TheScopeofPsychologyPsychologyistheScienceofMentalLife，bothofitsphenomenaandoftheirconditions。Thephenomenaaresuchthingsaswecallfeelings，desires，cognitions，reasonings，decisions，andthelike；and，superficiallyconsidered，theirvarietyandcomplexityissuchastoleaveachaoticimpressionontheobserver。Themostnaturalandconsequentlytheearliestwayofunifyingthematerialwas，first，toclassifyitaswellasmightbe，and，secondly，toaffiliatethediversementalmodesthusfound，uponasimpleentity，thepersonalSoul，ofwhichtheyaretakentobesomanyfacultativemanifestations。Now，forinstance，theSoulmanifestsitsfacultyofMemory，nowofReasoning，nowofVolition，oragainitsImaginationoritsAppetite。Thisistheorthodox’spiritualistic’

theoryofscholasticismandofcommon-sense。Anotherandalessobviouswayofunifyingthechaosistoseekcommonelementsinthediversmentalfactsratherthanacommonagentbehindthem，andtoexplainthemconstructivelybythevariousformsofarrangementoftheseelements，asoneexplainshousesbystonesandbricks。The’associationist’schoolsofHerbartinGermany，andofHume，theMillsandBaininBritain，havethusconstructedapsychologywithoutasoulbytakingdiscrete’ideas，’faintorvivid，andshowinghow，bytheircohesions，repulsions，andforms[p。2]ofsuccession，suchthingsasreminiscences，perceptions，emotions，volitions，passions，theories，andalltheotherfurnishingsofanindividual’smindmaybeengendered。TheverySelforegooftheindividualcomesinthiswaytobeviewednolongerasthepre-existingsourceoftherepresentations，butratherastheirlastandmostcomplicatedfruit。

Now，ifwestriverigorouslytosimplifythephenomenaineitheroftheseways，wesoonbecomeawareofinadequaciesinourmethod。Anyparticularcognition，forexample，orrecollection，isaccountedforonthesoul-theorybybeingreferredtothespiritualfacultiesofCognitionorofMemory。Thesefacultiesthemselvesarethoughtofasabsolutepropertiesofthesoul；thatis，totakethecaseofmemory，noreasonisgivenwhyweshouldrememberafactasithappened，exceptthatsotorememberitconstitutestheessenceofourRecollectivePower。

Wemay，asspiritualists，trytoexplainourmemory’sfailuresandblundersbysecondarycauses。Butitssuccessescaninvokenofactorssavetheexistenceofcertainobjectivethingstoberememberedontheonehand，andofourfacultyofmemoryontheother。When，forinstance，Irecallmygraduation-day，anddragallitsincidentsandemotionsupfromdeath’sdatelessnight，nomechanicalcausecanexplainthisprocess，norcananyanalysisreduceittolowertermsormakeitsnatureseemotherthananultimatedatum，which，whetherwerebelornotatitsmysteriousness，mustsimplybetakenforgrantedifwearetopsychologizeatall。Howevertheassociationistmayrepresentthepresentideasasthrongingandarrangingthemselves，still，thespiritualistinsists，hehasintheendtoadmitthatsomething，beitbrain，beit’ideas，’beit’association，’knowspasttimeaspast，andfillsitoutwiththisorthatevent。Andwhenthespiritualistcallsmemoryan’irreduciblefaculty，’

hesaysnomorethanthisadmissionoftheassociationistalreadygrants。

Andyettheadmissionisfarfrombeingasatisfactorysimplificationoftheconcretefacts。Forwhyshouldthisabsolutegod-givenFacultyretainsomuchbettertheeventsofyesterdaythanthoseoflastyear，and，bestofall，those[p。3]ofanhourago？

Why，again，inoldageshoulditsgraspofchildhood’seventsseemfirmest？Whyshouldillnessandexhaustionenfeebleit？Whyshouldrepeatinganexperiencestrengthenourrecollectionofit？Whyshoulddrugs，fevers，asphyxia，andexcitementresuscitatethingslongsinceforgotten？Ifwecontentourselveswithmerelyaffirmingthatthefacultyofmemoryissopeculiarlyconstitutedbynatureastoexhibitjusttheseoddities，weseemlittlethebetterforhavinginvokedit，forourexplanationbecomesascomplicatedasthatofthecrudefactswithwhichwestarted。Moreoverthereissomethinggrotesqueandirrationalinthesuppositionthatthesoulisequippedwithelementarypowersofsuchaningeniouslyintricatesort。Whyshouldourmemoryclingmoreeasilytothenearthantheremote？Whyshoulditloseitsgraspofpropersoonerthanofabstractnames？Suchpeculiaritiesseemquitefantastic；andmight，foraughtwecanseeapriori，bethepreciseoppositesofwhattheyare。Evidently，then，thefacultydoesnotexistabsolutely，butworksunderconditions；

andthequestoftheconditionsbecomesthepsychologist’smostinterestingtask。

Howeverfirmlyhemayholdtothesoulandherrememberingfaculty，hemustacknowledgethatsheneverexertsthelatterwithoutacue，andthatsomethingmustalwaysprecedeandremindusofwhateverwearetorecollect。"Anidea！"saystheassociationist，"anideaassociatedwiththerememberedthing；andthisexplainsalsowhythingsrepeatedlymetwitharemoreeasilyrecollected，fortheirassociatesonthevariousoccasionsfurnishsomanydistinctavenuesofrecall。"Butthisdoesnotexplaintheeffectsoffever，exhaustion，hypnotism，oldage，andthelike。Andingeneral，thepureassociationist’saccountofourmentallifeisalmostasbewilderingasthatofthepurespiritualist。Thismultitudeofideas，existingabsolutely，yetclingingtogether，andweavinganendlesscarpetofthemselves，likedominoesinceaselesschange，orthebitsofglassinakaleidoscope，-whencedotheygettheirfantasticlawsofclinging，andwhydotheyclinginjusttheshapestheydo？

Forthistheassociationistmustintroducetheorderofexperienceintheouterworld。Thedanceoftheideasis[p。4]acopy，somewhatmutilatedandaltered，oftheorderofphenomena。Buttheslightestreflectionshowsthatphenomenahaveabsolutelynopowertoinfluenceourideasuntiltheyhavefirstimpressedoursensesandourbrain。Thebareexistenceofapastfactisnogroundforourrememberingit。Unlesswehaveseenit，orsomehowundergoneit，weshallneverknowofitshavingbeen。Theexperiencesofthebodyarethusoneoftheconditionsofthefacultyofmemorybeingwhatitis。Andaverysmallamountofreflectiononfactsshowsthatonepartofthebody，namely，thebrain，isthepartwhoseexperiencesaredirectlyconcerned。Ifthenervouscommunicationbecutoffbetweenthebrainandotherparts，theexperiencesofthoseotherpartsarenon-existentforthemind。Theeyeisblind，theeardeaf，thehandinsensibleandmotionless。Andconversely，ifthebrainbeinjured，consciousnessisabolishedoraltered，evenalthougheveryotherorganinthebodybereadytoplayitsnormalpart。Ablowonthehead，asuddensubtractionofblood，thepressureofanapoplectichemorrhage，mayhavethefirsteffect；whilstaveryfewouncesofalcoholorgrainsofopiumorhasheesh，orawhiffofchloroformornitrousoxidegas，aresuretohavethesecond。Thedeliriumoffever，thealteredselfofinsanity，areallduetoforeignmatterscirculatingthroughthebrain，ortopathologicalchangesinthatorgan’ssubstance。ThefactthatthebrainistheoneimmediatebodilyconditionofthementaloperationsisindeedsouniversallyadmittednowadaysthatIneedspendnomoretimeinillustratingit，butwillsimplypostulateitandpasson。Thewholeremainderofthebookwillbemoreorlessofaproofthatthepostulatewascorrect。

Bodilyexperiences，therefore，andmoreparticularlybrain-experiences，musttakeaplaceamongstthoseconditionsofthementallifeofwhichPsychologyneedtakeaccount。Thespiritualistandtheassociationistmustbothbe’cerebralists，’totheextentatleastofadmittingthatcertainpeculiaritiesinthewayofworkingoftheirownfavoriteprinciplesareexplicableonlybythefactthatthebrainlawsareacodeterminantoftheresult。

[p。5]Ourfirstconclusion，then，isthatacertainamountofbrain-physiologymustbepresupposedorincludedinPsychology[1]。

Instillanotherwaythepsychologistisforcedtobesomethingofanerve-physiologist。Mentalphenomenaarenotonlyconditionedaparteantebybodilyprocesses；buttheyleadtothemapartepost。Thattheyleadtoactsisofcoursethemostfamiliaroftruths，butIdonotmerelymeanactsinthesenseofvoluntaryanddeliberatemuscularperformances。Mentalstatesoccasionalsochangesinthecalibreofblood-vessels，oralterationintheheartbeats，orprocessesmoresubtlestill，inglandsandviscera。Ifthesearetakenintoaccount，aswellasactswhichfollowatsomeremoteperiodbecausethementalstatewasoncethere，itwillbesafetolaydownthegenerallawthatnomentalmodificationeveroccurswhichisnotaccompaniedorfollowedbyabodilychange。Theideasandfeelings，e。g。，whichthesepresentprintedcharactersexciteinthereader’smindnotonlyoccasionmovementsofhiseyesandnascentmovementsofarticulationinhim，butwillsomedaymakehimspeak，ortakesidesinadiscussion，orgiveadvice，orchooseabooktoread，differentlyfromwhatwouldhavebeenthecasehadtheyneverimpressedhisretina。Ourpsychologymustthereforetakeaccountnotonlyoftheconditionsantecedenttomentalstates，butoftheirresultantconsequencesaswell。

Butactionsoriginallypromptedbyconsciousintelligencemaygrowsoautomaticbydintofhabitastobeapparentlyunconsciouslyperformed。Standing，walking，buttoningandunbuttoning，piano-playing，talking，evensayingone’sprayers，maybedonewhenthemindisabsorbedinotherthings。Theperformancesofanimalinstinctseemsemi-automatic，andthereflexactsofself-preservationcertainlyareso。Yettheyresembleintelligentactsinbringingaboutthesameendsatwhichtheanimals’consciousness，onotheroccasions，deliberatelyaims。[p。6]Shallthestudyofsuchmachine-likeyetpurposiveactsasthesebeincludedinPsychology？

Theboundary-lineofthementaliscertainlyvague。Itisbetternottobepedantic，buttoletthesciencebeasvagueasitssubject，andincludesuchphenomenaastheseifbysodoingwecanthrowanylightonthemainbusinessinhand。Itwillerelongbeseen，Itrust，thatwecan；andthatwegainmuchmorebyabroadthanbyanarrowconceptionofoursubject。Atacertainstageinthedevelopmentofeveryscienceadegreeofvaguenessiswhatbestconsistswithfertility。

Onthewhole，fewrecentformulashavedonemorerealserviceofaroughsortinpsychologythantheSpencerianonethattheessenceofmentallifeandofbodilylifeareone，namely，’theadjustmentofinnertoouterrelations。’Suchaformulaisvaguenessincarnate；butbecauseittakesintoaccountthefactthatmindsinhabitenvironmentswhichactonthemandonwhichtheyinturnreact；because，inshort，ittakesmindinthemidstofallitsconcreterelations，itisimmenselymorefertilethantheold-fashioned’rationalpsychology，’whichtreatedthesoulasadetachedexistent，sufficientuntoitself，andassumedtoconsideronlyitsnatureandproperties。Ishallthereforefeelfreetomakeanysalliesintozoologyorintopurenerve-physiologywhichmayseeminstructiveforourpurposes，butotherwiseshallleavethosesciencestothephysiologists。

Canwestatemoredistinctlystillthemannerinwhichthementallifeseemstointervenebetweenimpressionsmadefromwithoutuponthebody，andreactionsofthebodyupontheouterworldagain？Letuslookatafewfacts。

Ifsomeironfilingsbesprinkledonatableandamagnetbroughtnearthem，theywillflythroughtheairforacertaindistanceandsticktoitssurface。Asavageseeingthephenomenonexplainsitastheresultofanattractionorlovebetweenthemagnetandthefilings。Butletacardcoverthepolesofthemagnet，andthefilingswillpressforeveragainstitssurfacewithoutitseveroccurringtothemtopassarounditssidesandthuscomeinto[p。7]moredirectcontactwiththeobjectoftheirlove。Blowbubblesthroughatubeintothebottomofapailofwater，theywillrisetothesurfaceandminglewiththeair。

Theiractionmayagainbepoeticallyinterpretedasduetoalongingtorecombinewiththemother-atmosphereabovethesurface。Butifyouinvertajarfullofwateroverthepail，theywillriseandremainlodgedbeneathitsbottom，shutinfromtheouterair，althoughaslightdeflectionfromtheircourseattheoutset，orare-descenttowardstherimofthejar，whentheyfoundtheirupwardcourseimpeded，couldeasilyhavesetthemfree。

Ifnowwepassfromsuchactionsasthesetothoseoflivingthings，wenoticeastrikingdifference。RomeowantsJulietasthefilingswantthemagnet；andifnoobstaclesintervenehemovestowardsherbyasstraightalineasthey。ButRomeoandJuliet，ifawallbebuiltbetweenthem，donotremainidioticallypressingtheirfacesagainstitsoppositesideslikethemagnetandthefilingswiththecard。Romeosoonfindsacircuitousway，byscalingthewallorotherwise，oftouchingJuliet’slipsdirectly。Withthefilingsthepathisfixed；

whetheritreachestheenddependsonaccidents。Withtheloveritistheendwhichisfixed，thepathmaybemodifiedindefinitely。

Supposealivingfroginthepositioninwhichweplacedourbubblesofair，namely，atthebottomofajarofwater。Thewantofbreathwillsoonmakehimalsolongtorejointhemother-atmosphere，andhewilltaketheshortestpathtohisendbyswimmingstraightupwards。

Butifajarfullofwaterbeinvertedoverhim，hewillnot，likethebubbles，perpetuallypresshisnoseagainstitsunyieldingroof，butwillrestlesslyexploretheneighborhooduntilbyre-descendingagainhehasdiscoveredapatharounditsbrimtothegoalofhisdesires。Againthefixedend，thevaryingmeans！

Suchcontrastsbetweenlivingandinanimateperformancesendbyleadingmentodenythatinthephysicalworldfinalpurposesexistatall。Lovesanddesiresareto-daynolongerimputedtoparticlesofironorofair。Noonesupposesnowthattheendofanyactivitywhichtheymaydisplayisanidealpurposepresidingoverthe[p。8]activityfromitsoutsetandsolicitingordrawingitintobeingbyasortofvisafronte。Theend，onthecontrary，isdeemedamerepassiveresult，pushedintobeingatergo，havinghad，sotospeak，novoiceinitsownproduction。Alter，thepre-existingconditions，andwithinorganicmaterialsyoubringfortheachtimeadifferentapparentend。Butwithintelligentagents，alteringtheconditionschangestheactivitydisplayed，butnottheendreached；forheretheideaoftheyetunrealizedendco-operateswiththeconditionstodeterminewhattheactivitiesshallbe。

ThePursuanceoffutureendsandthechoiceofmeansfortheirattainment，arethusthemarkandcriterionofthepresenceofmentalityinaphenomenon。Weallusethistesttodiscriminatebetweenanintelligentandamechanicalperformance。

Weimputenomentalitytosticksandstones，becausetheyneverseemtomoveforthesakeofanything，butalwayswhenpushed，andthenindifferentlyandwithnosignofchoice。Soweunhesitatinglycallthemsenseless。

Justsoweformourdecisionuponthedeepestofallphilosophicproblems:IstheKosmosanexpressionofintelligencerationalinitsinwardnature，orabruteexternalfactpureandsimple？Ifwefindourselves，incontemplatingit，unabletobanishtheimpressionthatitisarealmoffinalpurposes，thatitexistsforthesakeofsomething，weplaceintelligenceattileheartofitandhaveareligion。If，onthecontrary，insurveyingitsirremediableflux，wecanthinkofthepresentonlyassomuchmeremechanicalsproutingfromthepast，occurringwithnoreferencetothefuture，weareatheistsandmaterialists。

Inthelengthydiscussionswhichpsychologistshavecarriedonabouttheamountofintelligencedisplayedbylowermammals，ortheamountofconsciousnessinvolvedinthefunctionsofthenerve-centresofreptiles，thesametesthasalwaysbeenapplied:

Isthecharacteroftheactionssuchthatwemustbelievethemtobeperformedforthesakeoftheirresult？Theresultinquestion，asweshallhereafterabundantlysee，isasaruleausefulone，-theanimalis，onthewhole，saferunderthecircumstancesforbringingitforth。Sofartheactionhasateleologicalcharacter；[p。9]butsuchmereoutwardteleologyasthismightstillbetheblindresultofvisatergo。Thegrowthandmovementsofplants，theprocessesofdevelopment，digestion，secretion，etc。，inanimals，supplyinnumerableinstancesofperformancesusefultotheindividualwhichmayneverthelessbe，andbymostofusaresupposedtobe，producedbyautomaticmechanism。Thephysiologistdoesnotconfidentlyassertconsciousintelligenceinthefrog’sspinalcorduntilhehasshownthattheusefulresultwhichthenervousmachinerybringsforthunderagivenirritationremainsthesamewhenthemachineryisaltered。If，totakethestock-instance，therightkneeofaheadlessfrogbeirritatedwithacid，therightfootwillwipeitoff。When，however，thisfootisamputated，theanimalwilloftenraisetheleftfoottothespotandwipetheoffendingmaterialaway。

PflugerandLewesreasonfromsuchfactsinthefollowingway:Ifthefirstreactionweretheresultofmeremachinery，theysay；ifthatirritatedportionoftheskindischargedtherightlegasatriggerdischargesitsownbarrelofashotgun；thenamputatingtherightfootwouldindeedfrustratethewiping，butwouldnotmaketheleftlegmove。Itwouldsimplyresultintherightstumpmovingthroughtheemptyair(whichisinfactthephenomenonsometimesobserved)。

Therighttriggermakesnoefforttodischargetheleftbarreliftherightonebeunloaded；nordoesanelectricalmachineevergetrestlessbecauseitcanonlyemitsparks，andnothempillow-caseslikeasewing-machine。

If，onthecontrary，therightlegoriginallymovedforthepurposeofwipingtheacid，thennothingismorenaturalthanthat，whentheeasiestmeansofeffectingthatpurposeprovefruitless，othermeansshouldbetried。Everyfailuremustkeeptheanimalinastateofdisappointmentwhichwillleadtoallsortsofnewtrialsanddevices；andtranquillitywillnotensuetilloneofthese，byahappystroke，achievesthewished-forend。

InasimilarwayGoltzascribesintelligencetothefrog’sopticlobesandcerebellum。Wealludedabovetothemannerinwhichasoundfrogimprisonedinwaterwilldiscoveranoutlettotheatmosphere。Goltzfoundthatfrogsdeprivedoftheircerebralhemisphereswouldoftenexhibit[p。10]alikeingenuity。

Suchafrog，afterrisingfromthebottomandfindinghisfartherupwardprogresscheckedbytheglassbellwhichhasbeeninvertedoverhim，willnotpersistinbuttinghisnoseagainsttheobstacleuntildeadofsuffocation，butwilloftenre-descendandemergefromunderitsrimasif，notadefinitemechanicalpropulsionupwards，butratheraconsciousdesiretoreachtheairbyhookorcrookwerethemain-springofhisactivity。Goltzconcludedfromthisthatthehemispheresarenottheseatofintellectualpowerinfrogs。Hemadethesameinferencefromobservingthatabrainlessfrogwillturnoverfromhisbacktohisbellywhenoneofhislegsissewedup，althoughthemovementsrequiredarethenverydifferentfromthoseexcitedundernormalcircumstancesbythesameannoyingposition。Theyseemdetermined，consequently，notmerelybytheantecedentirritant，butbythefinalend，-thoughtheirritantofcourseiswhatmakestheenddesired。

AnotherbrilliantGermanauthor，Liebmann[2]，arguesagainstthebrain’smechanismaccountingformentalaction，byverysimilarconsiderations。Amachineassuch，hesays，willbringforthrightresultswhenitisingoodorder，andwrongresultsifoutofrepair。Butbothkindsofresultflowwithequallyfatalnecessityfromtheirconditions。Wecannotsupposetheclock-workwhosestructurefatallydeterminesittoacertainrateofspeed，noticingthatthisspeedistooslowortoofastandvainlytryingtocorrectit。Itsconscience，ifithaveany，shouldbeasgoodasthatofthebestchronometer，forbothalikeobeyequallywellthesameeternalmechanicallaws-lawsfrombehind。Butifthebrainbeoutoforderandthemansays"Twicefouraretwo，"insteadof"Twicefourareeight，"

orelse"Imustgotothecoaltobuythewharf，"insteadof"Imustgotothewharftobuythecoal，"instantlytherearisesaconsciousnessoferror。Thewrongperformance，thoughitobeythesamemechanicallawastheright，isneverthelesscondemned，-condemnedascontradictingtheinnerlaw-thelawfrominfront，thepurposeoridealforwhichthebrainshouldact，whetheritdosoornot。

[p。11]Weneednotdiscussherewhetherthesewritersindrawingtheirconclusionhavedonejusticetoallthepremisesinvolvedinthecasestheytreatof。Wequotetheirargumentsonlytoshowhowtheyappealtotheprinciplethatnoactionsbutsuchasaredoneforanend，andshowachoiceofmeans，canbecalledindubitableexpressionsofMind。

Ishallthenadoptthisasthecriterionbywhichtocircumscribethesubject-matterofthisworksofarasactionentersintoit。Manynervousperformanceswillthereforebeunmentioned，asbeingpurelyphysiological。Norwilltheanatomyofthenervoussystemandorgansofsensebedescribedanew。ThereaderwillfindinH。N。Martin’sHumanBody，inG。T。Ladd’sPhysiologicalPsychology，andinalltheotherstandardAnatomiesandPhysiologies，amassofinformationwhichwemustregardaspreliminaryandtakeforgrantedinthepresentwork[3]。Ofthefunctionsofthecerebralhemispheres，however，sincetheydirectlysubserveconsciousness，itwillbewelltogivesomelittleaccount。Footnotes[1]Cf。GeorgeT。Ladd:ElementsofPhysiologicalPsychology(1887)，pt。III，chap。

III，9，12

[2]ZurAnalysisderWirklichkeit，p。489

[3]Nothingiseasierthantofamiliarizeone’sselfwiththemammalianbrain。Getasheep’shead，asmallsaw，chisel，scalpelandforceps(allthreecanbestbehadfromasurgical-instrumentmaker)，andunravelitspartseitherbytheaidofahumandissectingbook，suchasHolden’sManualofAnatomy，orbythespecificdirectionsadhocgiveninsuchbooksasFosterandLangley’sPracticalPhysiology(Macmillan)orMorrell’sComparativeAnatomy，andGuidetoDissection(Longman&amp；Co。)。ClassicsintheHistoryofPsychology——James(1890)Chapter5ThePrinciplesofPsychologyWilliamJames(1890)CHAPTERVTheAutomaton-TheoryIndescribingthefunctionsofthehemispheresashortwayback，weusedlanguagederivedfromboththebodilyandthementallife，sayingnowthattheanimalmadeindeterminateandunforeseeablereactions，andanonthathewasswayedbyconsiderationsoffuturegoodandevil；treatinghishemispheressometimesastheseatofmemoryandideasinthepsychicsense，andsometimestalkingofthemassimplyacomplicatedadditiontohisreflexmachinery。Thissortofvacillationinthepointofviewisafatalincidentofallordinarytalkaboutthesequestions；butImustnowsettlemyscoreswiththosereaderstowhomIalreadydroppedawordinpassing(seepage24，note)andwhohaveprobablybeendissatisfiedwithmyconducteversince。

Supposewerestrictourviewtofactsofoneandthesameplane，andletthatbethebodilyplane:cannotalltheoutwardphenomenaofintelligencestillbeexhaustivelydescribed？Thosementalimages，those’considerations，’

whereofwespoke，-presumablytheydonotarisewithoutneuralprocessesarisingsimultaneouslywiththem，andpresumablyeachconsiderationcorrespondstoaprocesssuigeneris，andunlikealltherest。Inotherwords，howevernumerousanddelicatelydifferentiatedthetrainofideasmaybe，thetrainofbrain-eventsthatrunsalongsideofitmustinbothrespectsbeexactlyitsmatch，andwemustpostulateaneuralmachinerythatoffersalivingcounterpartforeveryshading，howeverfine，ofthehistoryofitsowner’smind。Whateverdegreeofcomplicationthelattermayreach，thecomplicationofthemachinerymustbequiteasextreme，otherwiseweshouldhavetoadmitthattheremaybementaleventstowhichnobrain-eventscorrespond。[p。129]Butsuchanadmissionasthisthephysiologistisreluctanttomake。Itwouldviolateallhisbeliefs。’Nopsychosiswithoutneurosis，’

isoneformwhichtheprincipleofcontinuitytakesinhismind。

Butthisprincipleforcesthephysiologisttomakestillanotherstep。

Ifneuralactionisascomplicatedasmind；andifinthesympatheticsystemandlowerspinalcordweseewhat，sofarasweknow，isunconsciousneuralactionexecutingdeedsthattoalloutwardintentmaybecalledintelligent；

whatistheretohinderusfromsupposingthatevenwhereweknowconsciousnesstobethere，thestillmorecomplicatedneuralactionwhichwebelievetobeitsinseparablecompanionisaloneandofitselftherealagentofwhateverintelligentdeedsmayappear？"Asactionsofacertaindegreeofcomplexityarebroughtaboutbymeremechanism，whymaynotactionsofastillgreaterdegreeofcomplexitybetheresultofamorerefinedmechanism？"Theconceptionofreflexactionissurelyoneofthebestconquestsofphysiologicaltheory；whynotberadicalwithit？Whynotsaythatjustasthespinalcordisamachinewithfewreflexes，sothehemispheresareamachinewithmany，andthatthatisallthedifference？Theprincipleofcontinuitywouldpressustoacceptthisview。

Butwhatonthisviewcouldbethefunctionoftheconsciousnessitself？Mechanicalfunctionitwouldhavenone。Thesense-organswouldawakenthebrain-cells；thesewouldawakeneachotherinrationalandorderlysequence，untilthetimeforactioncame；andthenthelastbrain-vibrationwoulddischargedownwardintothemotortracts。Butthiswouldbeaquiteautonomouschainofoccurrences，andwhatevermindwentwithitwouldbethereonlyasan’epiphenomenon，’aninertspectator，asortof’foam，aura，ormelody’asMr。Hodgsonsays，whoseoppositionorwhosefurtherancewouldbealikepowerlessovertheoccurrencesthemselves。Whentalking，sometimeago，weoughtnot，accordingly，asphysiologists，tohavesaidanythingabout’considerations’asguidingtheanimal。Weoughttohavesaid’pathsleftinthehemisphericalcortexbyformercurrents，’

andnothingmore。

Nowsosimpleandattractiveisthisconceptionfromthe[p。130]consistentlyphysiologicalpointofview，thatitisquitewonderfultoseehowlateitwasstumbledoninphilosophy，andhowfewpeople，evenwhenithasbeenexplainedtothem，fullyandeasilyrealizeitsimport。Muchofthepolemicwritingagainstitisbymenwhohaveasyetfailedtotakeitintotheirimaginations。Sincethishasbeenthecase，itseemsworthwhiletodevoteafewmorewordstomakingitplausible，beforecriticisingitourselves。

ToDescartesbelongsthecreditofhavingfirstbeenboldenoughtoconceiveofacompletelyself-sufficingnervousmechanismwhichshouldbeabletoperformcomplicatedandapparentlyintelligentacts。Byasingularlyarbitraryrestriction，however，Descartesstoppedshortatman，andwhilecontendingthatinbeaststhenervousmachinerywasall，heheldthatthehigheractsofmanweretheresultoftheagencyofhisrationalsoul。

Theopinionthatbeastshavenoconsciousnessatallwasofcoursetooparadoxicaltomaintainitselflongasanythingmorethanacuriousiteminthehistoryofphilosophy。Andwithitsabandonmenttheverynotionthatthenervoussystempersemightworktheworkofintelligence，whichwasanintegral，thoughdetachablepartofthewholetheory，seemedalsotoslipoutofmen’sconception，until，inthiscentury，theelaborationofthedoctrineofreflexactionmadeitpossibleandnaturalthatitshouldagainarise。Butitwasnottill1870，Ibelieve，thatMr。Hodgsonmadethedecisivestep，bysayingthatfeelings，nomatterhowintenselytheymaybepresent，canhavenocausalefficacywhatever，andcomparingthemtothecolorslaidonthesurfaceofamosaic，ofwhichtheeventsinthenervoussystemarerepresentedbythestones。[1]Obviouslythestonesareheldinplacebyeachotherandnotbytheseveralcolorswhichtheysupport。

AboutthesametimeMr。Spalding，andalittlelaterMessrs。HuxleyandClifford，gavegreatpublicitytoanidenticaldoctrine，thoughintheircaseitwasbackedbylessrefinedmetaphysicalconsiderations。[2]

[p。131]AfewsentencesfromHuxleyandCliffordmaybesubjoinedtomakethematterentirelyclear。ProfessorHuxleysays:

"Theconsciousnessofbruteswouldappeartoberelatedtothemechanismoftheirbodysimplyasacollateralproductofitsworking，andtobeascompletelywithoutanypowerofmodifyingthatworkingasthesteam-whistlewhichaccompaniestheworkofalocomotiveengineiswithoutinfluenceonitsmachinery。Theirvolition，iftheyhaveany，isanemotionindicativeofphysicalchanges，notacauseofsuchchanges……Thesoulstandsrelatedtothebodyasthebellofaclocktotheworks，andconsciousnessanswerstothesoundwhichthebellgivesoutwhenitisstruck……ThusfarIhavestrictlyconfinedmyselftotheautomatismofbrutes……Itisquitetruethat，tothebestofmyjudgment，theargumentationwhichappliestobrutesholdsequallygoodofmen；and，therefore，thatallstatesofconsciousnessinus，asinthem，areimmediatelycausedbymolecularchangesofthebrain-substance。Itseemstomethatinmen，asinbrutes，thereisnoproofthatanystateofconsciousnessisthecauseofchangeinthemotionofthematteroftheorganism。Ifthesepositionsarewellbased，itfollowsthatourmentalconditionsaresimplythesymbolsinconsciousnessofthechangeswhichtakeplaceautomaticallyintheorganism；

andthat，totakeanextremeillustration，thefeelingwecallvolitionisnotthecauseofavoluntaryact，butthesymbolofthatstateofthebrainwhichistheimmediatecauseofthatact。Weareconsciousautomata。"

ProfessorCliffordwrites:

"Alltheevidencethatwehavegoestoshowthatthephysicalworldgetsalongentirelybyitself，accordingtopracticallyuniversalrules……Thetrainofphysicalfactsbetweenthestimulussentintotheeye，ortoanyoneofoursenses，andtheexertionwhichfollowsit，andthetrainofphysicalfactswhichgoesoninthebrain，evenwhenthereisnostimulusandnoexertion，-theseareperfectlycompletephysicaltrains，andeverystepisfullyaccountedforbymechanicalconditions……Thetwothingsareonutterlydifferentplatforms-thephysicalfactsgoalongbythemselves，andthementalfactsgoalongbythemselves。Thereisaparallelismbetweenthem，butthereisnointerferenceofonewiththeother。Again，ifanybodysaysthatthewillinfluencesmatter，thestatementisnotuntrue，butitisnonsense。Suchanassertionbelongstothecrudematerialismofthesavage。Theonly[p。132]thingwhichinfluencesmatteristhepositionofsurroundingmatterorthemotionofsurroundingmatter……Theassertionthatanotherman’svolition，afeelinginhisconsciousnessthatIcannotperceive，ispartofthetrainofphysicalfactswhichI

mayperceive，-thisisneithertruenonuntrue，butnonsense；itisacombinationofwordswhosecorrespondingideaswillnotgotogether……Sometimesoneseriesisknownbetter，andsometimestheother；sothatintellingastorywespeaksometimesofmentalandsometimesofmaterialfacts。Afeelingofchillmadeamanrun；strictlyspeaking，thenervousdisturbancewhichcoexistedwiththatfeelingofchillmadehimrun，ifwewanttotalkaboutmaterialfacts；orthefeelingofchillproducedtheformofsub-consciousnesswhichcoexistswiththemotionoflegs，ifwewanttotalkaboutmentalfacts……When，therefore，weask:’Whatisthephysicallinkbetweentheingoingmessagefromchilledskinandtheoutgoingmessagewhichmovestheleg？’andtheansweris，’Aman’swill，’wehaveasmuchrighttobeamusedasifwehadaskedourfriendwiththepicturewhatpigmentwasusedinpaintingthecannonintheforeground，andreceivedtheanswer，’Wroughtiron。’Itwillbefoundexcellentpracticeinthementaloperationsrequiredbythisdoctrinetoimagineatrain，theforepartofwhichisanengineandthreecarriageslinkedwithironcouplings，andthehindpartthreeothercarriageslinkedwithironcouplings；

thebondbetweenthetwopartsbeingmadeupoutofthesentimentsofamitysubsistingbetweenthestokerandtheguard。"

Tocomprehendcompletelytheconsequencesofthedogmasoconfidentlyenunciated，oneshouldunflinchinglyapplyittothemostcomplicatedexamples。

Themovementsofourtonguesandpens，theflashingsofoureyesinconversation，areofcourseeventsofamaterialorder，andassuchtheircausalantecedentsmustbeexclusivelymaterial。IfweknewthoroughlythenervoussystemofShakespeare，andasthoroughlyallhisenvironingconditions，weshouldbeabletoshowwhyatacertainperiodofhislifehishandcametotraceoncertainsheetsofpaperthosecrabbedlittleblackmarkswhichweforshortness’sakecallthemanuscriptofHamlet。Weshouldunderstandtherationaleofeveryerasureandalterationtherein，andweshouldunderstandallthiswithoutintheslightestdegreeacknowledgingtheexistenceofthethoughtsinShakespeare’smind。Thewordsandsentenceswouldbetaken，notassignsofanythingbeyondthemselves，butaslittleoutwardfacts，pureandsimple。Inlikemannerwemightexhaustivelywritethebiographyofthosetwohundred[p。133]pounds，moreorless，ofwarmishalbuminoidmattercalledMartinLuther，withouteverimplyingthatitfelt。

But，ontheotherhand，nothinginallthiscouldpreventusfromgivinganequallycompleteaccountofeitherLuther’sorShakespeare’sspiritualhistory，anaccountinwhicheverygleamofthoughtandemotionshouldfinditsplace。Themind-historywouldrunalongsideofthebody-historyofeachman，andeachpointintheonewouldcorrespondto，butnotreactupon，apointintheother。Sothemelodyfloatsfromtheharp-string，butneitherchecksnorquickensitsvibrations；sotheshadowrunsalongsidethepedestrian，butinnowayinfluenceshissteps。

Anotherinference，apparentlymoreparadoxicalstill，needstobemade，though，asfarasIamaware，Dr。Hodgsonistheonlywriterwhohasexplicitlydrawnit。Thatinferenceisthatfeelings，notcausingnerve-actions，cannotevencauseeachother。Toordinarycommonsense，feltpainis，assuch，notonlythecauseofoutwardtearsandcries，butalsothecauseofsuchinwardeventsassorrow，compunction，desire，orinventivethought。Sotheconsciousnessofgoodnewsisthedirectproducerofthefeelingofjoy，theawarenessofpremisesthatofthebeliefinconclusions。Butaccordingtotheautomaton-theory，eachofthefeelingsmentionedisonlythecorrelateofsomenerve-movementwhosecauselaywhollyinapreviousnerve-movement。

Thefirstnerve-movementcalledupthesecond；whateverfeelingwasattachedtothesecondconsequentlyfounditselffollowinguponthefeelingthatwasattachedtothefirst。If，forexample，goodnewswastheconsciousnesscorrelatedwiththefirstmovement，thenjoyturnedouttobethecorrelateinconsciousnessofthesecond。Butallthewhiletheitemsofthenerveseriesweretheonlyonesincausalcontinuity；theitemsoftheconsciousseries，howeverinwardlyrationaltheirsequence，weresimplyjuxtaposed。REASONSFORTHETHEORY。

The’consciousautomaton-theory，’asthisconceptionisgenerallycalled，isthusaradicalandsimpleconceptionofthemannerinwhichcertainfactsmaypossiblyoccur。But[p。134]betweenconceptionandbelief，proofoughttolie。Andwhenweask，’Whatprovesthatallthisismorethanamereconceptionofthepossible？’itisnoteasytogetasufficientreply。Ifwestartfromthefrog’sspinalcordandreasonbycontinuity，saying，asthatactssointelligently，thoughunconscious，sothehighercentres，thoughconscious，mayhavetheintelligencetheyshowquiteasmechanicallybased；weareimmediatelymetbytheexactcounter-argumentfromcontinuity，anargumentactuallyurgedbysuchwritersasPfl&uuml；gerandLewes，whichstartsfromtheactsofthehemispheres，andsays:"Astheseowetheirintelligencetotheconsciousnesswhichweknowtobethere，sotheintelligenceofthespinalcord’sactsmustreallybeduetotheinvisiblepresenceofaconsciousnesslowerindegree。"Allargumentsfromcontinuityworkintwoways，youcaneitherleveluporleveldownbytheirmeans；anditisclearthatsuchargumentsasthesecaneateachotheruptoalleternity。

Thereremainsasortofphilosophicfaith，bredlikemostfaithsfromanaestheticdemand。Mentalandphysicaleventsare，onallhands，admittedtopresentthestrongestcontrastintheentirefieldofbeing。Thechasmwhichyawnsbetweenthemislesseasilybridgedoverbythemindthananyintervalweknow。Why，then，notcallitanabsolutechasm，andsaynotonlythatthetwoworldsaredifferent，butthattheyareindependent？

Thisgivesusthecomfortofallsimpleandabsoluteformulas，anditmakeseachchainhomogeneoustoourconsideration。Whentalkingofnervoustremorsandbodilyactions，wemayfeelsecureagainstintrusionfromanirrelevantmentalworld。When，ontheotherhand，wespeakoffeelings，wemaywithequalconsistencyusetermsalwaysofonedenomination，andneverbeannoyedbywhatAristotlecalls’slippingintoanotherkind。’Thedesireonthepartofmeneducatedinlaboratoriesnottohavetheirphysicalreasoningsmixedupwithsuchincommensurablefactorsasfeelingsiscertainlyverystrong。Ihaveheardamostintelligentbiologistsay:"Itishightimeforscientificmentoprotestagainsttherecognitionofanysuchthingasconsciousnessinascientificinvestigation。"Inaword，feelingconstitutes[p。135]the’unscientific’halfofexistence，andanyonewhoenjoyscallinghimselfa’scientist’willbetoohappytopurchaseanuntrammelledhomogeneityoftermsinthestudiesofhispredilection，attheslightcostofadmittingadualismwhich，inthesamebreaththatitallowstomindanindependentstatusofbeing，banishesittoalimboofcausalinertness，fromwhencenointrusionorinterruptiononitspartneedeverbefeared。

Overandabovethisgreatpostulatethatmattersmustbekeptsimple，thereis，itmustbeconfessed，stillanotherhighlyabstractreasonfordenyingcausalefficacitytoourfeelings。Wecanformnopositiveimageofthemodusoperandiofavolitionorotherthoughtaffectingthecerebralmolecules。

"Letustrytoimagineanidea，sayoffood，producingamovement，sayofcarryingfoodtothemouth……Whatisthemethodofitsaction？

Doesitassistthedecompositionofthemoleculesofthegraymatter，ordoesitretardtheprocess，ordoesitalterthedirectioninwhichtheshocksaredistributed？Letusimaginethemoleculesofthegraymattercombinedinsuchawaythattheywillfallintosimplercombinationsontheimpactofanincidentforce。Nowsupposetheincidentforce，intheshapeofashockfromsomeothercentre，toimpingeuponthesemolecules。

Byhypothesisitwilldecomposethem，andtheywillfallintothesimplercombination。Howistheideaoffoodtopreventthisdecomposition？Manifestlyitcandosoonlybyincreasingtheforcewhichbindsthemoleculestogether。

Good！Trytoimaginetheideaofabeefsteakbindingtwomoleculestogether。

Itisimpossible。Equallyimpossibleisittoimagineasimilaridealooseningtheattractiveforcebetweentwomolecules。"[3]

ThispassagefromanexceedinglycleverwriterexpressesadmirablythedifficultytowhichIallude。Combinedwithastrongsenseofthe’chasm’

betweenthetwoworlds，andwithalivelyfaithinreflexmachinery，thesenseofthisdifficultycanhardlyfailtomakeoneturnconsciousnessoutofthedoorasasuperfluitysofarasone’sexplanationsgo。Onemaybowheroutpolitely，allowhertoremainasa’concomitant，’butoneinsiststhatmattershallholdallthepower。

"Havingthoroughlyrecognizedthefathomlessabyssthatseparatesmindfrommatter，andhavingsoblendedtheverynotionintohisvery[p。136]

naturethatthereisnochanceofhiseverforgettingitorfailingtosaturatewithitallhismeditations，thestudentofpsychologyhasnexttoappreciatetheassociationbetweenthesetwoordersofphenomena……Theyareassociatedinamannersointimatethatsomeofthegreatestthinkersconsiderthemdifferentaspectsofthesameprocess……Whentherearrangementofmoleculestakesplaceinthehigherregionsofthebrain，achangeofconsciousnesssimultaneouslyoccurs……Thechangeofconsciousnessnevertakesplacewithoutthechangeinthebrain；thechangeinthebrainnever……withoutthechangeinconsciousness。Butwhythetwooccurtogether，orwhatthelinkiswhichconnectsthem，wedonotknow，andmostauthoritiesbelievethatwenevershallandnevercanknow。Havingfirmlyandtenaciouslygraspedthesetwonotions，oftheabsoluteseparatenessofmindandmatter，andoftheinvariableconcomitanceofamentalchangewithabodilychange，thestudentwillenteronthestudyofpsychologywithhalfhisdifficultiessurmounted。"[4]

Halfhisdifficultiesignored，Ishouldprefertosay。Forthis’concomitance’

inthemidstof’absoluteseparateness’isanutterlyirrationalnotion。

Itistomymindquiteinconceivablethatconsciousnessshouldhavenothingtodowithabusinesswhichitsofaithfullyattends。Andthequestion，’Whathasittodo？’isonewhichpsychologyhasnorightto’surmount，’

foritisherplaindutytoconsiderit。Thefactisthatthewholequestionofinteractionandinfluencebetweenthingsisametaphysicalquestion，andcannotbediscussedatallbythosewhoareunwillingtogointomattersthoroughly。Itistrulyenoughhardtoimaginethe’ideaofabeefsteakbindingtwomoleculestogether；’butsinceHume’stimeithasbeenequallyhardtoimagineanythingbindingthemtogether。Thewholenotionof’binding’isamystery，thefirststeptowardsthesolutionofwhichistoclearscholasticrubbishoutoftheway。Popularsciencetalksof’forces，’’attractions’or’affinities’asbindingthemolecules；butclearscience，thoughshemayusesuchwordstoabbreviatediscourse，hasnousefortheconceptions，andissatisfiedwhenshecanexpressinsimple’laws’thebarespace-relationsofthemoleculesasfunctionsofeachotherandoftime。Tothemorecuriouslyinquiringmind，however，thissimplifiedexpressionofthebarefactsisnotenough；theremust[p。137]bea’reason’

forthem，andsomethingmust’determine’thelaws。Andwhenoneseriouslysitsdowntoconsiderwhatsortofathingonemeanswhenoneasksfora’reason，’oneisledsofarafield，sofarawayfrompopularscienceanditsscholasticism，astoseethatevensuchafactastheexistenceornon-existenceintheuniverseof’theideaofabeefsteak’maynotbewhollyindifferenttootherfactsinthesameuniverse，andinparticularmayhavesomethingtodowithdeterminingthedistanceatwhichtwomoleculesinthatuniverseshalllieapart。Ifthisisso，thencommon-sense，thoughtheintimatenatureofcausalityandoftheconnectionofthingsintheuniverseliesbeyondherpitifullyboundedhorizon，hastherootandgistofthetruthinherhandswhensheobstinatelyholdstoitthatfeelingsandideasarecauses。Howeverinadequateourideasofcausalefficacymaybe，wearelesswideofthemarkwhenwesaythatourideasandfeelingshaveit，thantheAutomatistsarewhentheysaytheyhaven’tit。Asinthenightallcatsaregray，sointhedarknessofmetaphysicalcriticismallcausesareobscure。Butonehasnorighttopullthepalloverthepsychichalfofthesubjectonly，astheautomatistsdo，andtosaythatthatcausationisunintelligible，whilstinthesamebreathonedogmatizesaboutmaterialcausationasifHume，Kant，andLotzehadneverbeenborn。Onecannotthusblowhotandcold。Onemustbeimpartiallynaiforimpartiallycritical。Ifthelatter，thereconstructionmustbethorough-goingor’metaphysical，’andwillprobablypreservethecommon-senseviewthatideasareforces，insometranslatedform。ButPsychologyisamerenaturalscience，acceptingcertaintermsuncriticallyasherdata，andstoppingshortofmetaphysicalreconstruction。Likephysics，shemustbena&iuml；ve；andifshefindsthatinherverypeculiarfieldofstudyideasseemtobecauses，shehadbettercontinuetotalkofthemassuch。Shegainsabsolutelynothingbyabreachwithcommon-senseinthismatter，andsheloses，tosaytheleast，allnaturalnessofspeech。Iffeelingsarecauses，ofcoursetheireffectsmustbefurtherancesandcheckingsofinternalcerebralmotions，ofwhichinthemselvesweareentirelywithoutknowledge。Itisprobable[p。138]thatforyearstocomeweshallhavetoinferwhathappensinthebraineitherfromourfeelingsorfrommotoreffectswhichweobserve。Theorganwillbeforusasortofvatinwhichfeelingsandmotionssomehowgoonstewingtogether，andinwhichinnumerablethingshappenofwhichwecatchbutthestatisticalresult。Why，underthesecircumstances，weshouldbeaskedtoforswearthelanguageofourchildhoodIcannotwellimagine，especiallyasitisperfectlycompatiblewiththelanguageofphysiology。Thefeelingscanproducenothingabsolutelynew，theycanonlyreinforceandinhibitreflexcurrents，andtheoriginalorganizationbyphysiologicalforcesoftheseinpathsmustalwaysbetheground-workofthepsychologicalscheme。

Myconclusionisthattourgetheautomaton-theoryuponus，asitisnowurged，onpurelyaprioriandquasi-metaphysicalgrounds，isanunwarrantableimpertinenceinthepresentstateofpsychology。REASONSAGAINSTTHETHEORY。

Buttherearemuchmorepositivereasonsthanthiswhyweoughttocontinuetotalkinpsychologyasifconsciousnesshadcausalefficacy。Theparticularsofthedistributionofconsciousness，sofarasweknowthem，pointtoitsbeingefficacious。Letustracesomeofthem。

Itisverygenerallyadmitted，thoughthepointwouldbehardtoprove，thatconsciousnessgrowsthemorecomplexandintensethehigherweriseintheanimalkingdom。Thatofamanmustexceedthatofanoyster。Fromthispointofviewitseemsanorgan，superaddedtotheotherorganswhichmaintaintheanimalinthestruggleforexistence；andthepresumptionofcourseisthatishelpshiminsomewayinthestruggle，justastheydo。Butitcannothelphimwithoutbeinginsomewayefficaciousandinfluencingthecourseofhisbodilyhistory。Ifnowitcouldbeshowninwhatwayconsciousnessmighthelphim，andif，moreover，thedefectsofhisotherorgans(whereconsciousnessismostdeveloped)aresuchastomakethemneedjustthekindofhelpthatconsciousnesswouldbringprovideditwereefficacious；why，thentheplausibleinfer-[p。139]encewouldbethatitcamejustbecauseofitsefficacy-inotherwords，itsefficacywouldbeinductivelyproved。

Nowthestudyofthephenomenaofconsciousnesswhichweshallmakethroughouttherestofthisbookwillshowusthatconsciousnessisatalltimesprimarilyaselectingagency。[5]Whetherwetakeitinthelowestsphereofsense，orinthehighestofintellection，wefinditalwaysdoingonething，choosingoneoutofseveralofthematerialssopresentedtoitsnotice，emphasizingandaccentuatingthatandsuppressingasfaraspossiblealltherest。Theitememphasizedisalwaysincloseconnectionwithsomeinterestfeltbyconsciousnesstobeparamountatthetime。

Butwhatarenowthedefectsofthenervoussysteminthoseanimalswhoseconsciousnessseemsmosthighlydeveloped？Chiefamongthemmustbeinstability。Thecerebralhemispheresarethecharacteristically’high’nerve-centres，andwesawhowindeterminateandunforeseeabletheirperformanceswereincomparisonwiththoseofthebasalgangliaandthecord。Butthisveryvaguenessconstitutestheiradvantage。Theyallowtheirpossessortoadapthisconducttotheminutestalterationsintheenvironingcircumstances，anyoneofwhichmaybeforhimasign，suggestingdistantmotivesmorepowerfulthananypresentsolicitationsofsense。Itseemsasifcertainmechanicalconclusionsshouldbedrawnfromthisstateofthings。Anorganswayedbyslightimpressionsisanorganwhosenaturalstateisoneofunstableequilibrium。Wemayimaginethevariouslinesofdischargeinthecerebrumtobealmostonaparinpointofpermeability-whatdischargeagivensmallimpressionwillproducemaybecalledaccidental，inthesenseinwhichwesayitisamatterofaccidentwhetherarain-dropfallingonamountainridgedescendtheeasternorthewesternslope。Itisinthissensethatwemaycallitamatterofaccidentwhetherachildbeaboyoragirl。Theovumissounstableabodythatcertaincausestoominuteforourapprehensionmayatacertainmomenttipitonewayortheother。Thenaturallawofanorganconstitutedafterthis[p。140]

fashioncanbenothingbutalawofcaprice。Idonotseehowonecouldreasonablyexpectfromitanycertainpursuanceofusefullinesofreaction，suchasthefewandfatallydeterminedperformancesofthelowercentresconstitutewithintheirnarrowsphere。Thedilemmainregardtothenervoussystemseems，inshort，tobeofthefollowingkind。Wemayconstructonewhichwillreactinfalliblyandcertainly，butitwillthenbecapableofreactingtoveryfewchangesintheenvironment-itwillfailtobeadaptedtoalltherest。Wemay，ontheotherhand，constructanervoussystempotentiallyadaptedtorespondtoaninfinitevarietyofminutefeaturesinthesituation；butitsfallibilitywillthenbeasgreatasitselaboration。Wecanneverbesurethatitsequilibriumwillbeupsetintheappropriatedirection。Inshort，ahighbrainmaydomanythings，andmaydoeachofthemataveryslighthint。Butitshair-triggerorganizationmakesofitahappy-go-lucky，hit-or-missaffair。Itisaslikelytodothecrazyasthesanethingatanygivenmoment。Alowbraindoesfewthings，andindoingthemperfectlyforfeitsallotheruse。Theperformancesofahighbrainarelikedicethrownforeveronatable。Unlesstheybeloaded，whatchanceistherethatthehighestnumberwillturnupoftenerthanthelowest？

Allthisissaidofthebrainasaphysicalmachinepureandsimple。Canconsciousnessincreaseitsefficiencybyloadingitsdice？Suchistheproblem。

Loadingitsdicewouldmeanbringingamoreorlessconstantpressuretobearinfavorofthoseofitsperformanceswhichmakeforthemostpermanentinterestsofthebrain’sowner；itwouldmeanaconstantinhibitionofthetendenciestostrayaside。

Well，justsuchpressureandsuchinhibitionarewhatconsciousnessseemstobeexertingallthewhile。Andtheinterestsinwhosefavoritseemstoexertthemareitsinterestsanditsalone，interestswhichitcreates，andwhich，butforit，wouldhavenostatusintherealmofbeingwhatever。Wetalk，itistrue，whenwearedarwinizing，asifthemerebodythatownsthebrainhadinterests；wespeakabouttheutilitiesofitsvariousorgansandhowtheyhelporhinderthebody’ssurvival；andwetreatthesurvivalas[p。141]ifitwereanabsoluteend，existingassuchinthephysicalworld，asortofactualshould-be，presidingovertheanimalandjudginghisreactions，quiteapartfromthepresenceofanycommentingintelligenceoutside。Weforgetthatintheabsenceofsomesuchsuperaddedcommentingintelligence(whetheritbethatoftheanimalitself，oronlyoursorMr。Darwin’s)，thereactionscannotbeproperlytalkedofas’useful’or’hurtful’atall。Consideredmerelyphysically，allthatcanbesaidofthemisthatiftheyoccurinacertainwaysurvivalwillasamatteroffactprovetobetheirincidentalconsequence。Theorgansthemselves，andalltherestofthephysicalworld，will，however，allthetimebequiteindifferenttothisconsequence，andwouldquiteascheerfully，thecircumstanceschanged，compasstheanimal’sdestruction。Inaword，survivalcanenterintoapurelyphysiologicaldiscussiononlyasanhypothesismadebyanonlookeraboutthefuture。Butthemomentyoubringaconsciousnessintothemidst，survivalceasestobeamerehypothesis。Nolongerisit，"ifsurvivalistooccur，thensoandsomustbrainandotherorganswork。"Ithasnowbecomeanimperativedecree:"Survivalshalloccur，andthereforeorgansmustsowork！"Realendsappearforthefirsttimenowupontheworld’sstage。Theconceptionofconsciousnessasapurelycognitiveformofbeing，whichisthepetwayofregardingitinmanyidealistic-modernaswellasancientschools，isthoroughlyanti-psychological，astheremainderofthisbookwillshow。Everyactuallyexistingconsciousnessseemstoitselfatanyratetobeafighterforends，ofwhichmany，butforitspresence，wouldnotbeendsatall。Itspowersofcognitionaremainlysubservienttotheseends，discerningwhichfactsfurtherthemandwhichdonot。

Nowletconsciousnessonlybewhatitseemstoitself，anditwillhelpaninstablebraintocompassitsproperends。Themovementsofthebrainperseyieldthemeansofattainingtheseendsmechanically，butonlyoutofalotofotherends，ifsotheymaybecalled，whicharenottheproperonesoftheanimal，butoftenquiteopposed。Thebrainisaninstrumentofpossibilities，butofnocertainties。Buttheconsciousness，withitsownendspresenttoit，and[p。142]knowingalsowellwhichpossibilitiesleadtheretoandwhichaway，will，ifendowedwithcausalefficacy，reinforcethefavorablepossibilitiesandrepresstheunfavorableorindifferentones。Thenerve-currents，coursingthroughthecellsandfibres，mustinthiscasebesupposedstrengthenedbythefactoftheirawakingoneconsciousnessanddampeningbyawakeninganother。Howsuchreactionoftheconsciousnessuponthecurrentsmayoccurmustremainatpresentunsolved:itisenoughformypurposetohaveshownthatitmaynotuselesslyexist，andthatthematterislesssimplethanthebrain-automatistshold。

Allthefactsofthenaturalhistoryofconsciousnesslendcolortothisview。Consciousness，forexample，isonlyintensewhennerve-processesarehesitant。Inrapid，automatic，habitualactionitsinkstoaminimum。

Nothingcouldbemorefittingthanthis，ifconsciousnesshavetheteleologicalfunctionwesuppose；nothingmoremeaningless，ifnot。Habitualactionsarecertain，andbeinginnodangerofgoingastrayfromtheirend，neednoextraneoushelp。Inhesitantaction，thereseemmanyalternativepossibilitiesoffinalnervousdischarge。Thefeelingawakenedbythenascentexcitementofeachalternativenerve-tractseemsbyitsattractiveorrepulsivequalitytodeterminewhethertheexcitementshallabortorshallbecomecomplete。

Whereindecisionisgreat，asbeforeadangerousleap，consciousnessisagonizinglyintense。Feeling，fromthispointofview，maybelikenedtoacross-sectionofthechainofnervousdischarge，ascertainingthelinksalreadylaiddown，andgropingamongthefreshendspresentedtoitfortheonewhichseemsbesttofitthecase。

Thephenomenaof’vicariousfunction’whichwestudiedinChapterII

seemstoformanotherbitofcircumstantialevidence。Amachineinworkingorderactsfatallyinoneway。Ourconsciousnesscallsthistherightway。

Takeoutavalve，throwawheeloutofgearorbendapivot，anditbecomesadifferentmachine，actingjustasfatallyinanotherwaywhichwecallthewrongway。Butthemachineitselfknowsnothingofwrongorright:

matterhasnoidealstopursue。Alocomotivewillcarryitstrain[p。143]

throughanopendrawbridgeascheerfullyastoanyotherdestination。

Abrainwithpartofitscoopedoutisvirtuallyanewmachine，andduringthefirstdaysaftertheoperationfunctionsinathoroughlyabnormalmanner。Asamatteroffact，howeveritsperformancesbecomefromdaytodaymorenormal，untilatlastapractisedeyemaybeneededtosuspectanythingwrong。Someoftherestorationisundoubtedlydueto’inhibitions’

passingaway。Butiftheconsciousnesswhichgoeswiththerestofthebrain，betherenotonlyinordertotakecognizanceofeachfunctionalerror，butalsotoexertanefficientpressuretocheckitifitbeasinofcommission，andtolendastrengtheninghandifitbeaweaknessorsinofomission，-nothingseemsmorenaturalthanthattheremainingparts，assistedinthisway，shouldbyvirtueoftheprincipleofhabitgrowbacktotheoldteleologicalmodesofexerciseforwhichtheywereatfirstincapacitated。Nothing，onthecontrary，seemsatfirstsightmoreunnaturalthanthattheyshouldvicariouslytakeupthedutiesofapartnowlostwithoutthosedutiesassuchexertinganypersuasiveorcoerciveforce。AttheendofChapterXXVIIshallreturntothisagain。

Thereisyetanothersetoffactswhichseemexplicableonthesuppositionthatconsciousnesshascausalefficacy。Itisawell-knownfactthatpleasuresaregenerallyassociatedwithbeneficial，painswithdetrimental，experiences。Allthefundamentalvitalprocessesillustratethislaw。

Starvation，suffocation，privationoffood，drinkandsleep，workwhenexhausted，burns，wounds，inflammation，theeffectsofpoison，areasdisagreeableasfillingthehungrystomach，enjoyingrestandsleepafterfatigue，exerciseafterrest，andasoundskinandunbrokenbonesatalltimes，arepleasant。

Mr。Spencerandothershavesuggestedthatthesecoincidencesaredue，nottoanypre-establishedharmony，buttothemereactionofnaturalselectionwhichwouldcertainlykilloffinthelong-runanybreedofcreaturestowhomthefundamentallynoxiousexperienceseemedenjoyable。Ananimalthatshouldtakepleasureinafeel-[p。144]lingofsuffocationwould，ifthatpleasurewereefficaciousenoughtomakehimimmersehisheadinwater，enjoyalongevityoffourorfiveminutes。Butifpleasuresandpainshavenoefficacy，onedoesnotsee(withoutsomesuch&agrave；priorirationalharmonyaswouldbescoutedbythe’scientific’championsoftheautomaton-theory)whythemostnoxiousacts，suchasburning，mightnotgivethrillsofdelight，andthemostnecessaryones，suchasbreathing，causeagony。Theexceptionstothelaware，itistrue，numerous，butrelatetoexperiencesthatareeithernotvitalornotuniversal。Drunkenness，forinstance，whichthoughnoxious，istomanypersonsdelightful，isaveryexceptionalexperience。But，astheexcellentphysiologistFickremarks，ifallriversandspringsranalcoholinsteadofwater，eitherallmenwouldnowbeborntohateitorournerveswouldhavebeenselectedsoastodrinkitwithimpunity。Theonlyconsiderableattempt，infact，thathasbeenmadetoexplainthedistributionofourfeelingsisthatofMr。GrantAlleninhissuggestivelittleworkPhysiologicalAesthetics；andhisreasoningisbasedexclusivelyonthatcausalefficacyofpleasuresandpainswhichthe’double-aspect’partisanssostrenuouslydeny。

Thus，them，fromeverypointofviewthecircumstantialevidenceagainstthattheoryisstrong。Apriorianalysisofbothbrain-actionandconsciousactionshowsusthatifthelatterwereefficaciousitwould，byitsselectiveemphasis，makeamendsfortheindeterminatenessoftheformer；whilstthestudyaposterioriofthedistributionofconsciousnessshowsittobeexactlysuchaswemightexpectinanorganaddedforthesakeofsteeringanervoussystemgrowntoocomplextoregulateitself。Theconclusionthatitisusefulis，afterallthis，quitejustifiable。

But，ifitisuseful，itmustbesothroughitscausalefficaciousness，andtheautomaton-theorymustsuccumbtothetheoryofcommonsense。I，atanyrate(pendingmetaphysicalreconstructionsnotyetsuccessfullyachieved)，shallhavenohesitationinusingthelanguageofcommon-sensethroughoutthisbook。Footnotes[1]TheTheoryofPractice，vol。，p。[sic]

[2]Thepresentwriterrecallshowin1869，whenstillamedicalstudent，hebegantowriteanessayshowinghowalmosteveryonewhospeculatedaboutbrain-processesillicitlyinterpolatedintohisaccountofthemlinksderivedfromtheentirelyheterogeneousuniverseofFeeling。Spencer，Hodgson(inhisTimeandSpace)，Maudsley，LockhartClarke，Bain，Dr。Carpenter，andotherauthorswerecitedashavingbeenguiltyoftheconfusion。Thewritingwassoonstoppedbecauseheperceivedthattheviewwhichhewasupholdingagainsttheseauthorswasapureconception，withnoproofstobeadducedofitsreality。Lateritseemedtohimthatwhateverproofsexistedreallytoldinfavoroftheirview。

[3]Chas。Mercier:TheNervousSystemandtheMind(1888)。p。9。

[4]Op。cit。p。11。

[5]SeeinparticulartheendofChapterIX。

ClassicsintheHistoryofPsychology——James(1890)Chapter7ThePrinciplesofPsychologyWilliamJames(1890)CHAPTERVIITheMethodsandSnaresofPsychologyWehavenowfinishedthephysiologicalpreliminariesofoursubjectandmustintheremainingchaptersstudythementalstatesthemselveswhosecerebralconditionsandconcomitantswehavebeenconsideringhitherto。

Beyondthebrain，however，thereisanouterworldtowhichthebrain-statesthemselves’correspond。’Anditwillbewell，ereweadvancefarther，tosayawordabouttherelationofthemindtothislargersphereofphysicalfact。PSYCHOLOGYISANATURALSCIENCE。Thatis，themindwhichthepsychologiststudiesisthemindofdistinctindividualsinhabitingdefiniteportionsofarealspaceandofarealtime。Withanyothersortofmind，absoluteIntelligence，Mindunattachedtoaparticularbody，orMindnotsubjecttothecourseoftime，thepsychologistassuchhasnothingtodo。’Mind，’inhismouth，isonlyaclassnameforminds。FortunatewillitbeifhismoremodestinquiryresultinanygeneralizationswhichthephilosopherdevotedtoabsoluteIntelligenceassuchcanuse。

Tothepsychologist，then，themindshestudiesareobjects，inaworldofotherobjects。Evenwhenheintrospectivelyanalyzeshisownmind，andtellswhathefindsthere，hetalksaboutitinanobjectiveway。Hesays，forinstance，thatundercertaincircumstancesthecolorgrayappearstohimgreen，andcallstheappearanceanillusion。Thisimpliesthathecomparestwoobjects，arealcolorseenunderconditions，andamentalperceptionwhichhebelievestorepresentit，andthathedeclarestherelationbetweenthemtobeofacertainkind。Inmakingthiscriticaljudgment，thepsychologiststandsasmuchoutsideoftheperceptionwhichhecriticisesashedoesofthecolor。Botharehisobjects。Andifthisistrueofhimwhen[p。184]hereflectsonhisownconsciousstates，howmuchtruerisitwhenhetreatsofthoseofothers！InGermanphilosophysinceKantthewordErkenntnisstheorie，criticismofthefacultyofknowledge，playsagreatpart。NowthepsychologistnecessarilybecomessuchanErkenntnisstheoretiker。ButtheknowledgehetheorizesaboutisnotthebarefunctionofknowledgewhichKantcriticises-hedoesnotinquireintothepossibilityofknowledge&uuml；berhaupt。Heassumesittobepossible，hedoesnotdoubtitspresenceinhimselfatthemomenthespeaks。Theknowledgehecriticisesistheknowledgeofparticularmenabouttheparticularthingsthatsurroundthem。Thishemay，uponoccasion，inthelightofhisownunquestionedknowledge，pronouncetrueorfalse，andtracethereasonsbywhichithasbecomeoneortheother。

Itishighlyimportantthatthisnatural-sciencepointofviewshouldbeunderstoodattheoutset。Otherwisemoremaybedemandedofthepsychologistthanheoughttobeexpectedtoperform。

AdiagramwillexhibitmoreemphaticallywhattheassumptionsofPsychologymustbe:

1ThePsychologist2TheThoughtStudied3TheThought’sObject4ThePsycholo-gist’sRealityThesefoursquarescontaintheirreducibledataofpsychology。No。1，thepsychologist，believesNos。2，3，and4，whichtogetherformhistotalobject，toberealities，andreportsthemandtheirmutualrelationsastrulyashecanwithouttroublinghimselfwiththepuzzleofhowhecanreportthematall。Aboutsuchultimatepuzzlesheinthemainneedtroublehimselfnomorethanthegeometer，thechemist，orthebotanistdo，whomakepreciselythesameassumptionsashe。[1]

Ofcertainfallaciestowhichthepsychologistisexposedbyreasonofhispeculiarpointofview-thatofbeinga[p。185]reporterofsubjectiveaswellasofobjectivefacts，wemustpresentlyspeak。Butnotuntilwehaveconsideredthemethodsheusesforascertainingwhatthefactsinquestionare。THEMETHODSOFINVESTIGATION。IntrospectiveObservationiswhatwehavetorelyonfirstandforemostandalways。Thewordintrospectionneedhardlybedefined-itmeans，ofcourse，thelookingintoourownmindsandreportingwhatwetherediscover。Everyoneagreesthatwetherediscoverstatesofconsciousness。

SofarasIknow，theexistenceofsuchstateshasneverbeendoubtedbyanycritic，howeverscepticalinotherrespectshemayhavebeen。Thatwehavecogitationsofsomesortistheinconcussuminaworldmostofwhoseotherfactshaveatsometimetotteredinthebreathofphilosophicdoubt。Allpeopleunhesitatinglybelievethattheyfeelthemselvesthinking，andthattheydistinguishthementalstateasaninwardactivityorpassion，fromalltheobjectswithwhichitmaycognitivelydeal。IregardthisbeliefasthemostfundamentalofallthepostulatesofPsychology，andshalldiscardallcuriousinquiriesaboutitscertaintyastoometaphysicalforthescopeofthisbook。

AQuestionofNomenclature。Weoughttohavesomegeneraltermbywhichtodesignateallstatesofconsciousnessmerelyassuch，andapartfromtheirparticularqualityorcognitivefunction。Unfortunatelymostofthetermsinusehavegraveobjections。’Mentalstate，’’stateofconsciousness，’

’consciousmodification，’arecumbrousandhavenokindredverbs。Thesameistrueof’subjectivecondition。’’Feeling’hastheverb’tofeel，’bothactiveandneuter，andsuchderivativesas’feelingly，’’felt，’’feltness，’

etc。，whichmakeitextremelyconvenient。Butontheotherhandithasspecificmeaningsaswellasitsgenericone，sometimesstandingforpleasureandpain，andbeingsometimesasynonymof’sensation’asopposedtothought；whereaswewishatermtocoversensationand[p。186]thoughtindifferently。Moreover，’feeling’hasacquiredintheheartsofplatonizingthinkersaveryopprobrioussetofimplications；

andsinceoneofthegreatestobstaclestomutualunderstandinginphilosophyistheuseofwordseulogisticallyanddisparagingly，impartialtermsoughtalways，ifpossible，tobepreferred。ThewordpsychosishasbeenproposedbyMr。Huxley。Ithastheadvantageofbeingcorrelativetoneurosis(thenameappliedbythesameauthortothecorrespondingnerve-process)，andismoreovertechnicalanddevoidofpartialimplications。Butithasnoverborothergrammaticalformalliedtoit。Theexpressions’affectionofthesoul，’’modificationoftheego，’areclumsy，like’stateofconsciousness，’

andtheyimplicitlyasserttheorieswhichitisnotwelltoembodyinterminologybeforetheyhavebeenopenlydiscussedandapproved。’Idea’isagoodvagueneutralword，andwasbyLockeemployedinthebroadestgenericway；butnotwithstandinghisauthorityithasnotdomesticateditselfinthelanguagesoastocoverbodilysensations。Ithasnoopprobriousconnotationsuchas’feeling’has，anditimmediatelysuggeststheomnipresenceofcognition(orreferencetoanobjectotherthanthementalstateitself)，whichweshallsoonseetobeofthementallife’sessence。Butcantheexpression’thoughtofatoothache’eversuggesttothereadertheactualpresentpainitself？Itishardlypossible；andwethusseemabouttobeforcedbackonsomepairoftermslikeHume’s’impressionandidea，’orHamilton’s’presentationandrepresentation，’ortheordinary’feelingandthought，’ifwewishtocoverthewholeground。

Inthisquandarywecanmakenodefinitivechoice，butmust，accordingtotheconvenienceofthecontext，usesometimesone，sometimesanotherofthesynonymsthathavebeenmentioned。MyownpartialityisforeitherFEELINGorTHOUGHT。Ishallprobablyoftenusebothwordsinawidersensethanusual，andalternatelystartletwoclassesofreadersbytheirunusualsound；butiftheconnectionmakesitclearthatmentalstatesatlarge，irrespec-[p。187]tiveoftheirkind，aremeant，thiswilldonoharm，andmayevendosomegood。[2]

Theinaccuracyofintrospectiveobservationhasbeenmadeasubjectofdebate。Itisimportanttogainsomefixedideasonthispointbeforeweproceed。

ThecommonestspiritualisticopinionisthattheSoulorSubjectofthementallifeisametaphysicalentity，inaccessibletodirectknowledge，andthatthevariousmentalstatesandoperationsofwhichwereflectivelybecomeawareareobjectsofaninnersensewhichdoesnotlayholdoftherealagentinitself，anymorethansightorhearinggivesusdirectknowledgeofmatterinitself。Fromthispointofviewintrospectionis，ofcourse，incompetenttolayholdofanythingmorethantheSoul’sphenomena。Buteventhenthequestionremains，Howwellcanitknowthephenomenathemselves？

Someauthorstakehighgroundhereandclaimforitasortofinfallibility。

ThusUeberweg:

"Whenamentalimage，assuch，istheobjectofmyapprehension，thereisnomeaninginseekingtodistinguishitsexistenceinmyconsciousness(inme)fromitsexistenceoutofmyconsciousness(initself)；fortheobjectapprehendedis，inthiscase，onewhichdoesnotevenexist，astheobjectsofexternalperceptiondo，initselfoutsideofmyconsciousness。

Itexistsonlywithinme。"[3]

AndBrentano:

"Thephenomenainwardlyapprehendedaretrueinthemselves。Astheyappear-ofthistheevidencewithwhichtheyareapprehendedisawarrant-sotheyareinreality。Who，then，candenythatinthisagreatsuperiorityofPsychologyoverthephysicalsciencescomestolight？"

Andagain:

"Noonecandoubtwhetherthepsychicconditionheapprehendsinhimselfbe，andbeso，asheapprehendsit。Whoevershoulddoubtthiswouldhavereachedthatfinisheddoubtwhichdestroysitselfindestroyingeveryfixedpointfromwhichtomakeanattackuponknowledge。"[4]

Othershavegonetotheoppositeextreme，andmaintainedthatwecanhavenointrospectivecognitionofour[p。188]ownmindsatall。AdeliveranceofAugusteComtetothiseffecthasbeensooftenquotedastobealmostclassical；andsomereferencetoitseemsthereforeindispensablehere。

Philosophers，saysComte，[5]have"intheselatterdaysimaginedthemselvesabletodistinguish，byaverysingularsubtlety，twosortsofobservationofequalimportance，oneexternal，theotherinternal，thelatterbeingsolelydestinedforthestudyofintellectualphenomena……Ilimitmyselftopointingouttheprincipalconsiderationwhichprovesclearlythatthispretendeddirectcontemplationofthemindbyitselfisapureillusion……Itisinfactevidentthat，byaninvincibleneccessity，[sic]thehumanmindcanobservedirectlyallphenomenaexceptitsownproperstates。Forbywhomshalltheobservationofthesebemade？Itisconceivablethatamanmightobservehimselfwithrespecttothepassionsthatanimatehim，fortheanatomicalorgansofpassionaredistinctfromthosewhosefunctionisobservation。Thoughwehaveallmadesuchobservationsonourselves，theycanneverhavemuchscientificvalue，andthebestmodeofknowingthepassionswillalwaysbethatofobservingthemfromwithout；foreverystrongstateofpassion……isnecessarilyincompatiblewiththestateofobservation。But，asforobservinginthesamewayintellectualphenomenaatthetimeoftheiractualpresence，thatisamanifestimpossibility。

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