ThusM。Simontellsofadreaminwhichhesawpersonsofgiganticstature*seatedatatable，andhearddistinctlythehorribleclatteringproducedbytheimpactoftheirjawsastheychewedtheirfood。Onwakingheheardtheclatterofahorse’shoovesasitgallopedpasthiswindow。Ifinthiscasethesoundofthehorse’shooveshadrevivedideasfromthememory-sphereofGulliver’sTravels，thesojournwiththegiantsofBrobdingnag，andthevirtuoushorse-likecreatures-asIshouldperhapsinterpretthedreamwithoutanyassistanceontheauthor’spart-oughtnotthechoiceofamemory-spheresoalientothestimulustobefurtherelucidatedbyothermotives？

*Giganticpersonsinadreamjustifytheassumptionthatthedreamisdealingwithascenefromthedreamer’schildhood。ThisinterpretationofthedreamasareminiscenceofGulliver’sTravelsis，bytheway，agoodexampleofhowaninterpretationshouldnotbemade。Thedream-interpretershouldnotpermithisownintelligencetooperateindisregardofthedreamer’simpressions。2。Internal(subjective)sensorystimuliAllobjectionstothecontrarynotwithstanding，wemustadmitthattheroleoftheobjectivesensorystimuliasproducersofdreamshasbeenindisputablyestablished，andif，havingregardtotheirnatureandtheirfrequency，thesestimuliseemperhapsinsufficienttoexplainalldream-pictures，thisindicatesthatweshouldlookforotherdream-sourceswhichactinasimilarfashion。Idonotknowwheretheideafirstarosethattogetherwiththeexternalsensorystimulitheinternal(subjective)stimulishouldalsobeconsidered，butasamatteroffactthishasbeendonemoreorlessexplicitlyinallthemorerecentdescriptionsoftheaetiologyofdreams。"Ibelieve，"saysWundt(p。363)，"thatanimportantpartisplayedindream-illusionsbythosesubjectivesensationsofsightandhearingwhicharefamiliartousinthewakingstateasaluminouschaosinthedarkfieldofthevision，andaringing，buzzing，etc。，oftheears，andinespecial，subjectiveirritationsoftheretina。Thisexplainstheremarkabletendencyofdreamstodeludetheeyeswithnumbersofsimilaroridenticalobjects。Thusweseeoutspreadbeforeoureyesinnumerablebirds，butterflies，fishes，colouredbeads，flowers，etc。Heretheluminousdustinthedarkfieldofvisionhasassumedfantasticforms，andthemanyluminouspointsofwhichitconsistsareembodiedinourdreamsinasmanysingleimages，which，owingtothemobilityoftheluminouschaos，areseenasmovingobjects。Thisisperhapsthereasonofthedream’sdecidedpreferenceforthemostvariedanimalforms，forowingtothemultiplicityofsuchformstheycanreadilyadaptthemselvestothesubjectiveluminousimages。"

Thesubjectivesensorystimuliasasourceofdreamshavetheobviousadvantagethat，unlikeobjectivestimuli，theyareindependentofexternalaccidents。Theyare，sotospeak，atthedisposaloftheinterpretationwhenevertheyarerequired。Buttheyareinferiortotheobjectivesensorystimulibythefactthattheirclaimtotheroleofdream-inciters-whichobservationandexperimenthaveestablishedinthecaseofobjectivestimuli-

canintheircasebeverifiedwithdifficultyornotatall。Themainproofofthedream-incitingpowerofsubjectivesensorystimuliisaffordedbytheso-calledhypnogogichallucinations，whichhavebeendescribedbyJohannMulleras"phantasticvisualmanifestations。"Theyarethoseveryvividandchangeablepictureswhichwithmanypeopleoccurconstantlyduringtheperiodoffallingasleep，andwhichmaylingerforawhileevenaftertheeyeshavebeenopened。Maury，whowasverysubjecttothesepictures，madeathoroughstudyofthem，andmaintainedthattheywererelatedtoorratheridenticalwithdream-images。ThishadalreadybeenassertedbyJohannMuller。Maurymaintainsthatacertainpsychicpassivityisnecessaryfortheirorigin；thatitrequiresarelaxationoftheintensityofattention(p。59)。Butonemayperceiveahypnogogichallucinationinanyframeofmindifonefallsintosuchalethargyforamoment，afterwhichonemayperhapswakeup，untilthisoft-repeatedprocessterminatesinsleep。AccordingtoMaury，ifonewakesupshortlyaftersuchanexperience，itisoftenpossibletotraceinthedreamtheimageswhichonehasperceivedbeforefallingasleepashypnogogichallucinations(p。134)。ThusMauryononeoccasionsawaseriesofimagesofgrotesquefigureswithdistortedfeaturesandcuriouslydressedhair，whichobtrudedthemselvesuponhimwithincredibleimportunityduringtheperiodoffallingasleep，andwhich，uponwaking，herecalledhavingseeninhisdream。Onanotheroccasion，whilesufferingfromhunger，becausehewassubjectinghimselftoaratherstrictdiet，hesawinoneofhishypnogogicstatesaplate，andahandarmedwithaforktakingsomefoodfromtheplate。Inhisdreamhefoundhimselfatatableabundantlysuppliedwithfood，andheardtheclatterofthediner’sforks。Onyetanotheroccasion，afterfallingasleepwithstrainedandpainfuleyes，hehadahypnogogichallucinationofmicroscopicallysmallcharacters，whichhewasabletodecipher，onebyone，onlywithagreateffort；andonwakingfromsleepanhourlaterherecalledadreaminwhichtherewasanopenbookwithverysmallletters，whichhewasobligedtoreadthroughwithlaboriouseffort。

Notonlypictures，butauditoryhallucinationsofwords，names，etc。，mayalsooccurhypnogogically，andthenrepeatthemselvesinthedream，likeanovertureannouncingtheprincipalmotifoftheoperawhichistofollow。

Amorerecentobserverofhypnogogichallucinations，G。TrumbullLadd，followsthesamelinesasJohannMullerandMaury。Bydintofpracticehesucceededinacquiringthefacultyofsuddenlyarousinghimself，withoutopeninghiseyes，twotofiveminutesaftergraduallyfallingasleep。Thisenabledhimtocomparethedisappearingretinalsensationswiththedream-

imagesremaininginhismemory。Heassuresusthatanintimaterelationbetweenthetwocanalwaysberecognized，inasmuchastheluminousdotsandlinesoflightspontaneouslyperceivedbytheretinaproduce，sotospeak，theoutlineorschemeofthepsychicallyperceiveddream-images。

Forexample，adreaminwhichhesawbeforehimclearlyprintedlines，whichhereadandstudied，correspondedwithanumberofluminousspotsarrangedinparallellines；or，toexpressitinhisownwords:Theclearlyprintedpageresolveditselfintoanobjectwhichappearedtohiswakingperceptionlikepartofanactualprintedpageseenthroughasmallholeinasheetofpaper，butatadistancetoogreattopermitofitsbeingread。Withoutinanywayunderestimatingthecentralelementofthephenomenon，Laddbelievesthathardlyanyvisualdreamoccursinourmindsthatisnotbasedonmaterialfurnishedbythisinternalconditionofretinalirritability。

Thisisparticularlytrueofdreamswhichoccurshortlyafterfallingasleepinadarkroom，whiledreamsoccurringinthemorning，neartheperiodofwaking，receivetheirstimulusfromtheobjectivelightpenetratingtheeyeinabrightly-litroom。Theshiftingandinfinitelyvariablecharacterofthespontaneousluminousexcitationsoftheretinaexactlycorrespondswiththefitfulsuccessionofimagespresentedtousinourdreams。IfweattachanyimportancetoLadd’sobservations，wecannotunderratetheproductivenessofthissubjectivesourceofstimuli；forvisualimages，asweknow，aretheprincipalconstituentsofourdreams。Thesharecontributedbytheothersenses，excepting，perhaps，thesenseofhearing，isrelativelyinsignificantandinconstant。3。Internal(organic)physicalstimuliIfwearedisposedtolookforthesourcesofdreamsnotoutsidebutinsidetheorganism，wemustrememberthatalmostallourinternalorgans，whichinastateofhealthhardlyremindusoftheirexistence，may，instatesofexcitation-aswecallthem-orindisease，becomeasourceofthemostpainfulsensations，andmustthereforebeputonaparwiththeexternalexcitantsofpainandsensation。Strumpell，forexample，givesexpressiontoalong-familiarexperiencewhenhedeclaresthat"duringsleepthepsychebecomesfarmoredeeplyandbroadlyconsciousofitscoporalitythaninthewakingstate，anditiscompelledtoreceiveandtobeinfluencedbycertainstimulatingimpressionsoriginatinginpartsofthebody，andinalterationsofthebody，ofwhichitisunconsciousinthewakingstate。"

EvenAristotledeclaresittobequitepossiblethatadreammaydrawourattentiontoincipientmorbidconditionswhichwehavenotnoticedinthewakingstate(owingtotheexaggeratedintensityoftheimpressionsexperiencedinthedream；andsomemedicalauthors，whocertainlydidnotbelieveinthepropheticnatureofdreams，haveadmittedthesignificanceofdreams，atleastinsofarasthepredictingofdiseaseisconcerned。[Cf。M。Simon，p。31，andmanyearlierwriters。]*

*Inadditiontothediagnosticvaluationofdreams(e。g。，byHippocrates)

mentionmustalsobemadeoftheirtherapeuticsignificanceinantiquity。

AmongtheGreeksthereweredreamoracles，whichwerevouchsafedtopatientsinquestofrecovery。ThepatientbetookhimselftothetempleofApolloorAesculapius；therehewassubjectedtovariousceremonies，bathed，rubbedandperfumed。Astateofexaltationhavingbeenthusinduced，hewasmadetoliedowninthetempleontheskinofasacrificialram。

Hefellasleepanddreamedofremedies，whichhesawintheirnaturalform，orinsymbolicimageswhichthepriestsafterwardsinterpreted。

ForfurtherreferencesconcerningtheremedialdreamsoftheGreeks，cf。Lehmann，i，74；Bouche-Leclerq；Hermann，Gottesd。Altert。d。Gr。，SS

41；Privataltert。SS38，16；BottingerinSprengel’sBeitr。z。Gesch。d。

Med。，ii，p。163，etseq。；W。Lloyd，MagnetismandMesmerisminAntiquity，London，1877；Dollinger，HeidentumundJudentum，p。130。

Eveninourdaysthereseemstobenolackofauthenticatedexamplesofsuchdiagnosticachievementsonthepartofdreams。ThusTissiecitesfromArtigues(EssaisurlavaleursemeiologiquedesReves)thehistoryofawomanofforty-three，who，duringseveralyearsofapparentlyperfecthealth，wastroubledwithanxiety-dreams，andinwhomamedicalexaminationsubsequentlyrevealedanincipientaffectionoftheheart，towhichshepresentlysuccumbed。

Seriousderangementsoftheinternalorgansclearlyexcitedreamsinquiteanumberofpersons。Thefrequencyofanxiety-dreamsindiseasesoftheheartandlungshasbeengenerallyrealized；indeed，thisfunctionofthedream-lifeisemphasizedbysomanywritersthatIshallherecontentmyselfwithareferencetotheliteratureofthesubject(Radestock，Spitta，Maury，M。Simon，Tissie)。Tissieevenbelievesthatthediseasedorgansimpressuponthedream-contentitscharacteristicfeatures。Thedreamsofpersonssufferingfromdiseasesoftheheartaregenerallyverybrief，andendinaterrifiedawakening；deathunderterriblecircumstancesalmostalwaysfindaplaceintheircontent。Thosesufferingfromdiseasesofthelungsdreamofsuffocation，ofbeingcrushed，andofflight，andagreatmanyofthemaresubjecttothefamiliarnightmare-which，bytheway，Bornerhassucceededininducingexperimentallybylyingonthefaceandcoveringthemouthandnostrils。Indigestivedisturbancesthedreamcontainsideasfromthesphereofgustatoryenjoymentanddisgust。Finally，theinfluenceofsexualexcitementonthedream-contentisobviousenoughineveryone’sexperience，andprovidesthestrongestconfirmationofthewholetheoryofdream-instigationbyorganicsensation。

Moreover，ifwestudytheliteratureofdreamsitbecomesquiteevidentthatsomewriters(Maury，Weygandt)havebeenledtothestudyofdream-

problemsbytheinfluencetheirownpathologicalstatehashadonthecontentoftheirdreams。

Theenlargementofthenumberofdream-sourcesbysuchundeniablyestablishedfactsis，however，notsoimportantasonemightbeledtosuppose；fordreamsare，afterall，phenomenawhichoccurinhealthypersons-perhapsinallpersons，andeverynight-andapathologicalstateoftheorgansisevidentlynotoneoftheindispensableconditions。Forus，however，thequestionisnotwhenceparticulardreamsoriginate，butrather:whatistheexcitingcauseofordinarydreamsinnormalpeople？

Butwehaveonlytogoastepfarthertofindasourceofdreamswhichismoreprolificthananyofthosementionedabove，andwhichpromisesindeedtobeinexhaustible。Ifitisestablishedthatthebodilyorgansbecome，insickness，anexcitingsourceofdreams，andifweadmitthatthemind，whendivertedduringsleepfromtheouterworld，candevotemoreofitsattentiontotheinteriorofthebody，wemayreadilyassumethattheorgansneednotnecessarilybecomediseasedinordertopermitstimuli，whichinonewayoranothergrowintodream-images，toreachthesleepingmind。Whatinthewakingstatewevaguelyperceiveasageneralsensation，perceptiblebyitsqualityalone-asensationtowhich，intheopinionofphysicians，alltheorganicsystemscontributetheirshare-thisgeneralsensationwouldatnightattainagreaterpotency，and，actingthroughitsindividualcomponents，wouldconstitutethemostprolificaswellasthemostusualsourceofdream-representations。Weshouldthenhavetodiscoverthelawsbywhichorganicstimuliaretranslatedintodream-representations。

Thistheoryoftheoriginofdreamsistheonemostfavouredbyallmedicalwriters。Theobscuritywhichconcealstheessenceofourbeing-

the"moisplanchnique"asTissietermsit-fromourknowledge，andtheobscurityoftheoriginofdreams，correspondsocloselythatitwasinevitablethattheyshouldbebroughtintorelationwithoneanother。Thetheoryaccordingtowhichtheorganicsensationsareresponsiblefordreamshas，moreover，anotherattractionforthephysician，inasmuchasitfavourstheaetiologicalunionofthedreamwithmentalderangement，bothofwhichrevealsomanypointsofagreementintheirmanifestations，sincechangesinthegeneralorganicmassivesensationandinthestimuliemanatingfromtheinternalorgansarealsoconsideredtohaveafar-reachingsignificanceasregardstheoriginofthepsychoses。Itisthereforenotsurprisingthattheorganicstimulustheorycanbetracedtoseveralwriterswhohavepropoundedthistheoryindependently。

AnumberofwritershavefollowedthetrainofthoughtdevelopedbySchopenhauerin1851。Ourconceptionoftheuniversehasitsoriginintherecastingbytheintellectoftheimpressionswhichreachitfromwithoutinthemouldsoftime，spaceandcausality。Duringthedaythestimuliproceedingfromtheinterioroftheorganism，fromthesympatheticnervoussystem，exertatmostanunconsciousinfluenceonourmood。Atnight，however，whentheoverwhelmingeffectoftheimpressionsofthedayisnolongeroperative，theimpressionsthatsurgeupwardfromwithinareabletoforcethemselvesonourattention-justasinthenightweheartheripplingofthebrookthatwasdrownedintheclamouroftheday。Buthowelsecantheintellectreacttothesestimulithanbytransformingtheminaccordancewithitsownfunctionintothingswhichoccupyspaceandtimeandfollowthelinesofcausality？-andsoadreamoriginates。ThusScherner，andafterhimVolkelt，endeavouredtodiscoverthemoreintimaterelationsbetweenphysicalsensationsanddream-pictures；butweshallreservethediscussionofthispointforourchapteronthetheoryofdreams。

Asaresultofasingularlylogicalanalysis，thepsychiatristKraussreferredtheoriginofdreams，andalsoofdeliriaanddelusions，tothesameelement，namely，toorganicallydeterminedsensations。Accordingtohim，thereishardlyanypartoftheorganismwhichmightnotbecomethestarting-pointofadreamoradelusion。Organicallydeterminedsensations，hesays，"maybedividedintotwoclasses:(1)generalsensations-thoseaffectingthewholesystem；(2)specificsensations-thosethatareimmanentintheprincipalsystemsofthevegetativeorganism，andwhichmayinturnbesubdividedintofivegroups:(a)themuscular，(b)thepneumatic，(c)

thegastric，(d)thesexual，(e)theperipheralsensations(p。33ofthesecondarticle)。"

Theoriginofthedream-imagefromphysicalsensationsisconceivedbyKraussasfollows:Theawakenedsensation，inaccordancewithsomelawofassociation，evokesanideaorimagebearingsomerelationtoit，andcombineswiththisideaorimage，forminganorganicstructure，towardswhich，however，theconsciousnessdoesnotmaintainitsnormalattitude。

Foritdoesnotbestowanyattentiononthesensation，butconcernsitselfentirelywiththeaccompanyingideas；andthisexplainswhythefactsofthecasehavebeensolongmisunderstood(p。11ff。)。Kraussevengivesthisprocessthespecialnameof"transubstantiationofthesensationsintodream-images"(p。24)。

Theinfluenceoforganicphysicalstimuliontheformationofdreamsistodayalmostuniversallyadmitted，butthequestionastothenatureofthelawunderlyingthisrelationisansweredinvariousways，andoftenobscurely。Onthebasisofthetheoryofphysicalexcitationthespecialtaskofdream-interpretationistotracebackthecontentofadreamtothecausativeorganicstimulus，andifwedonotaccepttherulesofinterpretationadvancedbyScherner，weshalloftenfindourselvesconfrontedbytheawkwardfactthattheorganicsourceofexcitationrevealsitselfonlyinthecontentofthedream。

Acertainagreement，however，appearsintheinterpretationofthevariousformsofdreamswhichhavebeendesignatedas"typical，"becausetheyrecurinsomanypersonswithalmostthesamecontent。Amongthesearethewell-

knowndreamsoffallingfromaheight，ofthedroppingoutofteeth，offlying，andofembarrassmentbecauseoneisnakedorscantilyclad。Thislasttypeofdreamissaidtobecausedsimplybythedreamer’sperception，feltinhissleep，thathehasthrownoffthebedclothesandisuncovered。

Thedreamthatone’steetharedroppingoutisexplainedby"dentalirritation，"

whichdoesnot，however，ofnecessityimplyamorbidconditionofirritabilityintheteeth。AccordingtoStrumpell，theflyingdreamistheadequateimageemployedbythemindtointerpretthequantumofstimulusemanatingfromtherisingandsinkingofthepulmonarylobeswhenthecutaneoussensationofthethoraxhaslapsedintoinsensibility。Thislatterconditioncausesthesensationwhichgivesrisetoimagesofhoveringintheair。Thedreamoffallingfromaheightissaidtobeduetothefactthatanarmfallsawayfromthebody，oraflexedkneeissuddenlyextended，afterunconsciousnessofthesensationofcutaneouspressurehassupervened，whereuponthissensationreturnstoconsciousness，andthetransitionfromunconsciousnesstoconsciousnessembodiesitselfpsychicallyasadreamoffalling(Strumpell，p。118)。

Theweaknessofthesefairlyplausibleattemptsatexplanationclearlyliesinthefactthatwithoutanyfurtherelucidationtheyallowthisorthatgroupoforganicsensationstodisappearfrompsychicperception，ortoobtrudethemselvesuponit，untiltheconstellationfavourablefortheexplanationhasbeenestablished。Lateron，however，Ishallhaveoccasiontoreturntothesubjectoftypicaldreamsandtheirorigin。

Fromacomparisonofaseriesofsimilardreams，M。Simonendeavouredtoformulatecertainrulesgoverningtheinfluenceoforganicsensationsonthenatureoftheresultingdream。Hesays(p。34):"Ifduringsleepanyorganicapparatus，whichnormallyparticipatesintheexpressionofanaffect，foranyreasonentersintothestateofexcitationtowhichitisusuallyarousedbytheaffect，thedreamthusproducedwillcontainrepresentationswhichharmonizewiththataffect。"

Anotherrulereadsasfollows(p。35):"If，duringsleep，anorganicapparatusisinastateofactivity，stimulation，ordisturbance，thedreamwillpresentideaswhichcorrespondwiththenatureoftheorganicfunctionperformedbythatapparatus。"

MourlyVoldhasundertakentoprovethesupposedinfluenceofbodilysensationontheproductionofdreamsbyexperimentingonasinglephysiologicalterritory。Hechangedthepositionsofasleeper’slimbs，andcomparedtheresultingdreamswiththesechanges。Herecordedthefollowingresults:

1。Thepositionofalimbinadreamcorrespondsapproximatelytothatofreality，i。e。，wedreamofastaticconditionofthelimbwhichcorrespondswiththeactualcondition。

2。Whenonedreamsofamovinglimbitalwayshappensthatoneofthepositionsoccurringintheexecutionofthismovementcorrespondswiththeactualposition。

3。Thepositionofone’sownlimbmayinthedreambeattributedtoanotherperson。

4。Onemayalsodreamthatthemovementinquestionisimpeded。

5。Thelimbinanyparticularpositionmayappearinthedreamasananimalormonster，inwhichcaseacertainanalogybetweenthetwoisestablished。

6。Thebehaviourofalimbmayinthedreaminciteideaswhichbearsomerelationorothertothislimb。Thus，forexample，ifweareusingourfingerswedreamofnumerals。

Resultssuchasthesewouldleadmetoconcludethateventhetheoryoforganicstimulationcannotentirelyabolishtheapparentfreedomofthedeterminationofthedream-picturewhichwillbeevoked。*

*Seebelowforafurtherdiscussionofthetwovolumesofrecordsofdreamssincepublishedbythiswriter。4。PsychicsourcesofexcitationWhenconsideringtherelationofdreamstowakinglife，andtheprovenanceofthematerialofdreams，welearnedthattheearliestaswellasthemostrecentinvestigatorsareagreedthatmendreamofwhattheydoduringtheday，andofthethingsthatinteresttheminthewakingstate。Thisinterest，continuedfromwakinglifeintosleep，isnotonlyapsychicbond，joiningthedreamtolife，butitisalsoasourceofdreamswhoseimportancemustnotbeunderestimated，andwhich，takentogetherwiththosestimuliwhichbecomeactiveandofinterestduringsleep，sufficestoexplaintheoriginofalldream-images。Yetwehavealsoheardtheverycontraryofthisasserted；namely，thatdreamsbearthesleeperawayfromtheinterestsoftheday，andthatinmostcaseswedonotdreamofthingswhichhaveoccupiedourattentionduringthedayuntilaftertheyhavelost，forourwakinglife，thestimulatingforceofbelongingtothepresent。Henceintheanalysisofdream-lifeweareremindedateverystepthatitisinadmissibletoframegeneralruleswithoutmakingprovisionforqualificationsbyintroducingsuchtermsas"frequently，""asarule，""inmostcases，"andwithoutbeingpreparedtoadmitthevalidityofexceptions。

Ifinterestduringthewakingstatetogetherwiththeinternalandexternalstimulithatoccurduringsleep，sufficedtocoverthewholeaetiologyofdreams，weshouldbeinapositiontogiveasatisfactoryaccountoftheoriginofalltheelementsofadream；theproblemofthedream-sourceswouldthenbesolved，leavingusonlythetaskofdiscriminatingbetweenthepartplayedbythepsychicandthatplayedbythesomaticdream-stimuliinindividualdreams。Butasamatteroffactnosuchcompletesolutionofadreamhaseverbeenachievedinanycase，andeveryonewhohasattemptedsuchasolutionhasfoundthatcomponentsofthedream-andusuallyagreatmanyofthem-areleftwhosesourceheisunabletotrace。Theinterestsofthedayasapsychicsourceofdreamsareobviouslynotsoinfluentialastojustifytheconfidentassertionthateverydreamercontinuestheactivitiesofhiswakinglifeinhisdreams。

Otherdream-sourcesofapsychicnaturearenotknown。Hence，withtheexceptionperhapsoftheexplanationofdreamsgivenbyScherner，towhichreferencewillbemadelateron，alltheexplanationsfoundintheliteratureofthesubjectshowaconsiderablehiatuswheneverthereisaquestionoftracingtheimagesandideaswhicharethemostcharacteristicmaterialofdreams。Inthisdilemmathemajorityofauthorshavedevelopedatendencytobelittleasfaraspossibletheshareofthepsychicfactor，whichissodifficulttodetermine，intheevocationofdreams。Tobesure，theydistinguishasmajordivisionsthenerve-stimulusdreamandtheassociation-dream，andassertthatthelatterhasitssourceexclusivelyinreproduction(Wundt，p。365)，buttheycannotdismissthedoubtasto"whethertheyappearwithoutanyimpulsionfromorganicstimuli"(Volkelt，p。127)。Andeventhecharacteristicqualityofthepureassociation-dreamdisappears。ToquoteVolkelt(p。

118):"Intheassociation-dreamproper，thereisnolongeranyquestionofsuchastablenucleus。Heretheloosegroupingpenetrateseventotheverycentreofthedream。Theimaginativelife，alreadyreleasedfromthecontrolofreasonandintellect，isherenolongerheldtogetherbythemoreimportantpsychicalandphysicalstimuli，butislefttoitsownuncontrolledandconfuseddivagations。"Wundt，too，attemptstobelittlethepsychicfactorintheevocationofdreamsbyassertingthat"thephantasmsofthedreamareperhapsunjustlyregardedaspurehallucinations。Probablymostdream-representationsarereallyillusions，inasmuchastheyemanatefromtheslightsensoryimpressionswhichareneverextinguishedduringsleep"

(p。359，etseq。)。Weygandthasadoptedthisview，andgeneralizesuponit。Heassertsthat"themostimmediatecausesofalldream-representationsaresensorystimulitowhichreproductiveassociationsthenattachthemselves"

(p。17)。Tissiegoesstillfurtherinsuppressingthepsychicsourcesofexcitation(p。183):"Lesrevesd’origineabsolumentpsychiquen’existentpas"；*andelsewhere(p。6)，"Lespenseesdenosrevesnousviennentdedehors……"*(2)

*Dreamsdonotexistwhoseoriginistotallypsychic。

*(2)Thethoughtsofourdreamscomefromoutside。

Thosewriterswho，liketheeminentphilosopherWundt，adoptamiddlecourse，donothesitatetoassertthatinmostdreamsthereisacooperationofthesomaticstimuliandpsychicstimuliwhichareeitherunknownorareidentifiedwiththeinterestsoftheday。

Weshalllearnlaterthattheproblemofdream-formationmaybesolvedbythedisclosureofanentirelyunsuspectedpsychicsourceofexcitation。

Inthemeanwhileweshallnotbesurprisedattheover-estimationoftheinfluenceofthosestimuliwhichdonotoriginateinthepsychiclife。

Itisnotmerelybecausetheyalonemayeasilybefound，andevenconfirmedbyexperiment，butbecausethesomaticconceptionoftheoriginofdreamsentirelycorrespondswiththemodeofthoughtprevalentinmodernpsychiatry。

Here，itistrue，themasteryofthebrainovertheorganismismostemphaticallystressed；buteverythingthatmightshowthatthepsychiclifeisindependentofdemonstrableorganicchanges，orspontaneousinitsmanifestations，isalarmingtothecontemporarypsychiatrist，asthoughsuchanadmissionmustmeanareturntotheold-worldnaturalphilosophyandthemetaphysicalconceptionofthenatureofthesoul。Thedistrustofthepsychiatristhasplacedthepsycheundertutelage，sotospeak；itrequiresthatnoneoftheimpulsesofthepsycheshallrevealanautonomouspower。Yetthisattitudemerelybetraysalackofconfidenceinthestabilityofthecausalconcatenationbetweenthephysicalandthepsychic。Evenwhereoninvestigationthepsychicmayberecognizedastheprimarycauseofaphenomenon，amoreprofoundcomprehensionofthesubjectwillonedaysucceedinfollowingupthepaththatleadstotheorganicbasisofthepsychic。Butwherethepsychicmust，inthepresentstateofourknowledge，beacceptedastheterminus，itneednotonthataccountbedisavowed。

OntoChapter1，SectionD

Freud’s*TheInterpretationofDreams*Chapter1，SectionDBacktoTheInterpretationofDreamsTableofContentsCHAPTER1，SectionDD。WhyDreamsAreForgottenAfterWakingThatadreamfadesawayinthemorningisproverbial。Itis，indeed，possibletorecallit。Forweknowthedream，ofcourse，onlybyrecallingitafterwaking；butweveryoftenbelievethatwerememberitincompletely，thatduringthenighttherewasmoreofitthanweremember。Wemayobservehowthememoryofadreamwhichinthemorningwasstillvividfadesinthecourseoftheday，leavingonlyafewtriflingremnants。Weareoftenawarethatwehavebeendreaming，butwedonotknowofwhatwehavedreamed；

andwearesowellusedtothisfact-thatthedreamisliabletobeforgotten-

thatwedonotrejectasabsurdthepossibilitythatwemayhavebeendreamingevenwhen，inthemorning，weknownothingeitherofthecontentofthedreamorofthefactthatwehavedreamed。Ontheotherhand，itoftenhappensthatdreamsmanifestanextraordinarypowerofmaintainingthemselvesinthememory。Ihavehadoccasiontoanalyse，withmypatients，dreamswhichoccurredtothemtwenty-fiveyearsormorepreviously，andIcanrememberadreamofmyownwhichisdividedfromthepresentdaybyatleastthirty-sevenyears，andyethaslostnothingofitsfreshnessinmymemory。Allthisisveryremarkable，andforthepresentincomprehensible。

TheforgettingofdreamsistreatedinthemostdetailedmannerbyStrumpell。

Thisforgettingisevidentlyacomplexphenomenon；forStrumpellattributesitnottoasinglecause，buttoquiteanumberofcauses。

Inthefirstplace，allthosefactorswhichinduceforgetfulnessinthewakingstatedeterminealsotheforgettingofdreams。Inthewakingstatewecommonlyverysoonforgetagreatmanysensationsandperceptionsbecausetheyaretooslighttoremember，andbecausetheyarechargedwithonlyaslightamountofemotionalfeeling。Thisistruealsoofmanydream-images；

theyareforgottenbecausetheyaretooweak，whilethestrongerimagesintheirneighbourhoodareremembered。However，thefactorofintensityisinitselfnottheonlydeterminantofthepreservationofdream-images；

Strumpell，aswellasotherauthors(Calkins)，admitsthatdream-imagesareoftenrapidlyforgottenalthoughtheyareknowntohavebeenvivid，whereas，amongthosethatareretainedinthememory，therearemanythatareveryshadowyandunmeaning。Besides，inthewakingstateoneiswonttoforgetrathereasilythingsthathavehappenedonlyonce，andtoremembermorereadilythingswhichoccurrepeatedly。Butmostdream-imagesareuniqueexperiences，*andthispeculiaritywouldcontributetowardstheforgettingofalldreamsequally。Ofmuchgreatersignificanceisathirdcauseofforgetting。Inorderthatfeelings，representations，ideasandthelikeshouldattainacertaindegreeofmemorability，itisimportantthattheyshouldnotremainisolated，butthattheyshouldenterintoconnectionsandassociationsofanappropriatenature。Ifthewordsofaverseofpoetryaretakenandmixedtogether，itwillbeverydifficulttorememberthem。

"Properlyplaced，inasignificantsequence，onewordhelpsanother，andthewhole，makingsense，remainsandiseasilyandlastinglyfixedinthememory。Contradictions，asarule，areretainedwithjustasmuchdifficultyandjustasrarelyasthingsthatareconfusedanddisorderly。"Nowdreams，inmostcases，lacksenseandorder。Dream-compositions，bytheirverynature，areinsusceptibleofbeingremembered，andtheyareforgottenbecauseasaruletheyfalltopiecestheverynextmoment。Tobesure，theseconclusionsarenotentirelyconsistentwithRadestock’sobservation(p。168)，thatwemostreadilyretainjustthosedreamswhicharemostpeculiar。

*Periodicallyrecurrentdreamshavebeenobservedrepeatedly。ComparethecollectionmadebyChabaneix。

AccordingtoStrumpell，otherfactors，derivingfromtherelationofthedreamtothewakingstate，areevenmoreeffectiveincausingustoforgetourdreams。Theforgetfulnessofdreamsmanifestedbythewakingconsciousnessisevidentlymerelythecounterpartofthefactalreadymentioned，namely，thatthedreamhardlyevertakesoveranorderlyseriesofmemoriesfromthewakingstate，butonlycertaindetailsofthesememories，whichitremovesfromthehabitualpsychicconnectionsinwhichtheyarerememberedinthewakingstate。Thedream-composition，therefore，hasnoplaceinthecommunityofthepsychicserieswhichfillthemind。Itlacksallmnemonicaids。"Inthismannerthedream-structurerises，asitwere，fromthesoilofourpsychiclife，andfloatsinpsychicspacelikeacloudinthesky，quicklydispelledbythefirstbreathofreawakeninglife"(p。87)。Thissituationisaccentuatedbythefactthatonwakingtheattentionisimmediatelybesiegedbytheinrushingworldofsensation，sothatveryfewdream-imagesarecapableofwithstandingitsforce。Theyfadeawaybeforetheimpressionsofthenewdaylikethestarsbeforethelightofthesun。

Finally，weshouldrememberthatthefactthatmostpeopletakebutlittleinterestintheirdreamsisconducivetotheforgettingofdreams。

Anyonewhoforsometimeapplieshimselftotheinvestigationofdreams，andtakesaspecialinterestinthem，usuallydreamsmoreduringthatperiodthanatanyother；heremembershisdreamsmoreeasilyandmorefrequently。

Twootherreasonsfortheforgettingofdreams，whichBonatelli(citedbyBenini)addstothoseadducedbyStrumpell，havealreadybeenincludedinthoseenumeratedabove；namely，(1)thatthedifferenceofthegeneralsensationinthesleepingandthewakingstateisunfavourabletomutualreproduction，and(2)thatthedifferentarrangementofthematerialinthedreammakesthedreamuntranslatable，sotospeak，forthewakingconsciousness。

Itisthereforeallthemoreremarkable，asStrumpellhimselfobserves，that，inspiteofallthesereasonsforforgettingthedream，somanydreamsareretainedinthememory。Thecontinualeffortsofthosewhohavewrittenonthesubjecttoformulatelawsfortherememberingofdreamsamounttoanadmissionthathere，too，thereissomethingpuzzlingandunexplained。

Certainpeculiaritiesrelatingtotherememberingofdreamshaveattractedparticularattentionoflate；forexample，thefactthatthedreamwhichisbelievedtobeforgotteninthemorningmayberecalledinthecourseofthedayontheoccasionofsomeperceptionwhichaccidentallytouchestheforgottencontentofthedream(Radestock，Tissie)。Butthewholerecollectionofdreamsisopentoanobjectionwhichiscalculatedgreatlytodepreciateitsvalueincriticaleyes。Onemaydoubtwhetherourmemory，whichomitssomuchfromthedream，doesnotfalsifywhatitretains。

ThisdoubtastotheexactnessofthereproductionofdreamsisexpressedbyStrumpellwhenhesays:"Itmaythereforeeasilyhappenthatthewakingconsciousnessinvoluntarilyinterpolatesagreatmanythingsintherecollectionofthedream；oneimaginesthatonehasdreamtallsortsofthingswhichtheactualdreamdidnotcontain。"

Jessen(p。547)expresseshimselfinverydecidedterms:

"Moreover，wemustnotlosesightofthefact，hithertolittleheeded，thatintheinvestigationandinterpretationofcoherentandlogicaldreamswealmostalwaystakelibertieswiththetruthwhenwerecalladreamtomemory。Unconsciouslyandunintentionallywefillupthegapsandsupplementthedream-images。Rarely，andperhapsnever，hasaconnecteddreambeenasconnectedasitappearstousinmemory。Eventhemosttruth-lovingpersoncanhardlyrelateadreamwithoutexaggeratingandembellishingitinsomedegree。Thehumanmindsogreatlytendstoperceiveeverythinginaconnectedformthatitintentionallysuppliesthemissinglinksinanydreamwhichisinsomedegreeincoherent。"

TheobservationsofV。Eggers，thoughofcourseindependentlyconceived，readalmostlikeatranslationofJessen’swords:

"……L’observationdesrevesasesdifficultesspecialesetleseulmoyend’evitertouteerreurenpareillematiereestdeconfieraupapiersanslemoindreretardcequel’onvientd’eprouveretderemarquer；sinon，l’oublivientviteoutotaloupartiel；l’oublitotalestsansgravite；

maisl’oublipartielestperfide:carsil’onsemetensuitearacontercequel’onn’apasoublie，onestexposeacompleterparimaginationlesfragmentsincoherentsetdisjointsfourniparlamemoire……ondevientartisteasoninsu，etlerecit，periodiquementrepetes’imposealacreancedesonauteur，qui，debonnefoi，lepresentecommeunfaitauthentique，dumentetabliselonlesbonnesmethodes……"*

*……Theobservationofdreamshasitsspecialdifficulties，andtheonlywaytoavoidallerrorinsuchmatteristoputonpaperwithouttheleastdelaywhathasjustbeenexperiencedandnoticed；otherwise，totallyorpartiallythedreamisquicklyforgotten；totalforgettingiswithoutseriousness；butpartialforgettingistreacherous:for，ifonethenstartstorecountwhathasnotbeenforgotten，oneislikelytosupplementfromtheimaginationtheincoherentanddisjointedfragmentsprovidedbythememory……unconsciouslyonebecomesanartist，andthestory，repeatedfromtimetotime，imposesitselfonthebeliefofitsauthor，who，ingoodfaith，tellsitasauthenticfact，regularlyestablishedaccordingtopropermethods……

SimilarlySpitta，whoseemstothinkthatitisonlyintheattempttoreproducethedreamthatwebringorderandarrangementintolooselyassociateddream-elements-"turningjuxtapositionintoconcatenation；thatis，addingtheprocessoflogicalconnectionwhichisabsentinthedream。"

Sincewecantestthereliabilityofourmemoryonlybyobjectivemeans，andsincesuchatestisimpossibleinthecaseofdreams，whichareourownpersonalexperience，andforwhichweknownoothersourcethanourmemory，whatvaluedoourrecollectionsofourdreamspossess？

OntoChapter1，SectionE

BacktoTheInterpretationofDreamsTableofContentsCHAPTER1，SectionEE。ThePsychologicalPeculiaritiesofDreamsInourscientificinvestigationofdreamswestartwiththeassumptionthatdreamsareaphenomenonofourownpsychicactivity；yetthecompleteddreamappearstousassomethingalien，whoseauthorshipwearesolittleinclinedtorecognizethatweshouldbejustaswillingtosay"Adreamcametome，"as"Idreamed。"Whencethis"psychicstrangeness"ofdreams？

Accordingtoourexpositionofthesourcesofdreams，wemustassumethatitisnotdeterminedbythematerialwhichfindsitswayintothedream-content，sincethisisforthemostpartcommonbothtodream-lifeandwakinglife。

Wemightaskourselveswhetherthisimpressionisnotevokedbymodificationsofthepsychicprocessesindreams，andwemightevenattempttosuggestthattheexistenceofsuchchangesisthepsychologicalcharacteristicofdreams。

Noonehasmorestronglyemphasizedtheessentialdifferencebetweendream-lifeandwakinglifeanddrawnmorefarreachingconclusionsfromthisdifferencethanG。Th。FechnerincertainobservationscontainedinhisElementederPsychophysik(PartII，p。520)。Hebelievesthat"neitherthesimpledepressionofconsciouspsychiclifeunderthemainthreshold，"

northedistractionoftheattentionfromtheinfluencesoftheouterworld，sufficestoexplainthepeculiaritiesofdream-lifeascomparedwithwakinglife。Hebelieves，rather，thatthearenaofdreamsisotherthanthearenaofthewakinglifeofthemind。"Ifthearenaofpsychophysicalactivitywerethesameduringthesleepingandthewakingstate，thedream，inmyopinion，couldonlybeacontinuationofthewakingideationallifeatalowerdegreeofintensity，sothatitwouldhavetopartakeoftheformandmaterialofthelatter。Butthisisbynomeansthecase。"

WhatFechnerreallymeantbysuchatranspositionofthepsychicactivityhasneverbeenmadeclear，norhasanybodyelse，tomyknowledge，followedthepathwhichheindicatesinthisremark。Ananatomicalinterpretationinthesenseofphysiologicallocalizationinthebrain，orevenahistologicalstratificationofthecerebralcortex，mustofcoursebeexcluded。Theideamight，however，proveingeniousandfruitfulifitcouldrefertoapsychicalapparatusbuiltupofanumberofsuccessiveandconnectedsystems。

Otherauthorshavebeencontenttogiveprominencetothisorthatpalpablepsychologicalpeculiarityofthedream-life，andeventotakethisasastarting-pointformorecomprehensiveattemptsatexplanation。

Ithasbeenjustlyremarkedthatoneofthechiefpeculiaritiesofdream-lifemakesitsappearanceeveninthestateoffallingasleep，andmaybedefinedasthesleep-heraldingphenomenon。AccordingtoSchleiermacher(p。351)，thedistinguishingcharacteristicofthewakingstateisthefactthatitspsychicactivityoccursintheformofideasratherthaninthatofimages。Butthedreamthinksmainlyinvisualimages，anditmaybenotedthatwiththeapproachofsleepthevoluntaryactivitiesbecomeimpededinproportionasinvoluntaryrepresentationsmaketheirappearance，thelatterbelongingentirelytothecategoryofimages。Theincapacityforsuchideationalactivitiesaswefeeltobedeliberatelywilled，andtheemergenceofvisualimages，whichisregularlyconnectedwiththisdistraction-

thesearetwoconstantcharacteristicsofdreams，andonpsychologicalanalysiswearecompelledtorecognizethemasessentialcharacteristicsofdream-life。Asfortheimagesthemselvesthehypnogogichallucinations-

wehavelearnedthatevenintheircontenttheyareidenticalwithdream-images。

*

*Silbererhasshownbyexcellentexampleshowinthestateoffallingasleepevenabstractthoughtsmaybechangedintovisibleplasticimages，which，ofcourse，expressthem。(Jahrbuch，Bleuler-Freud，vol。i，1900。)

Ishallreturntothediscussionofhisfindingslateron。

Dreams，then，thinkpreponderantly，butnotexclusively，invisualimages。

Theymakeusealsoofauditoryimages，and，toalesserextent，oftheothersensoryimpressions。Moreover，indreams，asinthewakingstate，manythingsaresimplythoughtorimagined(probablywiththehelpofremnantsofverbalconceptions)。Characteristicofdreams，however，areonlythoseelementsoftheircontentswhichbehavelikeimages，thatis，whichmorecloselyresembleperceptionsthanmnemonicrepresentations。Withoutenteringuponadiscussionofthenatureofhallucinations-adiscussionfamiliartoeverypsychiatrist-wemaysay，witheverywell-informedauthority，thatthedreamhallucinates-thatis，thatitreplacesthoughtsbyhallucinations。

Inthisrespectvisualandacousticimpressionsbehaveinthesameway。

Ithasbeenobservedthattherecollectionofasuccessionofnotesheardaswearefallingasleepbecomestransformed，whenwehavefallenasleep，intoahallucinationofthesamemelody，togiveplace，eachtimewewake，tothefainterandqualitativelydifferentrepresentationsofthememory，andresuming，eachtimewedozeoffagain，itshallucinatorycharacter。

Thetransformationofanideaintoahallucinationisnottheonlydepartureofthedreamfromthemoreorlesscorrespondingwakingthought。Fromtheseimagesthedreamcreatesasituation；itrepresentssomethingasactuallypresent；itdramatizesanidea，asSpitta(p。145)putsit。Butthepeculiarcharacterofthisaspectofthedream-lifeiscompletelyintelligibleonlyifweadmitthatindreamingwedonotasarule(theexceptionscallforspecialexamination)supposeourselvestobethinking，butactuallyexperiencing；

thatis，weacceptthehallucinationinperfectlygoodfaith。Thecriticismthatonehasexperiencednothing，butthatonehasmerelybeenthinkinginapeculiarmanner-dreaming-occurstousonlyonwaking。Itisthischaracteristicwhichdistinguishesthegenuinedreamfromtheday-dream，whichisneverconfusedwithreality。

Thecharacteristicsofthedream-lifethusfarconsideredhavebeensummedupbyBurdach(p。476)asfollows:"Ascharacteristicfeaturesofthedreamwemaystate(a)thatthesubjectiveactivityofourpsycheappearsasobjective，inasmuchasourperceptivefacultiesapprehendtheproductsofphantasyasthoughtheyweresensoryactivities……(b)thatsleepabrogatesourvoluntaryaction；hencefallingasleepinvolvesacertaindegreeofpassivity……Theimagesofsleepareconditionedbytherelaxationofourpowersofwill。"

Itnowremainstoaccountforthecredulityofthemindinrespecttothedream-hallucinationswhichareabletomaketheirappearanceonlyafterthesuspensionofcertainvoluntarypowers。Strumpellassertsthatinthisrespectthepsychebehavescorrectlyandinconformitywithitsmechanism。

Thedream-elementsarebynomeansmererepresentations，buttrueandactualexperiencesofthepsyche，similartothosewhichcometothewakingstatebywayofthesenses(p。34)。Whereasinthewakingstatethemindthinksandimaginesbymeansofverbalimagesandlanguage，indreamsitthinksandimaginesinactualperceptualimages(p。35)。Dreams，moreover，revealaspatialconsciousness，inasmuchasindreams，justasinthewakingstate，sensationsandimagesaretransposedintoouterspace(p。36)。Itmustthereforebeadmittedthatindreamsthemindpreservesthesameattitudeinrespectofimagesandperceptionsasinthewakingstate(p。43)。Andifitformserroneousconclusionsinrespectoftheseimagesandperceptions，thisisduetothefactthatinsleepitisdeprivedofthatcriterionwhichalonecandistinguishbetweensensoryperceptionsemanatingfromwithinandthosecomingfromwithout。Itisunabletosubjectitsimagestothosetestswhichalonecanprovetheirobjectivereality。Further，itneglectstodifferentiatebetweenthoseimageswhichcanbeexchangedatwillandthoseinrespectofwhichthereisnofreechoice。Iterrsbecauseitcannotapplythelawofcausalitytothecontentofitsdreams(p。58)。Inbrief，itsalienationfromtheouterworldistheveryreasonforitsbeliefinitssubjectivedream-world。

Delboeufarrivesatthesameconclusionthroughasomewhatdifferentlineofargument。Webelieveintherealityofdream-picturesbecauseinsleepwehavenootherimpressionswithwhichtocomparethem；becausewearecutofffromtheouterworld。Butitisnotbecauseweareunable，whenasleep，totestourhallucinationsthatwebelieveintheirreality。

Dreamscanmakeusbelievethatweareapplyingsuchtests-thatwearetouching，say，therosethatweseeinourdream；andyetwearedreaming。

AccordingtoDelboeufthereisnovalidcriterionthatcanshowwhethersomethingisadreamorawakingreality，except-andthatonlypragmatically-

thefactofwaking。"Iconcludethatallthathasbeenexperiencedbetweenfallingasleepandwakingisadelusion，ifIfindonwakingthatIamlyingundressedinbed"(p。84)。"IconsideredtheimagesofmydreamrealwhileIwasasleeponaccountoftheunsleepingmentalhabitofassuminganouterworldwithwhichIcancontrastmyego。"*

*Haffner，likeDelboeuf，hasattemptedtoexplaintheactofdreamingbythealterationwhichanabnormallyintroducedconditionmusthaveupontheotherwisecorrectfunctioningoftheintactpsychicapparatus；buthedescribesthisconditioninsomewhatdifferentterms。Hestatesthatthefirstdistinguishingmarkofdreamsistheabolitionoftimeandspace，i。e。，theemancipationoftherepresentationfromtheindividual’spositioninthespatialandtemporalorder。Associatedwiththisisthesecondfundamentalcharacterofdreams，themistakingofthehallucinations，imaginations，andphantasy-combinationsforobjectiveperceptions。"Thesum-totalofthehigherpsychicfunctions，particularlytheformationofconcepts，judgments，andconclusionsontheonehand，andfreeself-determinationontheotherhand，combinewiththesensoryphantasy-images，andatalltimeshavetheseasasubstratum。Theseactivitiestoo，therefore，participateintheerraticnatureofthedream-representations。Wesaytheyparticipate，forourfacultiesofjudgmentandwillareinthemselvesunalteredduringsleep。Asfarastheiractivityisconcerned，wearejustasshrewdandjustasfreeasinthewakingstate。Amancannotviolatethelawsofthought；thatis，eveninadreamhecannotjudgethingstobeidenticalwhichpresentthemselvestohimasopposites。Hecandesireinadreamonlythatwhichheregardsasagood(subrationeboni)。Butinthisapplicationofthelawsofthoughtandwillthehumanintellectisledastrayindreamsbyconfusingonenotionwithanother。Thusithappensthatindreamsweformulateandcommitthegreatestofcontradictions，while，ontheotherhand，wedisplaytheshrewdestjudgmentandarriveatthemostlogicalconclusions，andareabletomakethemostvirtuousandsacredresolutions。Thelackoforientationisthewholesecretofourflightsofphantasyindreams，andthelackofcriticalreflectionandagreementwithothermindsisthemainsourceoftherecklessextravagancesofourjudgments，hopesandwishesindreams"(p。18)。

Iftheturning-awayfromtheouterworldisacceptedasthedecisivecauseofthemostconspicuouscharacteristicsofourdreams，itwillbeworthourwhiletoconsidercertainsubtleobservationsofBurdach’s，whichwillthrowsomelightontherelationofthesleepingpsychetotheouterworld，andatthesametimeservetopreventourover-estimatingtheimportanceoftheabovedeductions。"Sleep，"saysBurdach，"resultsonlyundertheconditionthatthemindisnotexcitedbysensorystimuli……yetitisnotsomuchalackofsensorystimulithatconditionssleepasalackofinterestinthem；*somesensoryimpressionsareevennecessaryinsofarastheyservetocalmthemind；thusthemillercanfallasleeponlywhenhehearstheclatterofhismill，andhewhofindsitnecessary，asamatterofprecaution，toburnalightatnight，cannotfallasleepinthedark"

(p。457)。

*Comparewiththistheelementof"Desinteret，"inwhichClaparede(1905)findsthemechanismoffallingasleep。

"Duringsleepthepsycheisolatesitselffromtheouterworld，andwithdrawsfromtheperiphery……Nevertheless，theconnectionisnotentirelybroken；

ifonedidnothearandfeelduringsleep，butonlyafterwaking，onewouldassuredlyneverbeawakenedatall。Thecontinuanceofsensationisevenmoreplainlyshownbythefactthatwearenotalwaysawakenedbythemereforceofthesensoryimpression，butbyitsrelationtothepsyche。Anindifferentworddoesnotarousethesleeper，butifcalledbynamehewakes……sothateveninsleepthepsychediscriminatesbetweensensations……

Henceonemayevenbeawakenedbytheobliterationofasensorystimulus，ifthisisrelatedtoanythingofimaginedimportance。Thusonemanwakeswhenthenightlightisextinguished，andthemillerwhenhismillcomestoastandstill；thatis，wakingisduetothecessationofasensoryactivity，andthispresupposesthattheactivityhasbeenperceived，buthasnotdisturbedthemind，itseffectbeingindifferent，oractuallyreassuring"

(p。46，etc。)。

Evenifwearewillingtodisregardthesebynomeanstriflingobjections，wemustyetadmitthatthequalitiesofdream-lifehithertoconsidered，whichareattributedtowithdrawalfromtheouterworld，cannotfullyaccountforthestrangenessofdreams。Forotherwiseitwouldbepossibletoreconvertthehallucinationsofthedreamintomentalimages，andthesituationsofthedreamintothoughts，andthustoachievethetaskofdream-interpretation。

Nowthisispreciselywhatwedowhenwereproduceadreamfrommemoryafterwaking，andnomatterwhetherwearefullyoronlypartiallysuccessfulinthisretranslation，thedreamstillremainsasmysteriousasbefore。

Furthermore，allwritersunhesitatinglyassumethatstillotherandprofounderchangestakeplaceintheplasticmaterialofwakinglife。Strumpellseekstoisolateoneofthesechangesasfollows:(p。17)"Withthecessationofactivesensoryperceptionandofnormalconsciousness，thepsycheisdeprivedofthesoilinwhichitsfeelings，desires，interests，andactivitiesarerooted。Thosepsychicstates，feelings，interests，andvaluations，whichinthewakingstateadheretomemory-images，succumbtoanobscuringpressure，inconsequenceofwhichtheirconnectionwiththeseimagesissevered；theperceptualimagesofthings，persons，localities，eventsandactionsofthewakingstateare，individually，abundantlyreproduced，butnoneofthesebringswithititspsychicvalue。Deprivedofthis，theyhoverintheminddependentontheirownresources……"

Thisannihilationofpsychicvalues，whichisinturnreferredtoaturningawayfromtheouterworld，is，accordingtoStrumpell，verylargelyresponsiblefortheimpressionofstrangenesswithwhichthedreamiscolouredinourmemory。

Wehaveseenthattheveryfactoffallingasleepinvolvesarenunciationofoneofthepsychicactivities-namely，thevoluntaryguidanceoftheflowofideas。Thusthesuppositionobtrudesitself(thoughitisinanycaseanaturalone)thatthestateofsleepmayextendeventothepsychicfunctions。Oneoranotherofthesefunctionsisperhapsentirelysuspended；

wehavenowtoconsiderwhethertherestcontinuetooperateundisturbed，whethertheyareabletoperformtheirnormalworkunderthecircumstances。

Theideaoccurstousthatthepeculiaritiesofthedreammaybeexplainedbytherestrictedactivityofthepsycheduringsleep，andtheimpressionmadebythedreamuponourwakingjudgmenttendstoconfirmthisview。

Thedreamisincoherent；itreconciles，withouthesitation，theworstcontradictions；

itadmitsimpossibilities；itdisregardstheauthoritativeknowledgeofthewakingstate，anditshowsusasethicallyandmorallyobtuse。Hewhoshouldbehaveinthewakingstateashisdreamsrepresenthimasbehavingwouldbeconsideredinsane。Hewhointhewakingstateshouldspeakashedoesinhisdreams，orrelatesuchthingsasoccurinhisdreams，wouldimpressusasafeeble-mindedormuddle-headedperson。Itseemstous，then，thatwearemerelyspeakinginaccordancewiththefactsofthecasewhenweratepsychicactivityindreamsverylow，andespeciallywhenweassertthatindreamsthehigherintellectualactivitiesaresuspendedoratleastgreatlyimpaired。

Withunusualunanimity(theexceptionswillbedealtwithelsewhere)

thewritersonthesubjecthavepronouncedsuchjudgmentsasleadimmediatelytoadefinitetheoryorexplanationofdream-life。ItisnowtimetosupplementtheresumewhichIhavejustgivenbyaseriesofquotationsfromanumberofauthors-philosophersandphysicians-bearinguponthepsychologicalcharacteristicsofthedream。

AccordingtoLemoine，theincoherenceofthedream-imagesisthesoleessentialcharacteristicofthedream。

Mauryagreeswithhim(LeSommeil，p。163):"Iln’yapasdesrevesabsolumentraisonnablesetquinecontiennentquelqueincoherence，quelqueabsurdite。"*

*Therearenodreamswhichareabsolutelyreasonablewhichdonotcontainsomeincoherence，someabsurdity。

AccordingtoHegel，quotedbySpitta，thedreamlacksanyintelligibleobjectivecoherence。

Dugassays:"Lesreve，c’estl’anarchiepsychique，affectiveetmentale，c’estlejeudesfonctionslivreesaelles-memesets’exercantsanscontroleetsansbut；danslerevel’espritestunautomatespirituel。"*

*Thedreamispsychicanarchy，emotionalandintellectual，theplayingoffunctions，freedofthemselvesandperformingwithoutcontrolandwithoutend；inthedream，themindisaspiritualautomaton。

"Therelaxation，dissolution，andpromiscuousconfusionoftheworldofideasandimagesheldtogetherinwakinglifebythelogicalpowerofthecentralego"isconcededevenbyVolkelt(p。14)，accordingtowhosetheorythepsychicactivityduringsleepappearstobebynomeansaimless。

TheabsurdityoftheassociationsofideaswhichoccurindreamscanhardlybemorestronglystigmatizedthanitwasbyCicero(DeDivinatione，II。lxxi):"Nihiltampraepostere，tamincondite，tammonstruosecogitaripotest，quodnonpossimussomniare。"*

*Thereisnoimaginablethingtooabsurd，tooinvolved，ortooabnormalforustodreamabout。

Fechnersays(p。522):"Itisasthoughthepsychologicalactivityofthebrainofareasonablepersonweretomigrateintothatofafool。"

Radestock(p。145):"Itseemsindeedimpossibletorecognizeanystablelawsinthispreposterousbehaviour。Withdrawingitselffromthestrictpolicingoftherationalwillthatguidesourwakingideas，andfromtheprocessesofattention，thedream，incrazysport，whirlsallthingsaboutinkaleidoscopicconfusion。"

Hildebrandt(p。45):"Whatwonderfuljumpsthedreamerpermitshimself，forinstance，inhischainofreasoning！Withwhatunconcernheseesthemostfamiliarlawsofexperienceturnedupsidedown！Whatridiculouscontradictionsheisabletotolerateintheorderofnatureandofsociety，beforethingsgotoofar，andtheveryexcessofnonsenseleadstoanawakening！Sometimeswequiteinnocentlycalculatethatthreetimesthreemaketwenty；andwearenotintheleastsurprisedifadogrecitespoetrytous，ifadeadpersonwalkstohisgrave，orifarockfloatsonthewater。WesolemnlygotovisittheduchyofBernburgortheprincipalityofLiechtensteininordertoinspectitsnavy；orweallowourselvestoberecruitedasavolunteerbyCharlesXIIjustbeforethebattleofPoltava。"

Binz(p。33)，referringtothetheoryofdreamsresultingfromtheseimpressions，says:"Oftendreamsnineatleasthaveanabsurdcontent。

Weuniteinthempersonsorthingswhichdonotbeartheslightestrelationtooneanother。Inthenextmoment，asinakaleidoscope，thegroupingchangestoone，ifpossible，evenmorenonsensicalandirrationalthanbefore；andsotheshiftingplayofthedrowsybraincontinues，untilwewake，putahandtoourforehead，andaskourselveswhetherwestillreallypossessthefacultyofrationalimaginationandthought。"

Maury，LeSommeil(p。50)makes，inrespectoftherelationofthedream-imagetothewakingthoughts，acomparisonwhichaphysicianwillfindespeciallyimpressive:"Laproductiondecesimagesquechezl’hommeeveillefaitleplussouventnaitrelavolonte，correspond，pourl’intelligence，acequesontpourlamotilitecertainsmouvementsquenousoffrentlachoreeetlesaffectionsparalytiques……"*Fortherest，heconsidersthedream"touteuneseriededegradationsdelafacultepensanteetraisonnante"

*(2)(p。27)。

*Theproductionofthoseimageswhich，inthewakingman，mostoftenexcitethewill，correspond，forthemind，tothosewhichare，forthemotility，certainmovementsthatofferSt。Vitus’danceandparalyticaffections……

*(2)Awholeseriesofdegradationsofthefacultyofthinkingandreasoning。

ItishardlynecessarytocitetheutterancesofthoseauthorswhorepeatMaury’sassertioninrespectofthehigherindividualpsychicactivities。

AccordingtoStrumpell，indreams-andeven，ofcourse，wherethenonsensicalnatureofthedreamisnotobvious-allthelogicaloperationsofthemind，basedonrelationsandassociations，recedeintothebackground(p。26)。

AccordingtoSpitta(p。148)ideasindreamsareentirelywithdrawnfromthelawsofcausality；whileRadestockandothersemphasizethefeeblenessofjudgmentandlogicalinferencepeculiartodreams。AccordingtoJodl(p。123)，thereisnocriticismindreams，nocorrectingofaseriesofperceptionsbythecontentofconsciousnessasawhole。Thesameauthorstatesthat"Alltheactivitiesofconsciousnessoccurindreams，buttheyareimperfect，inhibited，andmutuallyisolated。"ThecontradictionsofourconsciousknowledgewhichoccurindreamsareexplainedbyStrickerandmanyothersonthegroundthatfactsareforgottenindreams，orthatthelogicalrelationsbetweenideasarelost(p。98)，etc。，etc。

Thoseauthorswho，ingeneral，judgesounfavourablyofthepsychicactivitiesofthedreamerneverthelessagreethatdreamsdoretainacertainremnantofpsychicactivity。Wundt，whoseteachinghasinfluencedsomanyotherinvestigatorsofdream-problems，expresslyadmitsthis。Wemayask，whatarethenatureandcompositionoftheremnantsofnormalpsychiclifewhichmanifestthemselvesindreams？Itisprettygenerallyacknowledgedthatthereproductivefaculty，thememory，seemstobetheleastaffectedindreams；itmay，indeed，showacertainsuperiorityoverthesamefunctioninwakinglife(seechapterI，B)，eventhoughsomeoftheabsurditiesofdreamsaretobeexplainedbytheforgetfulnessofdream-life。AccordingtoSpitta，itisthesentimentallifeofthepsychewhichisnotaffectedbysleep，andwhichthusdirectsourdreams。Bysentiment(Gemut)hemeans"theconstantsumoftheemotionsastheinmostsubjectiveessenceoftheman"(p。84)。

Scholz(p。37)seesindreamsapsychicactivitywhichmanifestsitselfinthe"allegorizinginterpretation"towhichthedream-materialissubjected。

Siebeck(p。11)likewiseperceivesindreamsa"supplementaryinterpretativeactivity"ofthepsyche，whichappliesitselftoallthatisobservedandperceived。Anyjudgmentofthepartplayedindreamsbywhatispresumedtobethehighestpsychicalfunction，i。e。，consciousness，presentsapeculiardifficulty。Sinceitisonlythroughconsciousnessthatwecanknowanythingofdreams，therecanbenodoubtastoitsbeingretained。Spitta，however，believesthatonlyconsciousnessisretainedinthedream，butnotself-consciousness。

Delboeufconfessesthatheisunabletocomprehendthisdistinction。

Thelawsofassociationwhichconnectourmentalimagesholdgoodalsoforwhatisrepresentedindreams；indeed，indreamsthedominanceoftheselawsismoreobviousandcompletethaninthewakingstate。Strumpell(p。

70)says:"Dreamswouldappeartoproceedeitherexclusivelyinaccordancewiththelawsofpurerepresentation，orinaccordancewiththelawsoforganicstimuliaccompaniedbysuchrepresentations；thatis，withoutbeinginfluencedbyreflection，reason，aesthetictaste，ormoraljudgment。"

TheauthorswhoseopinionsIherereproduceconceivetheformationofthedreamsomewhatasfollows:Thesumofsensorystimuliofvaryingorigin(discussedelsewhere)thatareoperativeinsleepatfirstawakeninthepsycheanumberofimageswhichpresentthemselvesashallucinations(accordingtoWundt，itismorecorrecttosay"asillusions，"becauseoftheirorigininexternalandinternalstimuli)。Thesecombinewithoneanotherinaccordancewiththeknownlawsofassociation，and，inaccordancewiththesamelaws，theyinturnevokeanewseriesofrepresentations(images)。Thewholeofthismaterialisthenelaboratedasfaraspossiblebythestillactiveremnantofthethinkingandorganizingfacultiesofthepsyche(cf。WundtandWeygandt)。Thusfar，however，noonehasbeensuccessfulindiscerningthemotivewhichwoulddecidewhatparticularlawofassociationistobeobeyedbythoseimageswhichdonotoriginateinexternalstimuli。

Butithasbeenrepeatedlyobservedthattheassociationswhichconnectthedream-imageswithoneanotherareofaparticularkind，differingfromthosefoundintheactivitiesofthewakingmind。ThusVolkelt(p。15):

"Indreamstheideaschaseandseizeupononeanotheronthestrengthofaccidentalsimilaritiesandbarelyperceptibleconnections。Alldreamsarepervadedbycasualandunconstrainedassociationsofthiskind。"Mauryattachesgreatvaluetothischaracteristicoftheconnectionofideas，foritallowshimtodrawacloseranalogybetweenthedream-lifeandcertainmentalderangements。Herecognizestwomaincharacteristicsof"deliria":

"(1)uneactionspontaneeetcommeautomatiquedel’esprit；(2)uneassociationvicieuseetirregulieredesidees"*(p。126)。Maurygivesustwoexcellentexamplesfromhisowndreams，inwhichthemeresimilarityofsounddecidestheconnectionbetweenthedream-representations。Oncehedreamedthathewasonapilgrimage(pelerinage)toJerusalem，ortoMecca。AftermanyadventureshefoundhimselfinthecompanyofthechemistPelletier；thelatter，aftersomeconversation，gavehimagalvanizedshovel(pelle)whichbecamehisgreatbroadswordinthenextportionofthedream(p。137)。

Inanotherdreamhewaswalkingalongahighwaywherehereadthedistancesonthekilometre-stones；presentlyhefoundhimselfatagrocer’swhohadalargepairofscales；amanputkilogrammeweightsintothescales，inordertoweighMaury；thegrocerthensaidtohim:"YouarenotinParis，butontheislandGilolo。"Thiswasfollowedbyanumberofpictures，inwhichhesawtheflowerlobelia，andthenGeneralLopez，ofwhosedeathhehadreadalittlewhilepreviously。Finallyheawokeashewasplayingagameoflotto。*(2)

*(1)Anactionofthemindspontaneousandasthoughautomatic；(2)

adefectiveandirregularassociationofideas。

*(2)Lateronweshallbeabletounderstandthemeaningofdreamslikethesewhicharefullofwordswithsimilarsoundsorthesameinitialletters。

Weare，indeed，quitewellawarethatthislowestimateofthepsychicactivitiesofthedreamhasnotbeenallowedtopasswithoutcontradictionfromvariousquarters。Yetherecontradictionwouldseemratherdifficult。

Itisnotamatterofmuchsignificancethatoneofthedepreciatorsofdream-life，Spitta(p。118)，shouldassureusthatthesamepsychologicallawswhichgovernthewakingstaterulethedreamalso，orthatanother(Dugas)shouldstate:"Lereven’estpasderaisonnimemeirraisonpure，"

*solongasneitherofthemhasattemptedtobringthisopinionintoharmonywiththepsychicanarchyanddissolutionofallmentalfunctionsinthedreamwhichtheythemselveshavedescribed。However，thepossibilityseemstohavedawneduponothersthatthemadnessofthedreamisperhapsnotwithoutitsmethod-thatitisperhapsonlyadisguise，adramaticpretence，likethatofHamlet，towhosemadnessthisperspicaciousjudgmentrefers。

Theseauthorsmusteitherhaverefrainedfromjudgingbyappearances，ortheappearanceswere，intheircase，altogetherdifferent。

*Thedreamisneitherpurederangementnorpureirrationality。

Withoutlingeringoveritssuperficialabsurdity，HavelockEllisconsidersthedreamas"anarchaicworldofvastemotionsandimperfectthoughts，"

thestudyofwhichmayacquaintuswiththeprimitivestagesofthedevelopmentofmentallife。J。Sully(p。362)presentsthesameconceptionofthedreaminastillmorecomprehensiveandpenetratingfashion。Hisstatementsdeserveallthemoreconsiderationwhenitisaddedthathe，perhapsmorethananyotherpsychologist，wasconvincedoftheveiledsignificanceofthedream。"Nowourdreamsareameansofconservingthesesuccessivepersonalities。

Whenasleepwegobacktotheoldwaysoflookingatthingsandoffeelingaboutthem，toimpulsesandactivitieswhichlongagodominatedus。"A

thinkerlikeDelboeufasserts-without，indeed，adducingproofinthefaceofcontradictorydata，andhencewithoutrealjustification-"Danslesommeil，hormislaperception，touteslesfacultesdel’esprit，intelligence，imagination，memoire，volonte，moralite，restentintactesdansleuressence；seulement，elless’appliquentadesobjetsimaginairesetmobiles。Lesongeurestunacteurquijoueavolontelesfousetlessages，lesbourreauxetlesvictimes，lesnainsetlesgeants，lesdemonsetlesanges"*(p。222)。

TheMarquisHervey，*(2)whoisflatlycontradictedbyMaury，andwhoseessayIhavebeenunabletoobtaindespiteallmyefforts，appearsemphaticallytoprotestagainsttheunder-estimationofthepsychiccapacityinthedream。Mauryspeaksofhimasfollows(p。19):"M。leMarquisHerveypreteal’intelligencedurantlesommeiltoutesaliberted’actionetd’attention，etilnesemblefaireconsisterlesommeilquedansl’occlusiondessens，dansleurfermetureaumondeexterieur；ensortequel’hommequidortnesedistingueguere，selonsamanieredevoir，del’hommequilaissevaguersapenseeensebouchantlessens；touteladifferencequiseparealorslapenseeordinaireducelledudormeurc’estque，chezcelui-ci，l’ideeprenduneformevisible，objective，etressemble，as’ymeprendre，alasensationdetermineeparlesobjetsexterieurs；lesouvenirrevetl’apparencedufaitpresent。"*(3)

*Insleep，exceptingperception，allthefacultiesofthemindintellect，imagination，memory，will，morality-remainintactintheiressence；only，theyareappliedtoimaginaryandvariableobjects。Thedreamerisanactorwhoplaysatwillthemadandthewise，executionerandvictim，dwarfandgiant，devilandangel。

*(2)HerveydeSt。Denys。

*(3)TheMarquisHerveyattributestotheintelligenceduringsleepallitsfreedomofactionandattention，andheseemstomakesleepconsistonlyoftheshuttingofthesenses，oftheirclosingtotheoutsideworld；

exceptforhismannerofseeing，themanasleepishardlydistinguishablefromthemanwhoallowshismindtowanderwhileheobstructshissenses；

thewholedifference，then，betweenordinarythoughtandthatofthesleeper，isthatwiththelattertheideatakesanobjectiveandvisibleshape，whichresembles，toallappearances，sensationdeterminedbyexteriorobjects；

memorytakesontheappearanceofpresentfact。

Mauryadds，however，"qu’ilyaunedifferencedeplusetcapitaleasavoirquelesfacultesintellectuellesdel’hommeendormin’offrentpasl’equilibrequ’ellesgardentchezl’hommeeveille。"*

*Thatthereisafurtherandimportantdifferenceinthatthementalfacultiesofthesleepingmandonotoffertheequilibriumwhichtheykeepinthewakingstate。

InVaschide，whogivesusfullyinformationastoHervey’sbook，wefindthatthisauthorexpresseshimselfasfollows，inrespecttotheapparentincoherenceofdreams:"L’imagedureveestlacopiedel’idee。Leprincipalestl’idee；lavisionn’estpasqu’accessoire。Cecietabli，ilfautsavoirsuivrelamarchedesidees，ilfautsavoiranalyserletissudesreves；

l’incoherencedevientalorscomprehensible，lesconceptionslesplusfantasquesdeviennentdesfaitssimplesetparfaitementlogiques"*(p。146)。And(p。147):"Lesreveslesplusbizarrestrouventmemeuneexplicationdespluslogiquesquandonsaitlesanalyser。"*(2)

*Theimageinadreamisacopyofanidea。Themainthingistheidea；

thevisionisonlyaccessory。Thisestablished，itisnecessarytoknowhowtofollowtheprogressionofideas，howtoanalysethetextureofthedreams；incoherencethenisunderstandable，themostfantasticconceptsbecomesimpleandperfectlylogicalfacts。

*(2)Eventhemostbizarredreamsfindamostlogicalexplanationwhenoneknowshowtoanalysethem。

J。Starkehasdrawnattentiontothefactthatasimilarsolutionoftheincoherenceofdreamswasputforwardin1799byanoldwriter，WolfDavidson，whowasunknowntome(p。136):"Thepeculiarleapsofourimaginingsinthedream-stateallhavetheircauseinthelawsofassociation，butthisconnectionoftenoccursveryobscurelyinthesoul，sothatwefrequentlyseemtoobservealeapoftheimaginationwherenonereallyexists。"

Theevaluationofthedreamasapsychicproductintheliteratureofthesubjectvariesoveraverywidescale；itextendsfromtheextremeofunder-estimation，aswehavealreadyseen，throughpremonitionsthatitmayhaveavalueasyetunrevealed，toanexaggeratedover-estimation，whichsetsthedream-lifefarabovethecapacitiesofwakinglife。Inhispsychologicalcharacterizationofdream-life，Hildebrandt，asweknow，groupsitintothreeantinomies，andhecombinesinthethirdoftheseantinomiesthetwoextremepointsofthisscaleofvalues(p。19):"Itisthecontrastbetween，ontheonehand，anenhancement，anincreaseofpotentiality，whichoftenamountstovirtuosity，andontheotherhandadecideddiminutionandenfeeblementofthepsychiclife，oftentoasub-humanlevel。"

"Asregardsthefirst，whoistherethatcannotconfirmfromhisownexperiencethefactthatintheworkingsandweavingsofthegeniusofdreams，therearesometimesexhibitedaprofundityandsincerityofemotion，atendernessoffeeling，aclearnessofview，asubtletyofobservationandareadinessofwit，suchasweshouldhavemodestlytodenythatwealwayspossessedinourwakinglife？Dreamshaveawonderfulpoetry，anappositeallegory，anincomparablesenseofhumour，adelightfulirony。

Theyseetheworldinthelightofapeculiaridealization，andoftenintensifytheeffectoftheirphenomenabythemostingeniousunderstandingoftherealityunderlyingthem。Theyshowusearthlybeautyinatrulyheavenlyradiance，thesublimeinitssupremestmajesty，andthatwhichweknowtobeterribleinitsmostfrightfulform，whiletheridiculousbecomesindescribablyanddrasticallycomical。Andonwakingwearesometimesstillsofullofoneoftheseimpressionsthatitwilloccurtousthatsuchthingshaveneveryetbeenofferedtousbytherealworld。"

Onemighthereaskoneself:dothesedepreciatoryremarksandtheseenthusiasticpraisesreallyrefertotheself-samephenomenon？Havesomewritersoverlookedthefoolishandotherstheprofoundandsensitivedreams？

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