadditionalcomfortstoitsmembers，ortoaddtotheircapital。Accordingtoourauthor'stenets，thisproceedingofbothlegislators，althoughadmittedtobepracticable，isyetheldtobenecessarily，andinitsverynature，injurious。

Althoughitcanseldomhappen，thattwocountriesaresocircumstancedthatboth，accordingtooursupposition，canbenefitequallybytheeffectingofsuchachange，yet，ifoneeffectsuchachange，asfarasthatcountryisconcerneditwouldseemtobebeneficial，onasimplecalculationofexpenseandgain，providedthesavingofrevenueproducedbyit，isgreaterthantheexpenditureofrevenuenecessaryforproducingit。Itisthisendwhichthelegislatorgenerallyaimsatreachingbytheregulationsheimposesonthetradeandindustryofthesociety，andwhich，bythesemeans，heoftenarrivesat。Yet，evenwheninsuchcasessuccessful，ourauthormaintains，thathisproceedingsarenecessarily，andessentiallyprejudicialtotheinterestsofthesociety。That，eventhoughtheymaycauseacommoditytobeproducedathome，cheaperthanabroad，theymustdiminish，insteadofaugmenting，thenationalrevenueandriches。Aconclusionsoextraordinary，isarrivedatbyaprocessofreasoningasextraordinary。

Itiscometobysettingoutfromit。Twogeneralaxioms，somewhatambiguousandvague，areassumedastruths。Asusuallyhappenstoallotheraxiomsemployedingeneralreasoning，andcapableofconveyingtwosenses，theyaregrantedintheonesense，andappliedintheother。Weassenttothepropositions，"theindustryofthesocietycanaugmentonlyinproportionasitscapitalaugments，anditscapitalcanaugmentonlyinproportiontowhatcanbegraduallysavedoutofitsrevenue，"becausewesee，thattheaugmentationofindustryandcapital，thesavingfromrevenueandincreaseofcapital，areconcomitantsofeachother；weperceivenot，thatintheapplicationofthesepropositions，thesenseinwhichweassentedtothemisabandoned，andthattheaugmentationofthecapitalofthesocietyisassumedasthecause，andthesolecauseoftheincreaseofitsindustry，andthesavingfromrevenue，asthecause，andthesolecause，oftheaugmentationofitscapital。Whereas，fromtheobservationoftheincreaseoftheproductivenessofnationalindustry，andoftheamountofnationalcapital，goingoningeneraltogether，wemayatleastasjustlyinferthatitistheindustrywhichaugmentsthecapital，asthecapitaltheindustry，andrathercometotheconclusion，thatpartofthenationalresourcesshouldbeemployedingivingperfectiontotheindustryofthesocietythanthattheyshouldbealtogetherdevotedtoattemptstoincreaseitscapital。Infact，ascapital，accordingtoAdamSmithhimself，isonlyvaluablefortheadditionitmakestotheefficiencyofthenationalindustry，and，asthatefficiencyisalso，accordingtohim，mainlydependentontheskill，dexterity，andjudgment，withwhichitisapplied，anexpenditureofcapitalorrevenue，havingtheeffectofincreasingthenationalskill，dexterity，andjudgment，wouldseemtobethemostjudiciouspossible，seeingitdirectlyincreasesthosesourcesofproduction，fromtheindirectadditionthatitmakestowhich，capitalissaidtoderiveitssolevalue。

Ithasbeenmyendeavortoshow，intheprecedingexaminationofthesystemofAdamSmith，thatthedoctrinetheremaintained，oftheexpediencyofthelegislator'sabstainingfromanyattempttogiveincreasedefficiencytotheindustryofthesocietybyencouragingthegrowthofdomesticartsortheimportationofforeign，foundedonthesuppositionoftheperfectidentityofthemeanswhichaddtothewealthofindividualsandnations，iserroneous。

1。Thatthereasonswhichmakeitassumetheformofaself-evidentprinciple，havetheirfoundationintheambiguitiesoflanguagealone，andthat，inreality，thepresumptionisagainst，notforit。

2。Thatviewedasaconsequenceofthetheoryoftheaccumulationofcapital，thedivisionoflabor，andtheimprovementsresultingfromtheactionandreactionoftheseprinciplesoneachother，thejudgmentweformofitmustbealtogetherdeterminedbytheprobableaccuracyoftheprinciplesonwhichthattheoryproceeds，andbyitscoincidencewithfacts；

thatgranting，forthepresent，theapparentprobabilityofthetheoreticalprinciplesthemselves，theyneverthelessdonotagreewiththephenomena；

thatthereisaclassofadmittedfacts，whichtheynotonlydonotexplain，buttowhichtheyareinopposition；thattheincreaseofthewealthofeverycommunityisacknowledgedtobedependent，notonlyontheaccumulationofcapitalanddivisionoflaboramongitsmembers，butalsoontheprogressofartsinothercommunities，andtheirsubsequenttransfertoit；thattoeffectthistransfer，ameasureadmittedtobeall-importanttotheprosperityofthecommunity，theeffortsofindividualsareinsufficient，that，inhisendeavorstoprovethatthelegislatoroughtnotheretointerfere，AdamSmithrunsintoinconsistenciesandcontradictions，andthattherehencearisesaproofoftheinapplicabilityofhisdoctrinetoeventsofthisorder，andastrongpresumptionoftheexistenceofsomefundamentalerrorinthegeneralprinciplesofhissystem。

BOOKII。

OFTHENATUREOFSTOCK，ANDOFTHELAWSGOVERNINGITSINCREASEANDDIMINUTION。

INTRODUCTION。

DugaldStewartprefacestheobservationshemakesonAdamSmith'sgreatwork，withthefollowingremarks："Anhistoricalreviewofthedifferentformsunderwhichhumanaffairshaveappearedindifferentagesandnations，naturallysuggeststhequestion，whethertheexperienceofformertimesmaynotnowfurnishsomegeneralprinciplestoenlightenanddirectthepolicyoffuturelegislators？Thediscussion，however，towhichthisquestionleads，isofsingulardifficulty；asitrequiresanaccurateanalysisofbyfarthemostcomplicatedclassofphenomenathatcanpossiblyengageourattention，thosewhichresultfromtheintricateandoftentheimperceptiblemechanismofpoliticalsociety；asubjectofobservationwhichseems，atfirstview，solittlecommensuratetoourfaculties，thatithasbeengenerallyregardedwiththesamepassiveemotionsofwonderandsubmissionwithwhich，inthematerialworld，wesurveytheeffectsproducedbythemysteriousanduncontrollableoperationofphysicalcauses。"(31)ThescienceofPoliticalEconomyheconsidersasapartofthisgreatsubject。

Iftheaccuracyoftheseobservationsbeadmitted，asIthinkitmust，theinquiriesinwhichPoliticalEconomyengages，leadtotheinvestigationofthegeneralprinciplesofhumanaction，anditistobeconsideredbutasabranchofalargerscience，havingforitsobject，totracethelawstowhichmanissubjectasamoralandintellectualanimal，actedonbythesystemofthingsexistingintheworld，andacting，inturnonthem，toexplainfromthoselawstheeventswhichhispasthistory，asfarasknown，exhibits，andtocollectthemeansofascertainingwhatwillbethefuturecourseofit。Whiletobeableclearlytounfoldthelawsregulatingtheeventswithwhichitdealswouldimplythecapacityoftracingthoseregulatingthewholesystemofphenomenaofwhichmanisthecentre，justastoexplainwithaccuracythelawsregulatingthemotionsofoneoftheheavenlybodies，impliestheknowledgeofprinciplescapableofdisclosingtheprescribedmovementsofthemall。

Ihavealreadyobserved，thatthesubjectfirstmetmewhenengagedintheinvestigationofsomeprincipleswhichIconceivedmightintimeassumeaformcapableofageneralapplicationofthesort。Toattempthereanextensivegeneralizationofthiskindwouldbeoutofplace，andisimpracticable，becauseofnecessityonlyasmallportionofthephenomenaarebeforeus。PoliticalEconomyitselfmakesbutapartofthesubjecttowhichsuchgeneralizationsbelong，anditisonlyonedivisionofpoliticaleconomyofwhichwearetotreat。Ithasusuallybeendiscussedundertheheadsofstock，wagesoflabor，andrent，anditistothefirstofthesethatourinvestigationsaretobealtogetherconfined。Itisonlythereforeinsuchpartsofthesubjectaspresentasufficientmassofphenomena，towarranttheprocedure，thatIshallattempttointroduceanyverygeneralprinciples。InothercasesIwillconfinemyselftothesimplestatementoffactsadmittedbyallparties……

CHAPTERI。Itischaracteristicofmantoprovidefortheeventsofthefuture，bytheformationofinstruments；andhispowertomakethisprovision，ismeasured，bytheextentandaccuracyofhisknowledgeofthecourseofnaturalevents。

Cicerogivesthefollowingsummaryoftheprinciplesexcitingmantoaction，andofthemodeinwhichtheyleadhimtoact：-"interhominemetbeluamhocmaximeinterest，quodhaectantum，quantumsensumovetur，adidsolum，quodadest，quodquepraesensest，seaccommodat，paullulumadmodumsentienspraeteritum，autfuturum。Homoautem，quodrationisestparticeps，perquamconsequentiacernit，causasrerumvidet，earumqueprogressus，etquasiantecessionesnonignorat，similitudinescomparat，etrebuspraesentibusadjungitatqueannectitfuturas：faciletotiusvitrocursumvidet，adeamquedegendampraeparetresnecessarias。Eademquenaturavirationishominemconciliathominietadorationis，etadvitaesocietatem：ingeneratqueinprimispraecipuumquendamamoremineos，quiprocreatisunt：impellitque，uthorninurecoetus，etcelebrationes，erse，etaseobirivelit：obeasquecausasstudeatparareea，quaesuppeditentetadculture，etadvicturn：

necsibisoli，sealconjugi，liberis，ceterisque，quoscardshabeat，tueriquedebeat。"

"Thechiefdistinctionbetweenmanandtheinferioranimalsconsistsinthis。Theyaremovedonlybytheimmediateimpressionsofsense，and，asitsimpulsesprompt，seektogratifythemfromtheobjectsbeforethem，scarceregardingthefuture，orendeavoringfromtheexperienceofthepasttoprovideagainstwhatistocome。Managain，asheisendowedwithreason，bywhichheisabletoconnecteffectswiththeircauses，toperceivetheprincipleswhichguidetheprogressofaffairs，andtojointogetherthepresentandthefuture，easilydiscernsthecourseofhiswholelifeandprepareswhatevermaybenecessaryforpassingitincomfort。Thesameintellectualpowersalso，whichnaturehasbestowedonhim，givescopetohisaffections，andjoinhimtohisfellowsbythetiesthatspringformlanguageandtheconnexionsofsociallife。Itisfromthissourcethatwemusttracehispeculiarprovidentloveforhisoffspring，hisconcernfortheinterestsofsociety，andhisdesiretomingleinitsbusinessandpleasures。

"Fromtheseprinciplesitisthatmanisincitedandenabledtoprovidebeforehandwhatevermayberequisitebothforutilityandornament，notonlytohimselfbuttohiswife，hischildren，andallotherswhomaybedeartohim，orwhomitmaybehisdutytoprotect。"

Itisunquestionablythecapacityforperceivingandretaininginhismind，thecourseofeventsandtheconnexionofonewithanother，thatleadsmantoperceivewhatadvancingfuturityistobringforth，andenableshimtoprovideforitswants。Theprovidentforethoughtdistinguisheshimfromtheinferioranimals，andthedegreeinwhichhepossessesitmarkshisrankinthescaleofcivilization。

Whenhehasgainedanyknowledgeorthenatureofthingsaroundhim，hefindsmanythatsatisfymoreorlessperfectlyhispresentwants。Heknowsalsothatifhelivetoseethefuturehewillthenhavesimilarwantsanddesires。Someofthethingssatisfyinghisdesiresandwantsexistabundantly，otherssparinglyorimperfectly。Ifheregardthefuture，hemustwishthatthosethingsofwhichhenowcanonlyobtainthemtosatisfyhiswantssparinglyandimperfectly，shouldexistthen，soasthatliemightbeabletoobtainthemtosatisfythosewantsabundantlyandperfectly。

Hisfacultiesofobservationandreasongenerallygivehimthepowerofeffectthis。Fortheseobjectsofhisdesiresaremerearrangementsofmatter。Hisfacultiesofobservationshowhimtheirnature，andthemannerinwhichthetrainofeventsgoingonamongstthemsucceedeachother。Heperceivesthatthethingswhicharetheobjectsofhispresentwants，orwhichwereofthosehefeltalittletimesince，amtwhichwillprobably。Beofthosebewillfeelinfixture。areeithertheimmediateresultofthenatureandformofsomethingsaroundhim，orofthetrainsofeventswhich，inconsequenceofthatformandnature，aretakingplaceamongthem。Hecannotalterthenatureofthings。but，inmanycases，beisabletochangetheirform，thatis，theparticulararrangementofthematterofwhichtheyareformed，andhisreasoninstructshim，thatif，bydoingthis，hecansoalterthetrainsofeventsproceedingfromthemordependingonthem，thattheymayeitherform，orcausetobeformed，orputinhispossession，objectsfittedtosupplymoreperfectlyorabundantlywhatprobablywillbehisfuturewants，thanthoseobjectswouldotherwiseexist，hethenisabletoprovideforthefuture。Thisinmanycaseshecando，andthusheacts。

ANorthAmericanIndianinhiscanoecomestoanislandinsomelakeorriver，andfindsnearitagoodstationforfishing。Hethereforedeterminestoremainthereforthefishingseason。Towardseveninghbpaddleshiscanoetoshore，lands，kindlesafirenearalargetree，wrapshisblanketabouthim，placeshisfeettothefire，hisheadtothetrunkofthetree，andthuspreparesforrepose。Insodoing，withtheexceptionofkindlingthefire，hetakesadvantagesimplyofhisknowledgeofthenatureofthethingsaroundhim，andseeksfromthemthebestsupplytheycangivehimofwhathewants，thatis，ofshelterfromwindandweather。

Itrainsandblowsduringthenight，thetreesheltershimsomewhat，butstillhegetscoldandwet。Inthemorninghespendssomehoursprovidingabettershelteragainsttheinclemencyofanysuchnightinfuture。Ofbranchesandbarkhemakessomethinglikeonehalfoftheroofofahouse，onlymuchsmaller，theopensidebeingtowardsthesouthandthefire，theslopingsidetowardsthenorthfromwhencecomescoldandrain。Thus，thoughhecannotpreventthewindfromblowing，ortherainfromfalling，hisknowledgeofthemannerinwhichthetrainsofeventsformingthesephenomenasucceedeachother，orifyouwill，hisknowledgeofthelawswhichregulatetheirmotions，instructhimsotodirectthem，thattheoneshallnotblow，ortheotherfall，onaparticularspot，whichheknowshemayatsomefuturetimewishtoremaincalmanddry。Thistimemaybedistant，foritmaynotrainorblowsoastoinconveniencehimforaweekortwo，neverthelesstoprovideagainstithegivesagoodmanyhourspresentlabor。

Nextevening，beforegoingtorepose，hefindstheturfdampfromtherainoftheformernight。Helooksforanelmtree，cutsoffapieceofitsstrongthickbarklargeenoughforhimtosleepon，coversitwiththesoftbranchesandleavesofthewhitepine，andformsadryandsoftbedforhimself。Thushisknowledgeofthematerialsaroundhimenableshimtoformwhathewants，adryandsoftplaceofrepose。

Inthisislandhediscoversasmallwildplumbtree，herelishesthefruit，butthereislittleofit。Resolvingtoreturninsucceedingseasonshelopsthebranchesofthesurroundingtreestogivethisroomtospread，andexpectsthustofindnextyearamoreabundantcrop。(32)Herehisknowledgeofthemannerinwhichtreesandfruitgrowandthrive，orhisknowledgeoftheorderofthetrainsofeventswhichterminateinthefulldevelopmentofthetreeandabundanceofitsfruit，enableshimsotoworkonthemattersaroundhim，astooccasionthemtoproducemoreabundantlynextseason，thantheyhavethis，whatthenhewilldesire。

Hethinksnotofprovidingforanyfuturewantthemeanstosupplywhich，will，withoutthis，existinsufficientabundance。Thuswater，insuchasituation，heknowshewillalwaysbesurroundedwith。WerethesameIndianencampedinthewoods，byaveryscantyspring，hewoulddamitup，andcoveritwithbranchessoastokeepcoolaquantityofwaterforhisfutureoccasions。

Theproceedingsofmanareeverywheresimilar。Hehasalwaysanendinview，heemploysmeanstoeffectthisend，andthereisamannerthroughwhichheeffectsit。Theendisasupplyforfuturewants；themeans，thebringingaboutofsucheventsasmayservetosupplythem；themanner，aknowledgeofthequalitieswithwhichnaturehasendowedthematerialswithinhisreach，oftheseriesofeventsinconsequencearisingamongthem，andanapplicationofthisknowledgetoproduce，throughhiscorporealpowers，suchanarrangementofthesematerials，asmaysochangetheissuesofeventsthatwouldotherwisehaveplace，astobringaboutthosewhichhedesires。Itistrue，that，inmostinstances，mensimplycopytheproceedingsofothers，andthinknotoftheprinciplesonwhichtheyconducttheiroperations，noroftheobservationsfromwhichthesemustoriginallyhavebeendeduced。But，thoughtheknowledgethusacquiredfromthisstoringofobservations，anddeductionofprinciplesfromthem，isnotthemodeinwhichindividualmenoperate，itisthemodeinwhichtheoperationstheycarryonmusthavebeenfirstbroughtintopractice，andonwhichtheyareallfounded。

Wemayeasilysatisfyourselvesofthis，byturningourattentiontothemannerinwhichanyofthearticlesweuseforthesupplyofourwantshasbeenformed。Breadmaybeanexample。Afarmer，sometwoyearsago，madechoiceofaparticularfieldforthecultivationofwheat。Hadhebeenaskedwhyhedidso，hecouldhavestatedthedifferentcircumstancesinthesoil，andthepreviouscropsthatithadcarried，whichhadthusdeterminedhim。Byploughingandharrowingitasufficientnumberoftimes，hethoroughlybroke，andpulverizedtheland。Thishedid，becauseheknew，fromobservationsheorothershadmade，thatinthisstatetheseedheintendedtodeposittherewould，whenitcametogerminate，moreeasilyspreaditsrootsaround，anddrawnourishmentfromamongtheparticlesofearthamidstwhichitwouldgrow。Heallowedaconsiderabletimetoelapsebetweentheseveraloperations，thattheweedsmighthavetimetospringup，andbedestroyed。Thusheknewtheywouldbepreventedfromafterwardsinjuringthegrowthofthecrop。Healsospreadoverthefield，andcoveredin，aquantityofmanure，becauseexperiencehadtaughtthatthissubstancegivesvigortovegetation。Hethensowedtheseed，inthemode，andquantity，andatthetime，whichobservationhadinstructedhimwasthebest，covereditwithaharrow，andwaitedtheharvest。Whenheperceivedthegrainsufficientlyripe，hecutitdownwithanironhookhavingaformandedgewhichexperiencehadascertainedtobebestadaptedforthispurpose，madeitintobundles，exposedthemtothesunandairsothattheymightbedried，whenthiswaseffected，conveyedthemtohisbarnandstoredthemthere。Havinglaintheresometime，thegrainwasseparatedfromthestrawbytheprocessofthreshing，itwasthencarriedtothegranary，where，havingbeenkeptforalongerorshorterperiod，itwasthencetakentothemill，and，byaveryingeniousprocess，reducedtosmallparticles，andthenseparatedbyanotherprocessintothreeparts，ofwhichthefinestpart，theinteriorofthegraincalledflour，beingpackedinsacksorbarrels，waspreservedforuse。Acertainportionofthis，mixedwithaparticularferment，wroughtwiththehandandexposedtotheactionoffire，becamebread。

Itisveryevident，thatallthestepsofthesevariousprocessesdependonaknowledgeofthecourseofnaturalevents，andareregulatedbythatknowledge。Alongseriesofobservationsofthissort，andofreasonsdeducedfromthem，couldalonehaveenabledthefarmertopreparethegroundproperlyfortheseed，or，afterthegrainhadcometomaturity，topreserveit，toseparateitfromthestraw，andfititforbeingconvertedintoflour。

Theobservationsonthetrainsofeventsconnectedwiththeproductionofthisgrainthathavebeencommittedtowriting，fillmanylargevolumes，andbesidesthese，everyfarmerisobligedtohaveagreatstoreofhisown，toguidehiminhisproceedings。Thus，inthesingleprocessofcuttingdownandstoringupthiscrop，hissuccessinsecuringituninjureddependsonobservingandnotingwellagreatvarietyofparticulars。Heobservestheplantcarefully，anddiscovers，fromtheappearanceofeverypart，fromthedrynessofthestem，thedroopingoftheears，thefulnessofthegrain，ifitbeinaproperstatetocutdown。Ifhemakeanyerrorinthis，hewilleitherhaveunripe，andthereforeshrivelledandlightgrain，orhewilllosegreatpartofitbyitsbeingshakenoffthesteminharvestingit。Next，beforehedetermineoncommencingtheoperation，beregardstheaspectofthesky，watchestherisingandsettingsun，notesthecoloroftheair，theappearanceoftheclouds，thedirectionofthewind，thedewonthegrass，andperhapshasrecoursetothatdelicateinstrument，thefruitofsomanyingeniousobservations，thebarometer。Bymeansofallthese，heisenabledtodrawtolerablycorrectconclusions，inregardtotheprobablestateoftheweatherforsomesucceedingdays。Thisknowledgeinfluencesgreatlyhisfartheroperations；forexperiencehastaughthimthattheinjurywhichsevererains，calmingonthegrainwhennewlyreaped，wouldoccasion，isverygreat。if，therefore，theweatherpromisetobefinehewillcommencecuttingitdownafewdayssoonerthanheotherwisewould；ifrainthreatenhewillwaitafewdayslonger。Whenhehasitreapedhegetsittiedintobundles，whichareputupinsmallparcels，andsodisposed，thatthewindmaypenetratethroughthem，andtherainbeasmuchthrownofffromthemaspossible，andthustheplantmayhavethebestchanceofbeingsecurelyandquicklydried。

Thisdryingiswatchedwithcareand，whenitisjudgedtobesufficientlyadvanced，thecropistransportedtothebarn，theretowaittilltheproperperiodofthreshingitoutarrives。Alltheseprocessesare，itisevident，governedbyrulesdrawnfromassiduousandlongcontinuedobservation，andtheirsuccessdependsonitsextentandaccuracy。

Werewetoexaminethemannerinwhichallthearticlesthatweprovideforthesupplyoffuturewantsareproduced，weshouldfindthattheydepend，inthisway，onobservationsonthecourseofevents，andonreasonsroundedontheseobservations。Wereproofwantingofthis，wemightturnathazardtoanycompletetreatiseonanyart。Onexaminingit，wewouldinvariablyfindittocontainasetofobservations，theresultofexperience，andofreasons，andrules，drawnfromtheseobservations。

Sincethenmanprovidesasupplyforhisfuturewantsbyhisreasondirectinghisindustry，throughmeansofhisknowledgeofthecourseof。events，toeffectsuchchangesintheformorarrangementofthepartsofmaterialobjects，thatthesemayproducearticlesfittedtoaffordthissupply，itweredesirabletohavesomecommonnametodenoteallthechanges，which，forthispurpose，hesomakes。OnthisaccountIproposetogivethedenominationofinstrumentstoallthosechangesthat，forthispurposearemadeintheformorarrangementofthepartsofmaterialobjects。

Theterminstrumentis，ingeneral，properlyenoughemployed，todenoteanymeansfortheattainmentofsomeend。Incommonuse，however，andasappliedtomaterialthings，itseemstoberestrictedtosucharrangementsofmatterasowetheirchiefefficacytowhatarecalledthemechanicpowers。

Thusaleverorawedgeisaninstrument，themannerinwhicheachofthemoperatebeingchieflyexplainedonmathematicalprinciples。Aspade，whichisacombinationofthetwo，isalsoaninstrument。Thetoolswhichcarpentersuseareinstruments。Wespeakinthesamewayofinstrumentsofhusbandry，meaningbythephrasethearticlesusedinthatart，whosepropertiesmaybeexplainedonmechanicalprinciples。

Inallthesecases，however，otherprinciplesthanthosewhicharemerelymathematicalmustenterintoourcalculations。Inthesimplest-lever，wehavenotonlythepropertiesofamathematicallinetoconsider，butalso，theweightandstrengthofthesubstanceused，andthesemakethedifficultyintheproperapplicationofsuchaninstrument。Awedgeoperatesinmanyways，besidesthosethatmaybeconsideredtobederivedsimplyfrommathematicalprinciples；asforinstanceinthepercussion，whichitreceivesandcommunicates，andthroughmeansofwhich，ifskilfullyapplied，themostsolidrocksmayberent。Thefartherwerecedefromsuchsimpleinstruments，themoreextensivedowefindtheactionofproperties，whichcouldonlybeascertainedbyalongseriesofobservations。Itwouldbeimpossible，forinstance，togiveanyapriorirulesfortheconstructionofthatmostusefulinstrumenttheplough。Itis，nodoubt，awedge，buttheparticularformgivingthegreatestefficacytoit，isapointofverydifficultdetermination，notyet，perhaps，fullyascertained。Itisaccurateobservationthathasguidedtheconstructionofit，toitspresentefficiency，andwhichmaybeexpectedtorenderitstillmoreperfect。

Werewetoenterintoanexaminationofmorecomplicatedmachinesorinstruments，suchasthesteamengine，orthecottonmill，theobservationwouldapplywithdoubleforce，thesegenerallyderivingtheirefficiencyfromprinciples，thathavebeentheresultofveryextensiveandaccurateinvestigationsofmanyseriesofevents。Inthususingtheterm，therefore，weshallratherdeviatesomewhatfromcommonusage，thanbeopposedtoit，andindoingso，ourreasonswillonlybesubjecttoaninconvenience，towhichallgeneralreasonsmustbesubject，andwhichquaybethemorereadilyexcused，asthisuseofthetermmaybedefendedfromitsderivation，itsoccasionalacceptation，andtheauthorityofauthorsofrespectability。(33)

Ingeneralthen，allthosechangeswhichmanmakes，intheformorarrangementsofthepartsofmaterialobjects，forthepurposeofsupplyinghisfuturewants，andwhichderivetheirpowerofdoingthisfromhisknowledgeofthecourseofevents，andthechangeswhichhislabor，guidedbyhisreason，ishenceenabledtomakeintheissueoftheseevents，maybetermedinstruments。

Inthissenseafieldisaninstrument。Thechangeseffectedinthemattersofwhichitiscomposed，forthepurposeofrenderingitaninstrument，arethelevellingandifnecessarymakingthesurfacedrybymeansofditchesanddrains，theremovingstonesfromit，themixingandpulverizingthesoilbytheplough，theharrow，andtheroller，andtheincorporatingwithitvariousmatterstermedmanures，whichrenderitmorefitforthesupportofvegetablelife。Thefuturewants，towardsthesupplyofwhichitisaninstrument，arefoodandclothing。Thepowerwhichhasmadeitaninstrument，istheagriculturist'slabor，directedbyhisknowledgeofthenatureofplantsandsoils。Thechangemadeintheconsequentissueofevents，istheabundantgrowthofspeciesesofplantsdifferentfromthoseoriginallyproducedbyit，andconducingtothesupplyoffoodandclothing，or，moregenerally，theconversionofvariousvegetablemattersofthesoil，andgaseousmattersintheair，intothesubstanceofparticularplants。Thewheatgrownonthisfieldisaninstrument。Thechangeseffectedinit，areitshavingbeenseparatedfromthestrawbytheprocessofthreshing，anditshavingbeenmadesufficientlydrybykeepingandexposuretoair，tobefittomanufactureintoflour。Thewantittendstosupplyisnourishment，byaffordingbranforthesupportofsomeoftheinferioranimals，ashogsorcattle，afterwardstobeslaughtered，andflourfortheuseofman。

Thepowerisalsotheartandindustryoftheagriculturist。Thechangeintheissueofeventsconsistsinthegrainbeingreadyforthemanufactureofflour，insteadofhavingbeenlefttorotontheground，tobeconsumedbyvermin，ordestroyedbytheaccessofdamporbythewantofair。Flouralsoisaninstrument。Thechangesthathavebeeneffectedonitareitshavingbeenseparatedfromthewheat，andreducedtoafinepowderymatter。

Thewantittendstosupplyisfoodbythebreadproducedfromit。Thepower，whichhasoperatedonit，istheartandindustryofthemiller。

Thechangeintheissueofeventstherebyproducedistheexistenceofflourandbran，insteadofwheat。Bread，untilsuchtimeasitisinprocessofconsumption，isaninstrument。Thechangewhichithasundergoneisthatinducedbytheprocessesofkneading，fermenting，andbaking。Thewantitsuppliesisfood。Thepowerwhichhasoperatedonitistheartandindustryofthebaker。Thechangeontheissueofeventstherebyproducedistheexistenceofbread，insteadofflour。

Thoughitmayseemstrangetorankalltheseinoneclass，thatofinstruments，nevertheless，thedoingsoisratherunusualthanimproper。Theyareallmeanstowardtheattainmentofanend，and，fortheattainmentofthisend，thatis，theproductionofbread，dotheyaloneexist。Thebladeasitspringsfromthesoil，andthesoilonwhichitgrows，formtogetheraninstrumentforthisend，theplantwhenithasextractedallthenourishmentfromthesoilwhichthatcangive，andisripeontheground，isaninstrument；

whenitiscutandputupshelteredfromtheweather，itisstillaninstrument；

soisthegrainwhenseparatedfromit；soitiswhengroundinthemill；

soitiswheninloaves，putapartforconsumption，untilthemomentarriveswhenitisconsumed。Itisimpossible，ifwecallitatfirstaninstrument，topointoutwhenitceasestobeso，untilthemomentwhenitisactuallyconsuming。

Alltoolsandmachinesareinstruments。Thusacarpenter'ssawisaninstrument。Thechangeseffectedinthemattersofwhichitiscomposed，forthepurposeofrenderingitaninstrument，are，therehavingbeengivenafitformandtempertothesteelplateofwhichitismadeandahandlehavingbeenadjustedtoit。Thewantswhichittendstosupplyaremultifarious，accordingtotheusestowhichitisput。Thepowerthatrendersitaninstrumentistheartandindustryofhimwhomakes，andofhimwhousesit。Thechangeseffectedintheissueofeventsbyitsfabricationanduse，arethedividingintoregularpartssuitedtodifferentpurposes，agreatnumberofpiecesoftimber。

Inasimilarmanneritmightbeshown，thathouses，ships，cattle，gardens，householdfurniture，manufactories，manufacturedgoods，andstoresofallsortsareinthissense，instruments。Butitis，Iapprehend，unnecessaryfurthertomultiplyinstances；everythingthatman，forthepurposeofgaininganend，bringstoexist，oraltersinitsform，itsposition，orinthearrangementofitsparts，isaninstrument。

Asmanisthusenabledtoprovideforthewantsoffuturity，byhisknowledgeofthecourseofevents，itnaturallyfollows，thatinanyparticularsituation，hispowertoprovideforthem，ismeasuredbytheextentandaccuracyofhisknowledge。Ifthatknowledgebediminished，hispowerwillbediminished。Thusadeficiencyofskillintheartofagriculture，orofbaking，wiltalikeoccasionadiminutionofthequantityoffoodtobegotfromafieldappliedtothecultivationofwheat。Neithercanhispowerbeincreased，butbyanincreaseofhisknowledge。Itisimpossibletopointoutanyimprovementinanyart，whichdoesnotdependonsomenewobservations，orreasons，onthecourseofeventsconnectedwiththatart。

Thegenerallyadmittedaxiom，thatknowledgeispower，maynotbestrictlytrue。Manyfactshavebeenobservedwhichhavenotyetbeenappliedtoanyusefulpurpose，thoughitisprobabletheywill，intime，besoapplied。

But，thoughitmaynotbestrictlytrue，thatallknowledgeimmediatelygivespower，itisso，thatallpowerspringsfromknowledge，andismeasuredbyitsextentandaccuracy。Neithercanitbedisputed，thatitoperatesbyenablingman'sreasoningfaculties，sotodirecthisindustry，astoinducecertainchangesintheformandarrangementofthepartsofmaterialobjectsconvertingthemintoinstruments。"Adoperanilaliudpetesthomo，quamutcorporanaturaliaadmoveatetamoveat；reliquanaturaintustransigit。"

CHAPTERII。OFTHECIRCUMSTANCESCOMMONTOALLINSTRUMENTS，ANDOFTHOSEPROPERTOSOME。

Allinstrumentsagreeinthefollowingthreeparticulars：

1。Theyarealleitherdirectlyformedbyhumanlabor，orindirectlythroughtheaidofotherinstrumentsthemselvesformedbyhumanlabor。

Sometimes，thoughrarely，instrumentsareconstructedbylaboralone。

Thusoccasionallyroughstonefencesareputup，bythehandalone，withouttheinterventionofevenasingletool。But，inmostinstances，theaidofotherinstrumentsisemployed。Itisseldom，thateventhemostcommonlaborerisnotassistedinhisoperationsbysomeimplementoranother。

But，whateverinstrumentorinstrumentsmayhavecooperatedwithlaborintheformationofanyotherinstrument，theythemselveshavebeeneitheraltogether，orinpart，formedbylabor；and，byretracingthecourseofthingsfartherandfartherback，weinevitablycometotheconclusion，thatlaborwas，inthissense，"thefirstprice，theoriginalpurchasemoneythatwaspaidforallthings，"andthusthat，directlyorindirectly，itistobelookedonastheagentthatgivesformtoeveryinstrument。

Forthesakeofsimplifyingthesucceedingspeculations，asmuchasmaybe，laborwillbeconsideredastheagentemployedintheformationofallinstruments。Whenthecooperationofotherinstrumentsisimpliedinthemeansbywhichanyparticularinstrumentisconstructed，thedegreeinwhichtheycooperateisunderstoodtobemeasuredbythequantityoflaborforwhichtheircooperationis，ormightbe，procured：and，inthissense，thatcooperationisspokenofasanequivalenttolabor。Therules，accordingtowhichtheonethusmeasurestheother，willhediscussedsubsequently。

2。Allinstrumentsbringtopass，ortend，orhelp，tobringtopasseventssupplyingsomeofthewantsofman，andarethenexhausted。

Someinstruments，withouttheinterventioneitheroflabororofotherinstruments，produceeventswhichdirectlysupplyourwants。Thusapeachtreeyieldsitsfruittoourhand。Theoperationofothersonlytendstotheproductionofeventssupplyingourwants。Thegrowthofacropofwheatisonlyasteptowardstheproductionofbread。Othersrequirethehelpofeitherlabor，orsomeotherinstrument。Arowboatisuselesswithoutthelaborofthemanwhopliestheoar；acarriage，withoutthecooperationofthehorseswhodrawit。Allinstruments，however，eitherproduce，orcontributetotheproduction，ofeventssupplyingsomeofourwants。Theirpowertoproducesuchevents，ortheamountofthemthattheydoproduce，maybetermedtheircapacity。

Itisnecessarytohavesomecommonmeasureforthepurposeofcomparingthecapacityofinstrumentsorthereturnsthataremadebythem，withthelabororitsequivalentsthatwenttoformthem。Forthispurpose，also，laborwillbeadopted，andtheeventsbroughttopassbyanyinstrumentwillbeestimatedbytheamountoflabortowhichtheyareesteemedequivalentbytheowneroftheinstrument。Asweproceed，itwillappear，thatthisuseofthetermhasnoothereffectthanthatofgivingdistinctnesstoournomenclature。Besides，itoftenreallyhappens，thatthereturnsmadebyinstruments，directlycomparewithlabor，becausetheydirectlysavelabor。Forinstance，woodenormetalpipesareoccasionallyusedtoconductwaterfromaspringtosomedwelling-house。Weretheynotthere，thewaterwouldhavetobecarriedwithinthedwellingbysomeofthedomestics，andthereforetheinstrumentformedbythepipesmaybesaidindifferently，eithertosupplyacertainamountofwater，orsaveacertainportionoflabor。

Withoneconsiderableexception，afterwardstobenoted，allinstrumentsatlengthbringtopass，oraidinbringingtopass，alltheeventswhichtheycanbring，orcanhelptobringtopass，Ishallusethetermexhaustion，todenotethispassageofthingsfromtheclassofinstruments，intothingswhicharenotinstruments。Whenaninstrumentissaidtobeexhausted，itismeantthatthemattersofwhichitwascomposedhavepassedoutoftheclassofinstrumentsintothatofmaterials。

Sometimestheypassfromtheoneclasstotheothersuddenly。Thus，articlesusedforfoodandfuel，bringtopassalltheeventsforwhichtheywereformed，veryshortly。Theappetiteofhungerisgratified，andbeatiscommunicatedtotheframe，inafewminutes，andthefaggotandthebread，havingyieldedallthenourishmentandheatstoredupinthem，thenceasetobeinstruments。Gunpowderbringscertaineventstoanissueinstantaneously。Thebulletisdischarged，andtherocksplit，inaninstant。

Thissuddenandcompleteexhaustionofthecapacityofinstrumentsiswhatisusuallytermedconsumption。Sometimesthemattersofwhichinstrumentsareformedpassfromtheclassofinstrumentstothatofmaterialsbydegrees。

Thustoolsandarticlesofwearingapparelareinuseforalongtimebeforetheyceasetobeinstruments。Asawmaybeinemploymentforyears；ahatdefendstheheadformonths。Whenthecapacityofinstrumentsisthusgraduallyexhausted，itisusuallysaidthattheyarewornout，andthissort6fexhaustionistermedwear。

Sometimesthecapacityofinstrumentsisaccidentallydoneawaywith，andtheyconsequentlypassoutoftheclassofinstruments，withoutbeingexhausted。Thusahousemaybeburned，clothmaybeeatenbyvermin。Theyarethensaidtobedestroyed。Apartialdegreeofthisisdamage。Incalculatingthecapacityofinstruments，itisnecessarytoreckontherisktheyrunofdestructionordamage。Inanyestimationofthecapacity，forinstance，ofacropofwheat，wehavetomakeasaccurateanallowanceasmaybe，fortheriskofitsdestructionordamage，bytheinclemencyoftheweatherorotheraccidents，beforetheharvestingofitbeaccomplished。

3。Betweentheformationandexhaustionofinstrumentsaspaceoftimeintervenes。Thisnecessarilyhappensbecausealleventstakeplaceintime。

Sometimesthatspaceextendstoyears，sometimestomonths，occasionallytoshorterperiods，butitalwaysexists。

Thecircumstanceswehavehithertoassumedascommontoallinstruments，andtheeventstheygenerate，will，Ibelieve，onexamination，befoundactuallytobeso。Thereisonecircumstance，however，whichitisnecessarytoassumeascommontothemall，andwhichinrealityisnotaltogetherso。Incomparingthecapacityoftwoormoreinstruments，whichsupply，ortendtosupply，wantsofthesamesort，wemayveryoftenmeasurethembytherelativephysicaleffects，resultingfromtheactionoftheeventsbroughttopassbythem。Thus，iftheconsumptionofonecordoffirewood，ofaparticularsort，iscapableofproducingexactlydoubletheheatwhichtheconsumptionofanothercordofanothersortproduces，acordoftheformer，willhavedoublethecapacityofacordofthelatter，and，iftheonebeequivalenttofour，theotherwillbeequivalenttoexactlytwodayslabor。Inthesameway，alogoftimberfrom]Norway，abouttobeemployedintheconstructionofahouse，ifofequalsize，strength，anddurability，withanotherfromPrussia，may，withjusticebeconsideredasofequalcapacitytoit；andsoofmanyotherinstruments。Weshallseeafterwards，however，thatthismodeofdeterminingthecapacityofsimilarinstruments，isinmanycasesincorrect，andthattheinstancesareverynumerous，wheretherelativecapacitiesofinstrumentsofthesamesort，dependonothercausesthantheirmerephysicalproperties。

Theassumption，therefore，thattheymaybesodetermined，istobeconsideredashypothetical，andtobetoleratedfromthedifficultyofotherwisetreatingthesubject；inthesamemannerasthehypotheticexistence，ofstrictlyn~mathematicallines，andtheabsenceoffrictionandoftheresistanceoftheair，isexcused，inreasonsconcerningthemechanicalpropertiesofmatter。Asinthesereasons，anattemptwillbemadetoascertaintheextent，andmodeofoperationofthoseothercauses；and，havingtracedwhatseemtobethegreatmovingpowers，andthelawsgoverningthem，weshallendeavortodiscoverthecircumstanceswhichretardorderangetheirmotions。

Itmaybeproperheretonoticetheacceptation，inwhichtwoothertermsoffrequentsubsequentoccurrence，aretobereceived。Someinstrumentsareeasilymovedfromplacetoplace，and，onthisaccount，therearepeculiarfacilities，inexchangingthemwithothers。Thisseemstobethecharacterdistinguishingwhatarecalledgoods，orcommodities，fromotherinstruments，anditisinthissense，thatthesetermswill，inthesubsequentpages，beemployed。

CHAPTERIII。OFCERTAINCIRCUMSTANCESARISINGFROMTHEINSTITUTIONOFSOCIETY，1。Manhardlyexistsbutinthesocialstate。Ifseparatedfrominfancyfromhisfellows，hispeculiarfacultiesscarcelyatalldevelopthemselves。

【推荐阅读】幽幽深宫，醒来一梦似千年，重生于下堂妃身躯中的她，将如何手刃仇人? 点击阅读