Thethinkercannotdividehimselfintotwo，ofwhomonereasonswhilsttheotherobserveshimreason。Theorganobservedandtheorganobservingbeing，inthiscase，identical，howcouldobservationtakeplace？Thispretendedpsychologicalmethodisthenradicallynullandvoid。Ontheonehand，theyadviseyoutoisolateyourself，asfaraspossible，fromeveryexternalsensation，especiallyeveryintellectualwork，-forifyouweretobusyyourselfevenwiththesimplestcalculation，whatwouldbecomeofinternalobservation？-ontheotherhand，afterhavingwiththeutmostcareattainedthisstateofintellectualslumber，youmustbegintocontemplatetheoperationsgoingoninyourmind，whennothingtheretakesplace！Ourdescendantswilldoubtlessseesuchpretensionssomedayridiculeduponthestage。Theresultsofsostrangeaprocedureharmonizeentirelywithitsprinciple。Forallthetwothousandyearsduringwhichmetaphysicianshavethuscultivatedpsychology，theyarenotagreedaboutoneintelligibleandestablishedproposition。’Internalobservation’givesalmostasmanydivergentresultsasthereareindividualswhothinktheypractiseit。"

ComtehardlycouldhaveknownanythingoftheEnglish，andnothingoftheGerman，empiricalpsychology。The’results’whichhehadinmindwhenwritingwereprobably[p。189]scholasticones，suchasprinciplesofinternalactivity，thefaculties，theego，theliberumarbitriumindifferentioe，etc。JohnMill，inreplyingtohim，[6]says:

"ItmighthaveoccurredtoM。Comtethatafactmaybestudiedthroughthemediumofmemory，notattheverymomentofourperceivingit，butthemomentafter:andthisisreallythemodeinwhichourbestknowledgeofourintellectualactsisgenerallyacquired。Wereflectonwhatwehavebeendoingwhentheactispast，butwhenitsimpressioninthememoryisstillfresh。Unlessinoneoftheseways，wecouldnothaveacquiredtheknowledgewhichnobodydeniesustohave，ofwhatpassesinourminds。

M。Comtewouldscarcelyhaveaffirmedthatwearenotawareofourownintellectualoperations。Weknowofourobservingsandourreasonings，eitherattheverytime，orbymemorythemomentafter；ineithercase，bydirectknowledge，andnot(likethingsdonebyusinastateofsomnambulism)

merelybytheirresults。ThissimplefactdestroysthewholeofM。Comte’sargument。Whateverwearedirectlyawareof，wecandirectlyobserve。"

Wherenowdoesthetruthlie？OurquotationfromMillisobviouslytheonewhichexpressesthemostofpracticaltruthaboutthematter。

Eventhewriterswhoinsistupontheabsoluteveracityofourimmediateinnerapprehensionofaconsciousstatehavetocontrastwiththisthefallibilityofourmemoryorobservationofit，amomentlater。NoonehasemphasizedmoresharplythanBrentanohimselfthedifferencebetweentheimmediatefeltnessofafeeling，anditsperceptionbyasubsequentreflectiveact。Butwhichmodeofconsciousnessofitisthatwhichthepsychologistmustdependon？Iftohavefeelingsorthoughtsintheirimmediacywereenough，babiesinthecradlewouldbepsychologists，andinfallibleones。Butthepsychologistmustnotonlyhavehismentalstatesintheirabsoluteveritableness，hemustreportthemandwriteaboutthem，namethem，classifyandcomparethemandtracetheirrelationstootherthings。Whilstalivetheyaretheirownproperty；itisonlypost-mortemthattheybecomehisprey。[7]

Andasinthenaming，classing，andknow-[p。190]ingofthingsingeneralwearenotoriouslyfallible，whynotalsohere？Comteisquiterightinlayingstressonthefactthatafeeling，tobenamed，judged，orperceived，mustbealreadypast。Nosubjectivestate，whilstpresent，isitsownobject；itsobjectisalwayssomethingelse。Thereare，itistrue，casesinwhichweappeartobenamingourpresentfeeling，andsotobeexperiencingandobservingthesameinnerfactatasinglestroke，aswhenwesay’I

feeltired，’’Iamangry，’etc。Buttheseareillusory，andalittleattentionunmaskstheillusion。Thepresentconsciousstate，whenIsay’Ifeeltired，’

isnotthedirectstateoftire；whenIsay"Ifeelangry，’itisnotthedirectstateofanger。Itisthestateofsaying-I-feel-tired，ofsaying-I-feel-angry，-entirelydifferentmatters，sodifferentthatthefatigueandangerapparentlyincludedinthemareconsiderablemodificationsofthefatigueandangerdirectlyfeltinthepreviousinstant。

Theactofnamingthemhasmomentarilydetractedfromtheirforce。[8]

Theonlysoundgroundsonwhichtheinfallibleveracityoftheintrospectivejudgmentmightbemaintainedareempirical。Ifwehadreasontothinkithasneveryetdeceivedus，wemightcontinuetotrustit。ThisisthegroundactuallymaintainedbyHerrMohr。

"Theillusionsofoursenses。"saysthisauthor，"haveunderminedourbeliefintherealityoftheouterworld；butinthesphereofinnerobservationourconfidenceisintact，forwehaveneverfoundourselvestobeinerrorabouttherealityofanactofthoughtorfeeling。We[p。191]haveneverbeenmisledintothinkingwewerenotindoubtorinangerwhentheseconditionswerereallystatesofourconsciousness。"[9]

Butsoundasthereasoningherewouldbe，werethepremisescorrect，Ifearthelattercannotpass。Howeveritmaybewithsuchstrongfeelingsasdoubtoranger，aboutweakerfeelings，andabouttherelationstoeachotherofallfeelings，wefindourselvesincontinualerroranduncertaintysosoonaswearecalledontonameandclass，andnotmerelytofeel。Whocanbesureoftheexactorderofhisfeelingswhentheyareexcessivelyrapid？Whocanbesure，inhissensibleperceptionofachair，howmuchcomesfromtheeyeandhowmuchissuppliedoutofthepreviousknowledgeofthemind？Whocancomparewithprecisionthequantitiesofdisparatefeelingsevenwherethefeelingsareverymuchalike。Forinstance，whereanobjectisfeltnowagainstthebackandnowagainstthecheek，whichfeelingismostextensive？Whocanbesurethattwogivenfeelingsareorarenotexactlythesame？Whocantellwhichisbrieferorlongerthantheotherwhenbothoccupybutaninstantoftime？Whoknows，ofmanyactions，forwhatmotivetheyweredone，orifforanymotiveatall？Whocanenumerateallthedistinctingredientsofsuchacomplicatedfeelingasanger？andwhocantelloffhandwhetherornoaperceptionofdistancebeacompoundorasimplestateofmind。Thewholemind-stuffcontroversywouldstopifwecoulddecideconclusivelybyintrospectionthatwhatseemtouselementaryfeelingsarereallyelementaryandnotcompound。

Mr。Sully，inhisworkonIllusions，hasachapteronthoseofIntrospectionfromwhichwemightnowquote。But，sincetherestofthisvolumewillbelittlemorethanacollectionofillustrationsofthedifficultyofdiscoveringbydirectintrospectionexactlywhatourfeelingsandtheirrelationsare，weneednotanticipateourownfuturedetails，butjuststateourgeneralconclusionthatintrospectionisdifficultandfallible；andthatthedifficultyissimplythatofallobservationofwhateverkind。Somethingisbefore[p。192]us；wedoourbesttotellwhatitis，butinspiteofourgoodwillwemaygoastray，andgiveadescriptionmoreapplicabletosomeothersortofthing。Theonlysafeguardisinthefinalconsensusofourfartherknowledgeaboutthethinginquestion，laterviewscorrectingearlierones，untilatlasttheharmonyofaconsistentsystemisreached。Suchasystem，graduallyworkedout，isthebestguaranteethepsychologistcangiveforthesoundnessofanyparticularpsychologicobservationwhichhemayreport。Suchasystemweourselvesmuststrive，asfarasmaybe，toattain。

TheEnglishwritersonpsychology，andtheschoolofHerbartinGermany，haveinthemaincontentedthemselveswithsuchresultsastheimmediateintrospectionofsingleindividualsgave，andshownwhatabodyofdoctrinetheymaymake。TheworksofLocke，Hume，Reid，Hartley，StewartBrown，theMills，willalwaysbeclassicsinthisline；andinProfessorBrain’sTreatiseswehaveprobablythelastwordofwhatthismethodtakenmainlybyitselfcando-thelastmonumentoftheyouthofourscience，stilluntechnicalandgenerallyintelligible，liketheChemistryofLavoisier，orAnatomybeforethemicroscopewasused。

TheExperimentalMethod。Butpsychologyispassingintoalesssimplephase。WithinafewyearswhatonemaycallamicroscopicpsychologyhasariseninGermany，carriedonbyexperimentalmethods，askingofcourseeverymomentforintrospectivedata，buteliminatingtheiruncertaintybyoperatingonalargescaleandtakingstatisticalmeans。Thismethodtaxespatiencetotheutmost，andcouldhardlyhaveariseninacountrywhosenativescouldbebored。SuchGermansasWeber，Fechner，Vierordt，andWundtobviouslycannot；andtheirsuccesshasbroughtintothefieldanarrayofyoungerexperimentalpsychologists，bentonstudyingtheelementsofthementallife，dissectingthemoutfromthegrossresultsinwhichtheyareembedded，andasfaraspossiblereducingthemtoquantitativescales。Thesimpleandopenmethodofattackhavingdonewhatitcan，themethodofpatience，starvingout，andharassingtodeathistried；theMind[p。193]mustsubmittoaregularsiege，inwhichminuteadvantagesgainednightanddaybytheforcesthathemherinmustsumthemselvesupatlastintoheroverthrow。Thereislittleofthegrandstyleaboutthesenewprism，pendulum，andchronograph-philosophers。Theymeanbusiness，notchivalry。Whatgenerousdivination，andthatsuperiorityinvirtuewhichwasthoughtbyCicerotogiveamanthebestinsightintonature，havefailedtodo，theirspyingandscraping，theirdeadlytenacityandalmostdiaboliccunning，willdoubtlesssomedaybringabout。

Nogeneraldescriptionofthemethodsofexperimentalpsychologywouldbeinstructivetooneunfamiliarwiththeinstancesoftheirapplication，sowewillwastenowordsupontheattempt。Theprincipalfieldsofexperimentationsofarhavebeen:1)theconnectionofconsciousstateswiththeirphysicalconditions，includingthewholeofbrain-physiology，andtherecentminutelycultivatedphysiologyofthesense-organs，togetherwithwhatistechnicallyknownas’psycho-physics，’orthelawsofcorrelationbetweensensationsandtheoutwardstimulibywhichtheyarearoused；

2)theanalysisofspace-perceptionintoitssensationalelements；3)

themeasurementofthedurationofthesimplestmentalprocesses；4)thatoftheaccuracyofreproductioninthememoryofsensibleexperiencesandofintervalsofspaceandtime；5)thatofthemannerinwhichsimplementalstatesinfluenceeachother，calleachotherup，orinhibiteachother’sreproduction；6)thatofthenumberoffactswhichconsciousnesscansimultaneouslydiscern；finally，7)

thatoftheelementarylawsofoblivescenceandretention。Itmustbesaidthatinsomeofthesefieldstheresultshaveasyetbornelittletheoreticfruitcommensuratewiththegreatlaborexpendedintheiracquisition。

Butfactsarefacts，andifweonlygetenoughofthemtheyaresuretocombine。Newgroundwillfromyeartoyearbebroken，andtheoreticresultswillgrow。Meanwhiletheexperimentalmethodhasquitechangedthefaceofthesciencesofarasthelatterisarecordofmereworkdone。

Thecomparativemethod，finally，supplementstheintro-[p。194]

spectiveandexperimentalmethods。Thismethodpresupposesanormalpsychologyofintrospectiontobeestablishedinitsmainfeatures。Butwheretheoriginofthesefeatures，ortheirdependenceupononeanother，isinquestion，itisoftheutmostimportancetotracethephenomenonconsideredthroughallitspossiblevariationsoftypeandcombination。Soithascometopassthatinstinctsofanimalsareransackedtothrowlightonourown；andthatthereasoningfacultiesofbeesandants，themindsofsavages，infants，madmen，idiots，thedeafandblind，criminals，andeccentrics，areallinvokedinsupportofthisorthatspecialtheoryaboutsomepartofourownmentallife。Thehistoryofsciences，moralandpoliticalinstitutions，andlanguages，astypesofmentalproduct，arepressedintothesameservice。

Messrs。DarwinandGaltonhavesettheexampleofcircularsofquestionssentoutbythehundredtothosesupposedabletoreply。Thecustomhasspread，anditwillbewellforusinthenextgenerationifsuchcircularsbenotrankedamongthecommonpestsoflife。Meanwhileinformationgrows，andresultsemerge。Therearegreatsourcesoferrorinthecomparativemethod。Theinterpretationofthe’psychoses’ofanimals，savages，andinfantsisnecessarilywildwork，inwhichthepersonalequationoftheinvestigatorhasthingsverymuchitsownway。Asavagewillbereportedtohavenomoralorreligiousfeelingifhisactionsshocktheobserverunduly。Achildwillbeassumedwithoutself-consciousnessbecausehetalksofhimselfinthethirdperson，etc。，etc。Norulescanbelaiddowninadvance。Comparativeobservations，tobedefinite，mustusuallybemadetotestsomepre-existinghypothesis；andtheonlythingthenistouseasmuchsagacityasyoupossess，andtobeascandidasyoucan。THESOURCESOFERRORINPSYCHOLOGY。ThefirstofthemarisesfromtheMisleadingInfluenceofSpeech。

Languagewasoriginallymadebymenwhowerenotpsychologists，andmostmento-dayemployalmostexclusivelythevocabularyofoutwardthings。

Thecardinalpassionsofourlife，anger，love，fear，hate，hope，[p。195]

andthemostcomprehensivedivisionsofourintellectualactivity，toremember，expect，think，know，dream，withthebroadestgeneraofaestheticfeeling，joy，sorrow，pleasure，pain，aretheonlyfactsofasubjectiveorderwhichthisvocabularydeignstonotebyspecialwords。Theelementaryqualitiesofsensation，bright，loud，red，blue，hot，cold，are，itistrue，susceptibleofbeingusedinbothanobjectiveandasubjectivesense。Theystandforouterqualitiesandforthefeelingswhichthesearouse。Buttheobjectivesenseistheoriginalsense；andstillto-daywehavetodescribealargenumberofsensationsbythenameoftheobjectfromwhichtheyhavemostfrequentlybeengot。Anorangecolor，anodorofviolets，acheesytaste，athunderoussound，afierysmart，etc。，willrecallwhatImean。Thisabsenceofaspecialvocabularyforsubjectivefactshindersthestudyofallbuttheverycoarsestofthem。Empiricistwritersareveryfondofemphasizingonegreatsetofdelusionswhichlanguageinflictsonthemind。Wheneverwehavemadeaword，theysay，todenoteacertaingroupofphenomena，wearepronetosupposeasubstantiveentityexistingbeyondthephenomena，ofwhichthewordshallbethename。Butthelackofawordquiteasoftenleadstothedirectlyoppositeerror。Wearethenpronetosupposethatnoentitycanbethere；andsowecometooverlookphenomenawhoseexistencewouldbepatenttousall，hadweonlygrownuptohearitfamiliarlyrecognizedinspeech。[10]Itishardtofocusourattentiononthenameless，andsothereresultsacertainvacuousnessinthedescriptivepartsofmostpsychologies。

Butaworsedefectthanvacuousnesscomesfromthedependenceofpsychologyoncommonspeech。Namingourthoughtbyitsownobjects，wealmostallofusassumethatastheobjectsare，sothethoughtmustbe。Thethoughtofseveraldistinctthingscanonlyconsistofseveraldistinctbitsofthought，or’ideas；’thatofanabstractoruniversalobjectcanonlybeanabstractoruniversalidea。[p。196]Aseachobjectmaycomeandgo，beforgottenandthenthoughtofagain，itisheldthatthethoughtofithasapreciselysimilarindependence，self-identity，andmobility。Thethoughtoftheobject’srecurrentidentityisregardedastheidentityofitsrecurrentthought；andtheperceptionsofmultiplicity，ofcoexistence，ofsuccession，areseverallyconceivedtobebroughtaboutonlythroughamultiplicity，acoexistence，asuccession，ofperceptions。Thecontinuousflowofthementalstreamissacrificed，andinitsplaceanatomism，abrickbatplanofconstruction，ispreached，fortheexistenceofwhichnogoodintrospectivegroundscanbebroughtforward，andoutofwhichpresentlygrowallsortsofparadoxesandcontradictions，theheritageofwoeofstudentsofthemind。

ThesewordsaremeanttoimpeachtheentireEnglishpsychologyderivedfromLockeandHume，andtheentireGermanpsychologyderivedfromHerbart，sofarastheybothtreat’ideas’asseparatesubjectiveentitiesthatcomeandgo。Exampleswillsoonmakethematterclearer。Meanwhileourpsychologicinsightisvitiatedbystillothersnares。

’ThePsychologist’sFallacy。’Thegreatsnareofthepsychologististheconfusionofhisownstandpointwiththatofthementalfactaboutwhichheismakinghisreport。Ishallhereaftercallthisthe’psychologist’sfallacy’parexcellence。Forsomeofthemischief，heretoo，languageistoblame。Thepsychologist，asweremarkedabove(p。183)，standsoutsideofthementalstatehespeaksof。Bothitselfanditsobjectareobjectsforhim。Nowwhenitisacognitivestate(percept，thought，concept，etc。)，heordinarilyhasnootherwayofnamingitthanasthethought，percept，etc。，ofthatobject。Hehimself，meanwhile，knowingtheself-sameobjectinhisway，getseasilyledtosupposethatthethought，whichisofit，knowsitinthesamewayinwhichheknowsit，althoughthisisoftenveryfarfrombeingthecase。[11]Themostfictitiouspuzzleshavebeenintroducedintooursciencebythismeans。Theso-calledquestionofpresentativeorrepresentativeperception，ofwhetheran[p。197]objectispresenttothethoughtthatthinksitbyacounterfeitimageofitself，ordirectlyandwithoutanyinterveningimageatall；thequestionofnominalismandconceptualism，oftheshapeinwhichthingsarepresentwhenonlyageneralnotionofthemisbeforethemind；arecomparativelyeasyquestionswhenoncethepsychologist’sfallacyiseliminatedfromtheirtreatment，-asweshallerelongsee(inChapterXII)。

Anothervarietyofthepsychologist’fallacyistheassumptionthatthementalstatestudiedmustbeconsciousofitselfasthepsychologistisconsciousofit。Thementalstateisawareofitselfonlyfromwithin；itgraspswhatwecallitsowncontent，andnothingmore。Thepsychologist，onthecontrary，isawareofitfromwithout，andknowsitsrelationswithallsortsofotherthings。Whatthethoughtseesisonlyitsownobject；whatthepsychologistseesisthethought’sobject，plusthethoughtitself，pluspossiblyalltherestoftheworld。Wemustbeverycarefultherefore，indiscussingastateofmindfromthepsychologist’spointofview，toavoidfoistingintoitsownkenmattersthatareonlythereforours。Wemustavoidsubstitutingwhatweknowtheconsciousnessis，forwhatitisaconsciousnessof，andcountingitsoutward，andsotospeakphysical，relationswithotherfactsoftheworld，inamongtheobjectsofwhichwesetitdownasaware。Crudeassuchaconfusionofstandpointsseemstobewhenabstractlystated，itisneverthelessasnareintowhichnopsychologisthaskepthimselfatalltimesfromfalling，andwhichformsalmosttheentirestock-in-tradeofcertainschools。Wecannotbetoowatchfulagainstitssubtlycorruptinginfluence。

Summary。Tosumupthechapter，Psychologyassumesthatthoughtssuccessivelyoccur，andthattheyknowobjectsinaworldwhichthepsychologistalsoknows。Thesethoughtsarethesubjectivedataofwhichhetreats，andtheirrelationstotheirobjects，tothebrain，andtotherestoftheworldconstitutethesubject-matterofpsychologicscience。Itsmethodsareintrospection，experimentation，andcomparison。Butintrospectionisnosureguidetotruthsaboutourmentalstates；andinparticularthepovertyofthepsychologicalvocabu。[sic]laryleadsustodropoutcertainstatesfromourconsideration，andtotreatothersasiftheyknewthemselvesandtheirobjectsasthepsychologistknowsboth，whichisadisastrousfallacyinthescience。

Footnotes[1]OntherelationbetweenPsychologyandGeneralPhilosophy，seeG。C。Robertson，’Mind，’vol。VIII。p。1，andJ。Ward，ibid。p。153；J。Dewey，ibid。vol。IX。p。1。

[2]ComparesomeremarksinMill’sLogic，bk。I。chap。

III。&sect；&sect；2，3。

[3]Logic，&sect；40。

[4]Psychologie，bk。II。chap。III。&sect；&sect；1，2。

[5]CoursdePhilosophiePositive，I。34-8。

[6]AugusteComteandPositivism，3dedition(1882)，p。64。

[7]Wundtsays:"Thefirstruleforutilizinginwardobservationconsistsintaking，asfaraspossible，experiencesthatareaccidental，unexpected，andnotintentionallybroughtabout……FirstitisbestasfaraspossibletorelyonMemoryandnotonimmediateApprehension……Second，internalobservationisbetterfittedtograspclearlyconsciousstates，especiallyvoluntarymentalacts:suchinnerprocessesasareobscurelyconsciousandinvoluntarywillalmostentirelyeludeit，becausetheefforttoobserveinterfereswiththem，andbecausetheyseldomabideinmemory。"(Logik，II。432。)

[8]Incaseslikethis，wherethestateoutlaststheactofnamingit，existsbeforeit，andrecurswhenitispast，weprobablyrunlittlepracticalriskoferrorwhenwetalkasifthestateknewitself。

Thestateoffeelingandthestateofnamingthefeelingarecontinuous，andtheinfallibilityofsuchpromptintrospectivejudgmentsisprobablygreat。Butevenherethecertaintyofourknowledgeoughtnottobearguedontheapriorigroundthatpercipiandesseareinpsychologythesame。Thestatesarereallytwo；thenamingstateandthenamedstateareapart；percipiisesse’isnottheprinciplethatapplies。

[9]J。Mohr:GrundlagederEmpirischenPsychologie(Leipzig，1882)，p。47。

[10]InEnglishwehavenoteventhegenericdistinctionbetweenthe-thing-thought-ofandthe-thought-thinking-it，whichinGermanisexpressedbytheoppositionbetweenGedachtesandGedanke，inLatinbythatbetweencogitatumandcogitatio。

[11]CompareB。P。Bowne’sMetaphysics(1882)，p。

408。

ClassicsintheHistoryofPsychology——James(1890)Chapter8ThePrinciplesofPsychologyWilliamJames(1890)CHAPTERVIII。TheRelationsOfMindsToOtherThings。Since，forpsychology，amindisanobjectinaworldofotherobjects，itsrelationtothoseotherobjectsmustnextbesurveyed。Firstofall，toitsTIME-RELATIONS。Minds，asweknowthem，aretemporaryexistences。Whethermymindhadabeingpriortothebirthofmybody，whetheritshallhaveoneafterthelatter’sdecease，arequestionstobedecidedbymygeneralphilosophyortheologyratherthanbywhatwecall’scientificfacts’-Ileaveoutthefactsofso-calledspiritualism，asbeingstillindispute。Psychology，asanaturalscience，confinesitselftothepresentlife，inwhicheverymindappearsyokedtoabodythroughwhichitsmanifestationsappear。Inthepresentworld，then，mindsprecede，succeed，andcoexistwitheachotherinthecommonreceptacleoftime，andoftheircollectiverelationstothelatternothingmorecanbesaid。Thelifeoftheindividualconsciousnessintimeseems，however，tobeaninterruptedone，sothatthequestion:Areweeverwhollyunconscious？becomesonewhichmustbediscussed。Sleep，fainting，coma，epilepsy，andother’unconscious’conditionsareapttobreakinuponandoccupylargedurationsofwhatweneverthelessconsiderthementalhistoryofasingleman。And，thefactofinterruptionbeingadmitted，isitnotpossiblethatitmayexistwherewedonotsuspectit，andevenperhapsinanincessantandfine-grainedform？

Thismighthappen，andyetthesubjecthimselfneverknowit。Weoftentakeetherandhaveoperationsperformedwithoutasuspicionthatourconsciousnesshassuf-[p。200]feredabreach。Thetwoendsjoineachothersmoothlyoverthegap；andonlythesightofourwoundassuresusthatwemusthavebeenlivingthroughatimewhichforourimmediateconsciousnesswasnon-existent。

Eveninsleepthissometimeshappens:Wethinkwehavehadnonap，andittakestheclocktoassureusthatwearewrong。[1]Wethusmaylivethrougharealoutwardtime，atimeknownbythepsychologistwhostudiesus，andyetnotfeelthetime，orinferitfromanyinwardsign。

Thequestionis，howoftendoesthishappen？Isconsciousnessreallydiscontinuous，incessantlyinterruptedandrecommencing(fromthepsychologist’spointofview)？anddoesitonlyseemcontinuoustoitselfbyanillusionanalogoustothatofthezoetrope？Orisitatmosttimesascontinuousoutwardlyasitinwardlyseems？

Itmustbeconfessedthatwecangivenorigorousanswertothisquestion。

Cartesians，whoholdthattheessenceofthesoulistothink，canofcoursesolveitapriori，andexplaintheappearanceofthoughtlessintervalseitherbylapsesinourordinarymemory，orbythesinkingofconsciousnesstoaminimalstate，inwhichperhapsallthatitfeelsisabareexistencewhichleavesnoparticularsbehindtoberecalled。If，however，onehavenodoctrineaboutthesouloritsessence，oneisfreetotaketheappearancesforwhattheyseemtobe，andtoadmitthatthemind，aswellasthebody，maygotosleep。

Lockewasthefirstprominentchampionofthislatterview，andthepagesinwhichheattackstheCartesianbeliefareasspiritedasanyinhisEssay。"Everydrowsynodshakestheirdoctrinewhoteachthattheirsoulisalwaysthinking。"Hewillnotbelievethatmensoeasilyforget。

M。JouffroyandSirW。Hamilton，attackingthequestioninthesameempiricalway，areledtoanoppositeconclusion。Theirreasons，brieflystated，arethese:

[p。201]Insomnambulism，naturalorinduced，thereisoftenagreatdisplayofintellectualactivity，followedbycompleteoblivionofallthathaspassed。[2]

Onbeingsuddenlyawakenedfromasleep，howeverprofound，wealwayscatchourselvesinthemiddleofadream。Commondreamsareoftenrememberedforafewminutesafterwaking，andthenirretrievablylost。

Frequently，whenawakeandabsent-minded，wearevisitedbythoughtsandimageswhichthenextinstantwecannotrecall。

Ourinsensibilitytohabitualnoises，etc。，whilstawake，provesthatwecanneglecttoattendtothatwhichweneverthelessfeel。Similarlyinsleep，wegrowinured，andsleepsoundlyinpresenceofsensationsofsound，cold，contact，etc。，whichatfirstpreventedourcompleterepose。

Wehavelearnedtoneglectthemwhilstasleepasweshouldwhilstawake。

Themeresense-impressionsarethesamewhenthesleepisdeepaswhenitislight；thedifferencemustlieinajudgmentonthepartoftheapparentlyslumberingmindthattheyarenotworthnoticing。

Thisdiscriminationisequallyshownbynursesofthesickandmothersofinfants，whowillsleepthroughmuchnoiseofanirrelevantsort，butwakenattheslighteststirringofthepatientorthebabe。Thislastfactshowsthesense-organtobeperviousforsounds。

Manypeoplehavearemarkablefacultyofregisteringwhenasleeptheflightoftime。Theywillhabituallywakeupatthesameminutedayafterday，orwillwakepunctuallyatanunusualhourdetermineduponovernight。

Howcanthisknowledgeofthehour(moreaccurateoftenthananythingthewakingconsciousnessshows)bepossiblewithoutmentalactivityduringtheinterval？

Sucharewhatwemaycalltheclassicalreasonsforadmittingthatthemindisactiveevenwhenthepersonafterwardsignoresthefact。[3]Oflateyears，orrather，onemay[p。202]say，oflatemonths，theyhavebeenreinforcedbyalotofcuriousobservationsmadeonhystericalandhypnoticsubjects，whichprovetheexistenceofahighlydevelopedconsciousnessinplaceswhereithashithertonotbeensuspectedatall。TheseobservationsthrowsuchanovellightuponhumannaturethatImustgivetheminsomedetail。Thatatleastfourdifferentandinacertainsenserivalobserversshouldagreeinthesameconclusionjustifiesusinacceptingtheconclusionastrue。’Unconsciousness’inHysterics。Oneofthemostconstantsymptomsinpersonssufferingfromhystericdiseaseinitsextremeformsconsistsinalterationsofthenaturalsensibilityofvariouspartsandorgansofthebody。Usuallythealterationisinthedirectionofdefect，oranaesthesia。Oneorbotheyesareblind，orcolor-blind，orthereishemianopsia(blindnesstoonehalfthefieldofview)，orthefieldiscontracted。Hearing，taste，smellmaysimilarlydisappear，inpartorintotality。Stillmorestrikingarethecutaneousanaesthesias。

Theoldwitch-finderslookingforthe’devil’sseals’learnedwelltheexistenceofthoseinsensiblepatchesontheskinoftheirvictims，towhichtheminutephysicalexaminationsofrecentmedicinehavebutrecentlyattractedattentionagain。Theymaybescatteredanywhere，butareveryapttoaffectonesideofthebody。Notinfrequentlytheyaffectanentirelateralhalf，fromheadtofoot；andtheinsensibleskinof，say，theleftsidewillthenbefoundseparatedfromthenaturallysensitiveskinoftherightbyaperfectlysharplineofdemarcationdownthemiddleofthefrontandback。Sometimes，mostremarkableofall，theentireskin，hands，feet，face，everything，andthemucousmembranes，musclesandjointssofarastheycanbeex-[p。203]plored，becomecompletelyinsensiblewithouttheothervitalfunctionsbecominggravelydisturbed。

Thesehystericalanaesthesiascanbemadetodisappearmoreorlesscompletelybyvariousoddprocesses。Ithasbeenrecentlyfoundthatmagnets，platesofmetal，ortheelectrodesofabattery，placedagainsttheskin，havethispeculiarpower。Andwhenonesideisrelievedinthisway，theanaesthesiaisoftenfoundtohavetransferreditselftotheoppositeside，whichuntilthenwaswell。Whetherthesestrangeeffectsofmagnetsandmetalsbeduetotheirdirectphysiologicalaction，ortoaprioreffectonthepatient’smind(’expectantattention’or’suggestion’)isstillamootedquestion。Astillbetterawakenerofsensibilityisthehypnotictrance，intowhichmanyofthesepatientscanbeveryeasilyplaced，andinwhichtheirlostsensibilitynotinfrequentlybecomesentirelyrestored。

Suchreturnsofsensibilitysucceedthetimesofinsensibilityandalternatewiththem。ButMessrs。PierreJanet[4]andA。Binet[5]haveshownthatduringthetimesofanaesthesia，andcoexistingwithit，sensibilitytotheanaestheticpartsisalsothere，intheformofasecondaryconsciousnessentirelycutofffromtheprimaryornormalone，butsusceptibleofbeingtappedandmadetotestifytoitsexistenceinvariousoddways。

ChiefamongsttheseiswhatM。Janetcalls’themethodofdistraction。’

Thesehystericsareapttopossessaverynarrowfieldofattention，andtobeunabletothinkofmorethanonethingatatime。Whentalkingwithanypersontheyforgeteverythingelse。"WhenLucietalkeddirectlywithanyone，"saysM。Janet，"sheceasedtobeabletohearanyotherperson。

Youmaystandbehindher，callherbyname，shoutabuseintoherears，withoutmakingherturnround；orplaceyourselfbeforeher，showherobjects，touchher，etc。，withoutattractinghernotice。Whenfinallyshebecomesawareofyou，shethinksyouhavejustcomeintotheroomagain，andgreetsyouaccordingly。Thissingularforgetfulnessmakesherliabletotellallhersecretsaloud，unrestrainedbythepresenceofunsuitableauditors。"

[p。204]NowM。Janetfoundinseveralsubjectslikethisthatifhecameupbehindthemwhilsttheywereplungedinconversationwithathirdparty，andaddressedtheminawhisper，tellingthemtoraisetheirhandorperformothersimpleacts，theywouldobeytheordergiven，althoughtheirtalkingintelligencewasquiteunconsciousofreceivingit。

Leadingthemfromonethingtoanother，hemadethemreplybysignstohiswhisperedquestions，andfinallymadethemanswerinwriting，ifapencilwereplacedintheirhand。Theprimaryconsciousnessmeanwhilewentonwiththeconversation，entirelyunawareoftheseperformancesonthehand’spart。Theconsciousnesswhichpresidedovertheselatterappearedinitsturntobequiteaslittledisturbedbytheupperconsciousness’sconcerns。Thisproofby’automatic’writing，ofasecondaryconsciousness’sexistence，isthemostcogentandstrikingone；

butacrowdofotherfactsprovethesamething。IfIrunthroughthemrapidly，thereaderwillprobablybeconvinced。

Theapparentlyanaesthetichandofthesesubjects，foronething，willoftenadaptitselfdiscriminatinglytowhateverobjectmaybeputintoit。Withapencilitwillmakewritingmovements；intoapairofscissorsitwillputitsfingersandwillopenandshutthem，etc。，etc。Theprimaryconsciousness，sotocallit，ismeanwhileunabletosaywhetherornoanythingisinthehand，ifthelatterbehiddenfromsight。"IputapairofeyeglassesintoL&eacute；onie’sanaesthetichand，thishandopensitandraisesittowardsthenose，buthalfwaythitheritentersthefieldofvisionofL&eacute；onie，whoseesitandstopsstupefied:

’Why，’saysshe，’Ihaveaneyeglassinmylefthand！’"M。BinetfoundaverycurioussortofconnectionbetweentheapparentlyanaestheticskinandthemindinsomeSalp&eacute；tri&egrave；re-subjects。Thingsplacedinthehandwerenotfelt，butthoughtof(apparentlyinvisualterms)andinnowisereferredbythesubjecttotheirstartingpointinthehand’ssensation。Akey，aknife，placedinthehandoccasionedideasofakeyoraknife，butthehandfeltnothing。Similarlythesubjectthoughtofthenumber3，6，etc。，ifthehandorfingerwasbentthreeorsixtimesbytheoperator，orifhestrokeditthree，six，etc。，times。

Incertainindividualstherewasfoundastillodder[p。205]phenomenon，whichremindsoneofthatcuriousidiosyncrasyof’coloredhearing’ofwhichafewcaseshavebeenlatelydescribedwithgreatcarebyforeignwriters。Theseindividuals，namely，sawtheimpressionreceivedbythehand，butcouldnotfeelit；andthethingseenappearedbynomeansassociatedwiththehand，butmorelikeanindependentvision，whichusuallyinterestedandsurprisedthepatient。Herhandbeinghiddenbyascreen，shewasorderedtolookatanotherscreenandtotellofanyvisualimagewhichmightprojectitselfthereon。Numberswouldthencome，correspondingtothenumberoftimestheinsensiblememberwasraised，touched，etc。

Coloredlinesandfigureswouldcome，correspondingtosimilaronestracedonthepalm；thehanditselforitsfingerswouldcomewhenmanipulated；

andfinallyobjectsplacedinitwouldcome；butonthehanditselfnothingwouldeverbefelt。Ofcoursesimulationwouldnotbehardhere；butM。

Binetdisbelievesthis(usuallyveryshallow)explanationtobeaprobableoneincasesinquestion。[6]

Theusualwayinwhichdoctorsmeasurethedelicacyofourtouchisbythecompass-points。Twopointsarenormallyfeltasonewhenevertheyaretooclosetogetherfordiscrimination；butwhatis’tooclose’ononepartoftheskinmayseemveryfarapartonanother。Inthemiddleofthebackoronthethigh，lessthan3inchesmaybetooclose；onthefinger-tipatenthofaninchisfarenoughapart。Now，astestedinthisway，withtheappealmadetotheprimaryconsciousness，whichtalksthroughthemouthandseemstoholdthefieldalone，acertainperson’sskinmaybeentirelyanaestheticandnotfeelthecompass-pointsatall；andyetthissameskinwillprovetohaveaperfectlynormalsensibilityiftheappealbemadetothatothersecondaryorsub-consciousness，whichexpressesitselfautomaticallybywritingorbymovementsofthehand。M。Binet，M。PierreJanet，andM。JulesJanethaveallfoundthis。Thesubject，whenevertouched，wonld[sic]signify’one[p。206]point’or’twopoints，’asaccuratelyasifshewereanormalperson。Shewouldsignifyitonlybythesemovements；

andofthemovementsthemselvesherprimaryselfwouldbeasunconsciousasofthefactstheysignified，forwhatthesubmergedconsciousnessmakesthehanddoautomaticallyisunknowntotheconsciousnesswhichusesthemouth。

Messrs。BernheimandPitreshavealsoproved，byobservationstoocomplicatedtobegiveninthisspot，thatthehystericalblindnessisnorealblindnessatall。Theeyeofanhystericwhichistotallyblindwhentheotherorseeingeyeisshut，willdoitsshareofvisionperfectlywellwhenbotheyesareopentogether。Butevenwherebotheyesaresemi-blindfromhystericaldisease，themethodofautomaticwritingprovesthattheirperceptionsexist，onlycutofffromcommunicationwiththeupperconsciousness。M。

Binethasfoundthehandofhispatientsunconsciouslywritingdownwordswhichtheireyeswerevainlyendeavoringto’see，’i。e。，tobringtotheupperconsciousness。Theirsubmergedconsciousnesswasofcourseseeingthem，orthehandcouldnothavewrittenasitdid。Colorsaresimilarlyperceivedbythesub-consciousself，whichthehystericallycolor-blindeyescannotbringtothenormalconsciousness。Pricks，burns，andpinchesontheanaestheticskin，allunnoticedbytheupperself，arerecollectedtohavebeensuffered，andcomplainedof，assoonastheunderselfgetsachancetoexpressitselfbythepassageofthesubjectintohypnotictrance。

Itmustbeadmitted，therefore，thatincertainpersons，atleast，thetotalpossibleconsciousnessmaybesplitintopartswhichcoexistbutmutuallyignoreeachother，andsharetheobjectsofknowledgebetweenthem。Moreremarkablestill，theyarecomplementary。Giveanobjecttooneoftheconsciousnesses，andbythatfactyouremoveitfromtheotherorothers。Barringacertaincommonfundofinformation，likethecommandoflanguage，etc。，whattheupperselfknowstheunderselfisignorantof，andviceversa。M。JanethasprovedthisbeautifullyinhissubjectLucie。Thefollowingexperimentwillserveasthetypeoftherest:Inhertrancehecoveredherlapwithcards，eachbearinganumber。

Hethentoldherthaton[p。207]wakingsheshouldnotseeanycardwhosenumberwasamultipleofthree。Thisistheordinaryso-called’post-hypnoticsuggestion，’nowwellknown，andforwhichLuciewasawell-adaptedsubject。Accordingly，whenshewasawakenedandaskedaboutthepapersonherlap，shecountedandsaidshesawthoseonlywhosenumberwasnotamultipleof3。Tothe12，18，9，etc。，shewasblind。Butthehand，whenthesub-consciousselfwasinterrogatedbytheusualmethodofengrossingtheupperselfinanotherconversation，wrotethattheonlycardsinLucie’slapwerethosenumbered12，18，9，etc。，andonbeingaskedtopickupallthecardswhichwerethere，pickeduptheseandlettheotherslie。

Similarlywhenthesightofcertainthingswassuggestedtothesub-consciousLucie，thenormalLuciesuddenlybecamepartiallyortotallyblind。"Whatisthematter？Ican’tsee！"thenormalpersonagesuddenlycriedoutinthemidstofherconversation，whenM。Janetwhisperedtothesecondarypersonagetomakeuseofhereyes。Theanaesthesias，paralyses，contractionsandotherirregularitiesfromwhichhystericssufferseemthentobeduetothefactthattheirsecondarypersonagehasenricheditselfbyrobbingtheprimaryoneofafunctionwhichthelatteroughttohaveretained。

Thecurativeindicationisevident:getatthesecondarypersonage，byhypnotizationorinwhateverotherway，andmakehergiveuptheeye，theskin，thearm，orwhatevertheaffectedpartmaybe。Thenormalselfthereuponregainspossession，sees，feels，orisabletomoveagain。

InthiswayM。JulesJaneteasilycuredthewell-knownsubjectoftheSalp&eacute；tri&egrave；re，Wit。，ofallsortsofafflictionswhich，untilhediscoveredthesecretofherdeepertrance，ithadbeendifficulttosubdue。"Cessezcettemauvaiseplaisanterie，"hesaidtothesecondaryself-andthelatterobeyed。Thewayinwhichthevariouspersonagessharethestockofpossiblesensationsbetweenthemseemstobeamusinglyillustratedinthisyoungwoman。Whenawake，herskinisinsensibleeverywhereexceptonazoneaboutthearmwhereshehabituallywearsagoldbracelet。Thiszonehasfeeling；butinthedeepesttrance，whenalltherestofherbodyfeels，thisparticularzonebecomesabsolutelyanaesthetic。

[p。208]Sometimesthemutualignoranceoftheselvesleadstoincidentswhicharestrangeenough。Theactsandmovementsperformedbythesub-consciousselfarewithdrawnfromtheconsciousone，andthesubjectwilldoallsortsofincongruousthingsofwhichheremainsquiteunaware。"IorderLucie[bythemethodofdistraction]tomakeapieddenez，andherhandsgoforthwithtotheendofhernose。Askedwhatsheisdoing，sherepliesthatsheisdoingnothing，andcontinuesforalongtimetalking，withnoapparentsuspicionthatherfingersaremovinginfrontofhernose。Imakeherwalkabouttheroom；shecontinuestospeakandbelievesherselfsittingdown。"

M。Janetobservedsimilaractsinamaninalcoholicdelirium。Whilstthedoctorwasquestioninghim，M。J。madehimbywhisperedsuggestionwalk，sit，kneel，andevenliedownonhisfaceonthefloor，heallthewhilebelievinghimselftobestandingbesidehisbed。Suchbizarreriessoundincredible，untilonehasseentheirlike。Longago，withoutunderstandingit，Imyselfsawasmallexampleofthewayinwhichaperson’sknowledgemaybesharedbythetwoselves。Ayoungwomanwhohadbeenwritingautomaticallywassittingwithapencilinherhand，tryingtorecallatmyrequestthenameofagentlemanwhomshehadonceseen。Shecouldonlyrecollectthefirstsyllable。Herhandmeanwhile，withoutherknowledge，wrotedownthelasttwosyllables。Inaperfectlyhealthyyoungmanwhocanwritewiththeplanchette，Ilatelyfoundthehandtobeentirelyanaestheticduringthewritingact；IcouldprickitseverelywithouttheSubjectknowingthefact。Thewritingontheplanchette，however，accusedmeinstrongtermsofhurtingthehand。Pricksontheother(non-writing)

hand，meanwhile，whichawakenedstrongprotestfromtheyoungman’svocalorgans，weredeniedtoexistbytheselfwhichmadetheplanchettego。[7]

Wegetexactlysimilarresultsintheso-calledpost-hypnoticsuggestion。

Itisafamiliarfactthatcertainsubjects，whentoldduringatrancetoperformanactorto[p。209]experienceanhallucinationafterwaking，willwhenthetimecomes，obeythecommand。Howisthecommandregistered？

Howisitsperformancesoaccuratelytimed？Theseproblemswerelongamystery，fortheprimarypersonalityremembersnothingofthetranceorthesuggestion，andwilloftentrumpupanimprovisedpretextforyieldingtotheunaccountableimpulsewhichpossessesthemansosuddenlyandwhichhecannotresist。EdmundGurneywasthefirsttodiscover，bymeansofautomaticwriting，thatthesecondaryselfisawake，keepingitsattentionconstantlyfixedonthecommandandwatchingforthesignalofitsexecution。

Certaintrance-subjectswhowerealsoautomaticwriters，whenrousedfromtranceandputtotheplanchette，-notknowingthenwhattheywrote，andhavingtheirupperattentionfullyengrossedbyreadingaloud，talking，orsolvingproblemsinmentalarithmetic，-wouldinscribetheorderswhichtheyhadreceived，togetherwithnotesrelativetothetimeelapsedandthetimeyettorunbeforetheexecution。[8]Itisthereforetono’automatism’

inthemechanicalsensethatsuchactsaredue:aselfpresidesoverthem，asplit-off，limitedandburied，butyetafullyconscious，self。Morethanthis，theburiedselfoftencomestothesurfaceanddrivesouttheotherselfwhilsttheactsareperforming。Inotherwords，thesubjectlapsesintotranceagainwhenthemomentarrivesforexecution，andhasnosubsequentrecollectionoftheactwhichhehasdone。GurneyandBeaunisestablishedthisfact，whichhassincebeenverifiedonalargescale；

andGurneyalsoshowedthatthepatientbecamesuggestibleagainduringthebrieftimeoftheperformance。M。Janet’sobservations，intheirturn，wellillustratethephenomenon。

"ItellLucietokeepherarmsraisedaftersheshallhaveawakened。

Hardlyissheinthenormalstate，whenupgoherarmsaboveherhead，butshepaysnoattentiontothem。Shegoes，comes，converses，holdingherarmshighintheair。Ifaskedwhatherarmsaredoing，sheissurprisedatsuchaquestion，andsaysverysincerely:’Myhandsaredoingnothing；

theyarejustlikeyours。’……Icom-[p。210]mandhertoweep，andwhenawakeshereallysobs，butcontinuesinthemidstofhertearstotalkofverygaymatters。Thesobbingover，thereremainednotraceofthisgrief，whichseemedtohavebeenquitesub-conscious。"

Theprimaryselfoftenhastoinventanhallucinationbywhichtomaskandhidefromitsownviewthedeedswhichtheotherselfisenacting。

L&eacute；onie3[9]writesrealletters，whilstL&eacute；onie1believesthatsheisknitting；orLucie3reallycomestothedoctor’soffice，whilstLucie1believesherselftobeathome。Thisisasortofdelirium。Thealphabet，ortheseriesofnumbers，whenhandedovertotheattentionofthesecondarypersonagemayforthetimebelosttothenormalself。Whilstthehandwritesthealphabet，obedientlytocommand，the’subject，’tohergreatstupefaction，findsherselfunabletorecallit，etc。Fewthingsaremorecuriousthantheserelationsofmutualexclusion，ofwhichallgradationsexistbetweentheseveralpartialconsciousnesses。

Howfarthissplittingupofthemindintoseparateconsciousnessesmayexistineachoneofusisaproblem。M。Janetholdsthatitisonlypossiblewherethereisabnormalweakness，andconsequentlyadefectofunifyingorco-ordinatingpower。Anhystericalwomanabandonspartofherconsciousnessbecausesheistooweaknervouslytoholdittogether。Theabandonedpartmeanwhilemaysolidifyintoasecondaryorsub-consciousself。Inaperfectlysoundsubject，ontheotherhand，whatisdroppedoutofmindatonemomentkeepscomingbackatthenext。Thewholefundofexperiencesandknowledgesremainsintegrated，andnosplit-offportionsofitcangetorganizedstablyenoughtoformsubordinateselves。Thestability，monotony，andstupidityoftheselatterisoftenverystriking。Thepost-hypnoticsub-consciousnessseemstothinkofnothingbuttheorderwhichitlastreceived；thecatalepticsub-consciousness，ofnothingbutthelastpositionimprintedonthelimb。M。Janetcouldcausedefinitelycircumscribedreddeningandtumefactionoftheskinontwoofhissubjects，[p。211]bysuggestingtotheminhypnotismthehallucinationofamustard-poulticeofanyspecialshape。"J’aitoutletempspens&eacute；&agrave；votresinapisme，"saysthesubject，whenputbackintotranceafterthesuggestionhastakeneffect。

AmanN。，……whomM。Janetoperatedonatlongintervals，wasbetweenwhilestamperedwithbyanotheroperator，andwhenputtosleepagainbyM。Janet，saidhewas’toofarawaytoreceiveorders，beinginAlgiers。’Theotheroperator，havingsuggestedthathallucination，hadforgottentoremoveitbeforewakingthesubjectfromhistrance，andthepoorpassivetrance-personalityhadstuckforweeksinthestagnantdream。L&eacute；onie’ssub-consciousperformanceshavingbeenillustratedtoacaller，bya’pieddenez’

executedwithherlefthandinthecourseofconversation，when，ayearlater，shemeetshimagain，upgoesthesamehandtohernoseagain，withoutL&eacute；onie’snormalselfsuspectingthefact。

Allthesefacts，takentogether，formunquestionablythebeginningofaninquirywhichisdestinedtothrowanewlightintotheveryabyssesofournature。ItisforthatreasonthatIhavecitedthematsuchlengthinthisearlychapterofthebook。Theyproveonethingconclusively，namely，thatwemustnevertakeaperson’stestimony，howeversincere，thathehasfeltnothing，asproofpositivethatnofeelinghasbeenthere。

Itmayhavebeenthereaspartoftheconsciousnessofa’secondarypersonage，’

ofwhoseexperiencestheprimaryonewhomweareconsultingcannaturallygivenoaccount。Inhypnoticsubjects(asweshallseeinalaterchapter)

justasitistheeasiestthingintheworldtoparalyzeamovementormemberbysimplesuggestion，soitiseasytoproducewhatiscalledasystematizedanaesthesiabywordofcommand。Asystematizedanaesthesiameansaninsensibility，nottoanyoneelementofthings，buttosomeoneconcretethingorclassofthings。Thesubjectismadeblindordeaftoacertainpersonintheroomandtonooneelse，andthereupondeniesthatthatpersonispresent，orhasspoken，etc。M。P。Janet’sLucie，blindtosomeofthenumberedcardsinherlap(p。207above)，isacaseinpoint。

Nowwhentheobjectissimple，likeared[p。212]waferorablackcross，thesubject，althoughhedeniesthatheseesitwhenhelooksstraightatit，neverthelessgetsa’negativeafter-image’ofitwhenhelooksawayagain，showingthattheopticalimpressionofithasbeenreceived。

Moreoverreflectionshowsthatsuchasubjectmustdistinguishtheobjectfromotherslikeitinordertobeblindtoit。Makehimblindtoonepersonintheroom，setallthepersonsinarow，andtellhimtocountthem。Hewillcountallbutthatone。Buthowcanhetellwhichonenottocountwithoutrecognizingwhoheis？Inlikemanner，makeastrokeonpaperorblackboard，andtellhimitisnotthere，andhewillseenothingbutthecleanpaperorboard。Next(henotlooking)surroundtheoriginalstrokewithotherstrokesexactlylikeit，andaskhimwhathesees。Hewillpointoutonebyoneallthenewstrokes，andomittheoriginaloneeverytime，nomatterhownumerousthenewstrokesmaybe，orinwhatordertheyarearranged。Similarly，iftheoriginalsinglestroketowhichheisblindbedoubledbyaprismofsomesixteendegreesplacedbeforeoneofhiseyes(bothbeingkeptopen)，hewillsaythathenowseesonestroke，andpointinthedirectioninwhichtheimageseenthroughtheprismlies，ignoringstilltheoriginalstroke。

Obviously，then，heisnotblindtothekindofstrokeintheleast。Heisblindonlytooneindividualstrokeofthatkindinaparticularpositionontheboardorpaper-thatistoaparticularcomplexobject；

and，paradoxicalasitmayseemtosayso，hemustdistinguishitwithgreataccuracyfromotherslikeit，inordertoremainblindtoitwhentheothersarebroughtnear。Hediscriminatesit，asapreliminarytonotseeingitatall。

Again，whenbyaprismbeforeoneeyeapreviouslyinvisiblelinehasbeenmadevisibletothateye，andtheothereyeisthereuponclosedorscreened，itsclosuremakesnodifference；thelinestillremainsvisible。Butifthentheprismberemoved，thelinewilldisappeareventotheeyewhichamomentagosawit，andbotheyeswillreverttotheiroriginalblindstate。

Wehave，then，todealinthesecasesneitherwithablindnessoftheeyeitself，norwithamerefailuretonotice，but[p。213]withsomethingmuchmorecomplex；namely，anactivecountingoutandpositiveexclusionofcertainobjects。Itisaswhenone’cuts’anacquaintance，’ignores’

aclaim，or’refusestobeinfluenced’byaconsideration。Buttheperceptiveactivitywhichworkstothisresultisdisconnectedfromtheconsciousnesswhichispersonal，sotospeak，tothesubject，andmakesoftheobjectconcerningwhichthesuggestionismade，itsownprivatepossessionandprey。[10]

Themotherwhoisasleeptoeverysoundbutthestirringsofherbabe，evidentlyhasthebabe-portionofherauditorysensibilitysystematicallyawake。Relativelytothat，therestofhermindisinastateofsystematizedanaesthesia。Thatdepartment，splitoffanddisconnectedfromthesleepingpart，cannonethelesswakethelatterupincaseofneed。SothatonthewholethequarrelbetweenDescartesandLockeastowhetherthemindeversleepsislessneartosolutionthanever。OnapriorispeculativegroundsLocke’sviewthatthoughtandfeelingmayattimeswhollydisappearseemsthemoreplausible。Asglandsceasetosecreteandmusclestocontract，sothebrainshouldsometimesceasetocarrycurrents，andwiththisminimumofitsactivitymightwellcoexistaminimumofconsciousness。Ontheotherhand，weseehowdeceptiveareappearances，andareforcedtoadmitthatapartofconsciousnessmayseveritsconnectionswithotherpartsandyetcontinuetobe。Onthewholeitisbesttoabstainfromaconclusion。

Thescienceofthenearfuturewilldoubtlessanswerthisquestionmorewiselythanwecannow。

[p。214]LetusturnnowtoconsidertheRELATIONSOFCONSCIOUSNESSTOSPACE。Thisistheproblemknowninthehistoryofphilosophyasthequestionoftheseatofthesoul。Ithasgivenrisetomuchliterature，butwemustourselvestreatitverybriefly。Everythingdependsonwhatweconceivethesoultobe，anextendedoraninextendedentity。Iftheformer，itmayoccupyaseat。Ifthelatter，itmaynot；thoughithasbeenthoughtthateventhenitmightstillhaveaposition。Muchhair-splittinghasarisenaboutthepossibilityofaninextendedthingneverthelessbeingpresentthroughoutacertainamountofextension。Wemustdistinguishthekindsofpresence。Insomemannerourconsciousnessis’present’toeverythingwithwhichitisinrelation。IamcognitivelypresenttoOrionwheneverIperceivethatconstellation，butIamnotdynamicallypresentthere，Iworknoeffects。Tomybrain，however，Iamdynamicallypresent，inasmuchasmythoughtandfeelingsseemtoreactupontheprocessesthereof。If，then，bytheseatofthemindismeantnothingmorethanthelocalitywithwhichitstandsinimmediatedynamicrelations，wearecertaintoberightinsayingthatitsseatissomewhereinthecortexofthebrain。

Descartes，asiswellknown，thoughtthattheinextendedsoulwasimmediatelypresenttothepinealgland。Others，asLotzeinhisearlierdays，andW。Volkmann，thinkitspositionmustbeatsomepointofthestructurelessmatrixoftheanatomicalbrain-elements，atwhichpointtheysupposethatallnerve-currentsmaycrossandcombine。Thescholasticdoctrineisthatthesoulistotallypresent，bothinthewholeandineachandeverypartofthebody。Thismodeofpresenceissaidtobeduetothesoul’sinextendednatureandtoitssimplicity。Twoextendedentitiescouldonlycorrespondinspacewithoneanother，parttopart，-butnotsodoesthesoul，whichhasnoparts，correspondwiththebody。SirWm。HamiltonandProfessorBowendefendsomethinglikethisview。I。H。Fichte，Ulrici，and，amongAmericanphilosophers，Mr。J。E。Walter，[11]maintainthesoultobeaspace-fillingprin-[p。215]ciple。Fichtecallsittheinnerbody，Ulricilikensittoafluidofnon-molecularcomposition。Thesetheoriesremindusofthe’theosophic’doctrinesofthepresentday，andcarryusbacktotimeswhenthesoulasvehicleofconsciousnesswasnotdiscriminated，asitnowis，fromthevitalprinciplepresidingovertheformationofthebody。Platogavehead，breast，andabdomentotheimmortalreason，thecourage，andtheappetites，astheirseatsrespectively。Aristotlearguesthattheheartisthesoleseat。Elsewherewefindtheblood，thebrain，thelungs，theliverthekidneyseven，inturnassignedasseatofthewholeorpartofthesoul。[12]

Thetruthisthatifthethinkingprincipleisextendedweneitherknowitsformnoritsseat；whilstifunextended，itisabsurdtospeakofitshavinganyspace-relationsatall。Space-relationsweshallseehereaftertobesensiblethings。Theonlyobjectsthatcanhavemutualrelationsofpositionareobjectsthatareperceivedcoexistinginthesamefeltspace。Athingnotperceivedatall，suchastheinextendedsoulmustbe，cannotcoexistwithanyperceivedobjectsinthisway。Nolinescanbefeltstretchingfromittotheotherobjects。Itcanformnoterminustoanyspace-interval。Itcanthereforeinnointelligiblesenseenjoyposition。

Itsrelationscannotbespatial，butmustbeexclusivelycognitiveordynamic，aswehaveseen。Sofarastheyaredynamictotalkofthesoulbeing’present’

isonlyafigureofspeech。Hamilton’sdoctrinethatthesoulispresenttothewholebodyisatanyratefalse:forcognitivelyitspresenceextendsfarbeyondthebody，anddynamicallyitdoesnotextentbeyondthebrain。[13][p。216]THERELATIONSOFMINDSTOOTHEROBJECTSareeitherrelationstootherminds，ortomaterialthings。

Thematerialthingsareeitherthemind’sownbrain，ontheonehand，oranythingelse，ontheother。Therelationsofamindtoitsownbrainareofauniqueandutterlymysterioussort；wediscussedtheminthelasttwochapters，andcanaddnothingtothataccount。

Themind’srelationstootherobjectsthanthebrainarecognitiveandemotionalrelationsexclusively，sofarasweknow。Itknowsthem，anditinwardlywelcomesorrejectsthem，butithasnootherdealingswiththem。Whenitseemstoactuponthem，itonlydoessothroughtheintermediaryofitsownbody，sothatnotitbutthebodyiswhatactsonthem，andthebrainmustfirstactuponthebody。

Thesameistruewhenotherthingsseemtoactonit-theyonlyactonitsbody，andthroughthatonitsbrain。[14]Allthatitcandodirectlyistoknowotherthings，misknoworignorethem，andtofindthattheyinterestit，inthisfashionorinthat。

Nowtherelationofknowingisthemostmysteriousthingintheworld。IfweaskhowonethingcanknowanotherweareledintotheheartofErkenntnisstheorieandmetaphysics。Thepsychologist，forhispart，doesnotconsiderthemattersocuriouslyasthis。Findingaworldbeforehimwhichhecannotbutbelievethatheknows，andsettinghimselftostudyhisownpastthoughts，orsomeoneelse’sthoughts，ofwhathebelievestobethatsameworld；hecannotbutconcludethatthoseotherthoughtsknowitaftertheirfashionevenasheknowsitafterhis。Knowledgebecomesforhimanultimaterelationthatmustbeadmitted，whetheritbeexplainedornot，justlikedifferenceorresemblance，whichnooneseekstoexplain。

WereourtopicAbsoluteMindinsteadofbeingtheconcretemindsofindividualsdwellinginthenaturalworld，wecouldnottellwhetherthatMindhadthefunctionofknowingornot，asknowingiscommonlyunderstood。

We[p。217]mightlearnthecomplexionofitsthoughts；but，asweshouldhavenorealitiesoutsideofittocomparethemwith，-forifwehad，theMindwouldnotbeAbsolute，-wecouldnotcriticisethem，andfindthemeitherrightorwrong；andweshouldhavetocallthemsimplythethoughts，andnottheknowledge，oftheAbsoluteMind。Finiteminds，however，canbejudgedinadifferentway，becausethepsychologisthimselfcangobailfortheindependentrealityoftheobjectsofwhichtheythink。

Heknowsthesetoexistoutsideaswellasinsidethemindsinquestion；

hethusknowswhetherthemindsthinkandknow，oronlythink；andthoughhisknowledgeisofcoursethatofafalliblemortal，thereisnothingintheconditionsthatshouldmakeitmorelikelytowronginthiscasethaninanyother。

Nowbywhattestsdoesthepsychologistdecidewhetherthestateofmindheisstudyingisabitofknowledge，oronlyasubjectivefactnotreferringtoanythingoutsideitself？

Heusesthetestsweallpracticallyuse。Ifthestateofmindresembleshisownideaofacertainreality；orifwithoutresemblinghisideaofit，itseemstoimplythatrealityandrefertoitbyoperatinguponitthroughthebodilyorgans；orevenifitresemblesandoperatesonsomeotherrealitythatimplies，andleadsupto，andterminatesin，thefirstone，-ineitherorallofthesecasesthepsychologistadmitsthatthestateofmindtakescognizance，directlyorremotely，distinctlyorvaguely，trulyorfalsely，ofthereality’snatureandpositionintheworld。If，ontheotherhand，thementalstateunderexaminationneitherresemblesnoroperatesonanyoftherealitiesknowntothepsychologist，hecallsitasubjectivestatepureandsimple，possessedofnocognitiveworth。

If，again，itresemblearealityorasetofrealitiesasheknowsthem，butaltogetherfailtooperateonthemormodifytheircoursebyproducingbodilymotionswhichthepsychologistsees，thenthepsychologist，likeallofus，maybeindoubt。Letthementalstate，forexample，occurduringthesleepofitssubject。Letthelatterdreamofthedeathofacertainman，andletthemansimultaneouslydie。Isthedreamamerecoincidence，oraveritablecognitionofthedeath？Suchpuzzlingcasesare[p。218]

whattheSocietiesfor’PsychicalResearch’arecollectingandtryingtointerpretinthemostreasonableway。

Ifthedreamweretheonlyoneofthekindthesubjecteverhadinhislife，ifthecontextofthedeathinthedreamdifferedinmanyparticularsfromtherealdeath’scontext，andifthedreamledtonoactionaboutthedeath，unquestionablyweshouldallcallitastrangecoincidence，andnaughtbesides。Butifthedeathinthedreamhadalongcontext，agreeingpointforpointwitheveryfeaturethatattendedtherealdeath；ifthesubjectwereconstantlyhavingsuchdreams，allequallyperfect，andifonawakinghehadahabitofactingimmediatelyasiftheyweretrueandsogetting’thestart’ofhismoretardilyinformedneighbors，-weshouldprobablyallhavetoadmitthathehadsomemysteriouskindofclairvoyantpower，thathisdreamsinaninscrutablewayknewjustthoserealitieswhichtheyfigured，andthattheword’coincidence’failedtotouchtherootofthematter。Andwhateverdoubtsanyonepreservedwouldcompletelyvanishifitshouldappearthatfromthemidstofhisdreamhehadthepowerofinterferingwiththecourseofthereality，andmakingtheeventsinitturnthiswayorthat，accordingashedreamedtheyshould。

Thenatleastitwouldbecertainthatheandthepsychologistweredealingwiththesame。Itisbysuchtestsasthesethatweareconvincedthatthewakingmindsofourfellowsandourownmindsknowthesameexternalworld。

Thepsychologist’sattitudetowardscognitionwillbesoimportantinthesequelthatwemustnotleaveituntilitismadeperfectlyclear。Itisathoroughgoingdualism。Itsupposestwoelements，mindknowingandthingknown，andtreatsthemasirreducible。Neithergetsoutofitselforintotheother，neitherinanywayistheother，neithermakestheother。Theyjuststandfacetofaceinacommonworld，andonesimplyknows，orisknownunto，itscounterpart。Thissingularrelationisnottobeexpressedinanylowerterms，ortranslatedintoanymoreintelligiblename。Somesortofsignalmustbegivenbythethingtothemind’sbrain，ortheknowingwillnotoccur-wefindasamatter[p。219]offactthatthemereexistenceofathingoutsidethebrainisnotasufficientcauseforourknowingit:itmuststrikethebraininsomeway，aswellasbethere，tobeknown。Butthebrainbeingstruck，theknowledgeisconstitutedbyanewconstructionthatoccursaltogetherinthemind。Thethingremainsthesamewhetherknownornot。[15]Andwhenoncethere，theknowledgemayremainthere，whateverbecomesofthething。

Bytheancients，andbyunreflectingpeopleperhapstoday，knowledgeisexplainedasthepassageofsomethingfromwithoutintothemind-thelatter，sofar，atleast，asitssensibleaffectionsgo，beingpassiveandreceptive。Buteveninmeresense-impressiontheduplicationoftheobjectbyaninnerconstructionmusttakeplace。Consider，withProfessorBowne，whathappenswhentwopeopleconversetogetherandknoweachother’smind。

"Nothoughtsleavethemindofoneandcrossintothemindoftheother。

Whenwespeakofanexchangeofthought，eventhecrudestmindknowsthatthisisamerefigureofspeech……Toperceiveanother’sthought，wemustconstructhisthoughtwithinourselves；……thisthoughtisourownandisstrictlyoriginalwithus。Atthesametimeweoweittotheother；andifithadnotoriginatedwithhim，itwouldprobablynothaveoriginatedwithus。Butwhathastheotherdone？……This:byanentirelymysteriousworld-order，thespeakerisenabledtoproduceaseriesofsignswhicharetotallyunlike[the]thought，butwhich，byvirtueofthesamemysteriousorder，actasaseriesofincitementsuponthehearer，sothatheconstructswithinhimselfthecorrespondingmentalstate。Theactofthespeakerconsistsinavailinghimselfoftheproperincitements。Theactofthehearerisimmediatelyonlythereactionofthesoulagainsttheincitement……Allcommunicationbetweenfinitemindsisofthissort……Probablynoreflectingpersonwoulddenythisconclusion，butwhenwesaythatwhatisthustrueofperceptionofanother’sthoughtisequallytrueoftheperceptionoftheouterworldingeneral，manymindswillbedisposedtoquestion，andnotafewwilldenyitoutright。Yetthereisnoalternativebuttoaffirmthattoperceivetheuniversewemustconstructitinthought，andthatourknowledgeoftheuniverseisbuttheunfoldingofthemind’sinnernature……Bydescribingthemindasawaxentablet，andthingsasimpressingthemselvesuponit，weseemtogetgreatinsightuntilwethinktoaskwherethisextendedtabletis，andhowthingsstampthemselvesonit，andhowthepercep-[p。220]tiveactwouldbeexplainedeveniftheydid……Theimmediateantecedentsofsensationandperceptionareaseriesofnervouschangesinthebrain。

Whateverweknowoftheouterworldisrevealedonlyinandthroughthesenervouschanges。Butthesearetotallyunliketheobjectsassumedtoexistastheircauses。Ifwemightconceivethemindasinthelight，andindirectcontactwithitsobjects，theimaginationatleastwouldbecomforted；

butwhenweconceivethemindascomingincontactwiththeouterworldonlyinthedarkchamberoftheskull，andthennotincontactwiththeobjectsperceived，butonlywithaseriesofnerve-changesofwhich，moreover，itknowsnothing，itisplainthattheobjectisalongwayoff。Alltalkofpictures，impressions，etc。，ceasesbecauseofthelackofalltheconditionstogivesuchfiguresanymeaning。Itisnotevenclearthatweshalleverfindourwayoutofthedarknessintotheworldoflightandrealityagain。

Webeginwithcompletetrustinphysicsandthesenses，andareforthwithledawayfromtheobjectintoanervouslabyrinth，wheretheobjectisentirelydisplacedbyasetofnervouschangeswhicharetotallyunlikeanythingbutthemselves。Finally，welandinthedarkchamberoftheskull。

Theobjecthasgonecompletely，andknowledgehasnotyetappeared。Nervoussignsaretherawmaterialofallknowledgeoftheouterworldaccordingtothemostdecidedrealism。Butinordertopassbeyondthesesignsintoaknowledgeoftheouterworld，wemustpositaninterpreterwhoshallreadbackthesesignsintotheirobjectivemeaning。Butthatinterpreter，again，mustimplicitlycontainthemeaningoftheuniversewithinitself；

andthesesignsarereallybutexcitationswhichcausethesoultounfoldwhatiswithinitself。Inasmuchasbycommonconsentthesoulcommunicateswiththeouterworldonlythroughthesesigns，andnevercomesnearertotheobjectthansuchsignscanbringit，itfollowsthattheprinciplesofinterpretationmustbeintheminditself，andthattheresultingconstructionisprimarilyonlyanexpressionofthemind’sownnature。Allreactionisofthissort；itexpressesthenatureofthereactingagent，andknowledgecomesunderthesamehead。this[sic]factmakesitnecessaryforuseithertoadmitapre-establishedharmonybetweenthelawsandnatureofthoughtandthelawsandnatureofthings，orelsetoallowthattheobjectsofperception，theuniverseasitappears，arepurelyphenomenal，beingbutthewayinwhichthemindreactsagainstthegroundofitssensations。"[16]

ThedualismofObjectandSubjectandtheirpre-establishedharmonyarewhatthepsychologistassuchmustassume，whateverulteriormonisticphilosophyhemay，asanindividualwhohastherightalsotobeametaphysician，haveinreserve。Ihopethatthisgeneralpointisnow[p。221]madeclear，sothatwemayleaveit，anddescendtosomedistinctionsofdetail。

Therearetwokindsofknowledgebroadlyandpracticallydistinguishable:

wemaycallthemrespectivelyknowledgeofacquaintanceandknowledge-about。

Mostlanguagesexpressthedistinction；thus，gnvnai，eidenai；noscere，scire；kennen，wissen；

conna&icirc；tre，savoir。[17]Iamacquaintedwithmanypeopleandthings，whichIknowverylittleabout，excepttheirpresenceintheplaceswhereIhavemetthem。IknowthecolorbluewhenIseeit，andtheflavorofapearwhenItasteit；IknowaninchwhenImovemyfingerthroughit；

asecondoftime，whenIfeelitpass；aneffortofattentionwhenImakeit；adifferencebetweentwothingswhenInoticeit；butabouttheinnernatureofthesefactsorwhatmakesthemwhattheyare，Icansaynothingatall。Icannotimpartacquaintancewiththemtoanyonewhohasnotalreadymadeithimself。Icannotdescribethem，makeablindmanguesswhatblueislike，definetoachildasyllogism，ortellaphilosopherinjustwhatrespectdistanceisjustwhatitis，anddiffersfromotherformsofrelation。Atmost，Icansaytomyfriends，Gotocertainplacesandactincertainways，andtheseobjectswillprobablycome。Alltheelementarynaturesoftheworld，itshighestgenera，thesimplequalitiesofmatterandmind，togetherwiththekindsofrelationthatsubsistbetweenthem，musteithernotbeknownatall，orknowninthisdumbwayofacquaintancewithoutknowledge-about。Inmindsabletospeakatallthereis，itistrue，someknowledgeabouteverything。Thingscanatleastbeclassed，andthetimesoftheirappearancetold。Butingeneral，thelessweanalyzeathing，andthefewerofitsrelationsweperceive，thelessweknowaboutitandthemoreourfamiliaritywithitisoftheacquaintance-type。

Thetwokindsofknowledgeare，therefore，asthehumanmindpracticallyexertsthem，relativeterms。Thatis，thesamethoughtofathingmaybecalledknowledge-aboutitincomparisonwithasimplerthought，oracquaintancewithitincompari-[p。222]sonwithathoughtofitthatismorearticulateandexplicitstill。

Thegrammaticalsentenceexpressesthis。Its’subject’standsforanobjectofacquaintancewhich，bytheadditionofthepredicate，istogetsomethingknownaboutit。Wemayalreadyknowagooddeal，whenwehearthesubjectnamed-itsnamemayhaverichconnotations。But，knowwemuchorlittlethen，weknowmorestillwhenthesentenceisdone。Wecanrelapseatwillintoamereconditionofacquaintancewithanobjectbyscatteringourattentionandstaringatitinavacuoustrance-likeway。Wecanascendtoknowledgeaboutitbyrallyingourwitsandproceedingtonoticeandanalyzeandthink。Whatweareonlyacquaintedwithisonlypresenttoourminds；wehaveit，ortheideaofit。Butwhenweknowaboutit，wedomorethanmerelyhaveit；weseem，aswethinkoveritsrelations，tosubjectittoasortoftreatmentandtooperateuponitwithourthought。Thewordsfeelingandthoughtgivevoicetotheantithesis。Throughfeelingswebecomeacquaintedwiththings，butonlybyourthoughtsdoweknowaboutthem。Feelingsarethegermandstartingpointofcognition，thoughtsthedevelopedtree。Theminimumofgrammaticalsubject，ofobjectivepresence，ofrealityknownabout，themerebeginningofknowledge，mustbenamedbythewordthatsaystheleast。Suchawordistheinterjection，aslo！there！ecco！voil&agrave；！orthearticleordemonstrativepronounintroducingthesentence，asthe，it，that。InChapterXIIweshallseealittledeeperintowhatthisdistinction，betweenthemerementalhavingorfeelingofanobjectandthethinkingofit，portends。

Thementalstatesusuallydistinguishedasfeelingsaretheemotions，andthesensationswegetfromskin，muscle，viscus，eye，ear，nose，andpalate。The’thoughts，’asrecognizedinpopularparlance，aretheconceptionsandjudgments。Whenwetreatofthesementalstatesinparticularweshallhavetosayawordaboutthecognitivefunctionandvalueofeach。Itmayperhapsbewelltonoticenowthatoursensesonlygiveusacquaintancewithfactsofbody，andthatofthementalstatesofotherpersonsweonlyhaveconceptualknowledge。Ofourownpaststatesofmindwetakecognizanceinapeculiarway。Theyare’objectsofmemory，’

andappeartousendowedwithasortofwarmthandintimacythatmakestheperceptionofthemseemmorelikeaprocessofsensationthanlikeathought。Footnotes[1]Messrs。Payton-Spence(JournalofSpec。Phil。，X。

338，XIV。286)andM。M。Garver(Amer。Jour。

ofScience，3dseries，XX。189)argue，theonefromspeculative，theotherfromexperimentalgrounds，that，thephysicalconditionofconsciousnessbeingneuralvibration，theconsciousnessmustitselfbeincessantlyinterruptedbyunconsciousness-aboutfiftytimesasecond，accordingtoGarver。

[2]Thattheappearanceofmentalactivityhereisrealcanbeprovedbysuggestingtothe’hypnotized’somnambulistthatheshallrememberwhenheawakes。Hewillthenoftendoso。

[3]Formoredetails，cf。Malebranche，Rech。delaVerit&eacute；，bk。III。chap。I；J。Locke，Essayconc。H。U。，bookII。

ch。I；C。Wolf，Psychol。rationalis，&sect；59；SirW。Hamilton，LecturesonMetaph。，lectureXVII；J。Bascom，ScienceofMind，&sect；12；Th。Jouffroy，M&eacute；langesPhilos。，’duSommeil’；H。Holland，ChaptersonMentalPhysiol。，p。80；B。Brodie，Psychol。Researches，p。147；E。M。Chesley，Journ。ofSpec。Phil。，vol。XI。p。72；Th。Ribot，MaladiesdelaPersonnalit&eacute；，pp。8-10；H。Lotze，Metaphysics，&sect；533。

[4]L’AutomatismePsychologique，Paris，1889，passim。

[5]SeehisarticlesintheChicagoOpenCourt，forJuly，AugustandNovember，1889。AlsointheRevuePhilosophiquefor1889

and’90。

[6]Thiswholephenomenashowshowanideawhichremainsitselfbelowthethresholdofacertainconsciousselfmayoccasionassociativeeffectstherein。Theskin-sensationsunfeltbythepatient’sprimaryconsciousnessawakenneverthelesstheirusualvisualassociatestherein。

[7]SeeProceedingsofAmericanSoc。forPsych。Research，vol。I。p。548。

[8]Proceedingsofthe(London)Soc。forPsych。Research，May1887，p。268ff。

[9]M。Janetdesignatesbynumbersthedifferentpersonalitieswhichthesubjectmaydisplay。

[10]Howtoconceiveofthisstateofmindisnoteasy。Itwouldbemuchsimplertounderstandtheprocess，ifaddingnewstrokesmadethefirstonevisible。Therewouldthenbetwodifferentobjectsapperceivedastotals，-paperwithonestroke，paperwithmanystrokes；

and，blindtotheformer，hewouldseeallthatwasinthelatter，becausehewouldhaveapperceiveditasadifferenttotalinthefirstinstance。

Aprocessofthissortoccurssometimes(notalways)whenthenewstrokes，insteadofbeingmererepetitionsoftheoriginalone，arelineswhichcombinewithitintoatotalobject，sayahumanface。Thesubjectofthetrancethenmayregainhissightofthelinetowhichhehadpreviouslybeenblind，byseeingitaspartoftheface。

[11]PerceptionofSpaceandMatter，1879，partII。

chap。3。

[12]Foraverygoodcondensedhistoryofthevariousopinions，seeW。VolkmannvonVolkmar，Lehrbuchd。Psychologie，&sect；

16。Anm。CompletereferencestoSirW。HamiltonaregiveninJ。E。Walter，PerceptionofSpaceandMatter，pp。65-6。

[13]Mostcontemporarywritersignorethequestionofthesoul’sseat。Lotzeistheonlyonewhoseemstohavebeenmuchconcernedaboutit，andhisviewshavevaried。Cf。MedicinischePsychol。，&sect；

10。Microcosmus，bk。III。ch。2。Metaphysic，bk。III。ch。5。OutlinesofPsychol。，partII。ch。3。SeealsoG。T。Fechner，Psychophysik，chap。XXXVII。

[14]Ipurposelyignore’clairvoyance’andactionupondistantthingsby’mediums，’asnotyetmattersofcommonconsent。

[15]Idisregardconsequenceswhichmaylatercometothethingfromthefactthatitisknown。Theknowingperseinnowiseaffectsthething。

[16]B。P。Bowne:Metaphysics，pp。407-10。Cf。alsoLotze:Logik，&sect；&sect；308，326-7。

[17]Cf。JohnGrote:ExploratioPhilosophica，p。60；

H。Helmholtz，PopularScientificLectures，London，p。308-9。

ClassicsintheHistoryofPsychology——James(1890)Chapter12ThePrinciplesofPsychologyWilliamJames(1890)CHAPTERXII。CONCEPTION。THESENSEOFSAMENESS。InChapterVIII，p。221，thedistinctionwasdrawnbetweentwokindsofknowledgeofthings，bareacquaintancewiththemandknowledgeaboutthem。

Thepossibilityoftwosuchknowledgesdependsonafundamentalpsychicalpeculiaritywhichmaybeentitled"theprincipleofconstancyinthemind’smeanings，"andwhichmaybethusexpressed:"Thesamematterscanbethoughtofinsuccessiveportionsofthementalstream，andsomeoftheseportionscanknowthattheymeanthesamematterswhichtheotherportionsmeant。"Onemightputitotherwisebysayingthat"themindcanalwaysintend，andknowwhenitintends，tothinkoftheSame。"

Thissenseofsamenessistheverykeelandbackboneofourthinking。

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