WhenThrasymachushasbeensilenced，thetwoprincipalrespondents，GlauconandAdeimantus，appearonthescene：here，asinGreektragedy，threeactorsareintroduced。AtfirstsightthetwosonsofAristonmayseemtowearafamilylikeness，likethetwofriendsSimmiasandCebesinthePhaedo。Butonanearerexaminationofthemthesimilarityvanishes，andtheyareseentobedistinctcharacters。Glauconistheimpetuousyouthwhocan"justneverhaveenoughoffechting"（cf。thecharacterofhiminXen。Mem。iii。6）；
themanofpleasurewhoisacquaintedwiththemysteriesoflove；
the"juvenisquigaudetcanibus，"andwhoimprovesthebreedofanimals；theloverofartandmusicwhohasalltheexperiencesofyouthfullife。Heisfullofquicknessandpenetration，piercingeasilybelowtheclumsyplatitudesofThrasymachustotherealdifficulty；heturnsouttothelighttheseamysideofhumanlife，andyetdoesnotlosefaithinthejustandtrue。ItisGlauconwhoseizeswhatmaybetermedtheludicrousrelationofthephilosophertotheworld，towhomastateofsimplicityis"acityofpigs，"whoisalwayspreparedwithajestwhentheargumentoffershimanopportunity，andwhoiseverreadytosecondthehumorofSocratesandtoappreciatetheridiculous，whetherintheconnoisseursofmusic，orintheloversoftheatricals，orinthefantasticbehaviorofthecitizensofdemocracy。HisweaknessesareseveraltimesalludedtobySocrates，who，however，willnotallowhimtobeattackedbyhisbrotherAdeimantus。Heisasoldier，and，likeAdeimantus，hasbeendistinguishedatthebattleofMegara。
ThecharacterofAdeimantusisdeeperandgraver，andtheprofounderobjectionsarecommonlyputintohismouth。Glauconismoredemonstrative，andgenerallyopensthegame。Adeimantuspursuestheargumentfurther。Glauconhasmoreofthelivelinessandquicksympathyofyouth；Adeimantushasthematurerjudgmentofagrown—upmanoftheworld。Inthesecondbook，whenGlauconinsiststhatjusticeandinjusticeshallbeconsideredwithoutregardtotheirconsequences，Adeimantusremarksthattheyareregardedbymankindingeneralonlyforthesakeoftheirconsequences；andinasimilarveinofreflectionheurgesatthebeginningofthefourthbookthatSocratesfallsinmakinghiscitizenshappy，andisansweredthathappinessisnotthefirstbutthesecondthing，notthedirectaimbuttheindirectconsequenceofthegoodgovernmentofaState。Inthediscussionaboutreligionandmythology，Adeimantusistherespondent，butGlauconbreaksinwithaslightjest，andcarriesontheconversationinalightertoneaboutmusicandgymnastictotheendofthebook。ItisAdeimantusagainwhovolunteersthecriticismofcommonsenseontheSocraticmethodofargument，andwhorefusestoletSocratespasslightlyoverthequestionofwomenandchildren。
ItisAdeimantuswhoistherespondentinthemoreargumentative，asGlauconinthelighterandmoreimaginativeportionsoftheDialogue。Forexample，throughoutthegreaterpartofthesixthbook，thecausesofthecorruptionofphilosophyandtheconceptionoftheideaofgoodarediscussedwithAdeimantus。ThenGlauconresumeshisplaceofprincipalrespondent；buthehasadifficultyinapprehendingthehighereducationofSocrates，andmakessomefalsehitsinthecourseofthediscussion。OncemoreAdeimantusreturnswiththeallusiontohisbrotherGlauconwhomhecomparestothecontentiousState；inthenextbookheisagainsuperseded，andGlauconcontinuestotheend。
ThusinasuccessionofcharactersPlatorepresentsthesuccessivestagesofmorality，beginningwiththeAtheniangentlemanoftheoldentime，whoisfollowedbythepracticalmanofthatdayregulatinghislifebyproverbsandsaws；tohimsucceedsthewildgeneralizationoftheSophists，andlastlycometheyoungdisciplesofthegreatteacher，whoknowthesophisticalargumentsbutwillnotbeconvincedbythem，anddesiretogodeeperintothenatureofthings。Thesetoo，likeCephalus，Polemarchus，Thrasymachus，areclearlydistinguishedfromoneanother。NeitherintheRepublic，norinanyotherDialogueofPlato，isasinglecharacterrepeated。
ThedelineationofSocratesintheRepublicisnotwhollyconsistent。InthefirstbookwehavemoreoftherealSocrates，suchasheisdepictedintheMemorabiliaofXenophon，intheearliestDialoguesofPlato，andintheApology。Heisironical，provoking，questioning，theoldenemyoftheSophists，readytoputonthemaskofSilenusaswellastoargueseriously。ButinthesixthbookhisenmitytowardstheSophistsabates；heacknowledgesthattheyaretherepresentativesratherthanthecorruptersoftheworld。Healsobecomesmoredogmaticandconstructive，passingbeyondtherangeeitherofthepoliticalorthespeculativeideasoftherealSocrates。
InonepassagePlatohimselfseemstointimatethatthetimehadnowcomeforSocrates，whohadpassedhiswholelifeinphilosophy，togivehisownopinionandnottobealwaysrepeatingthenotionsofothermen。ThereisnoevidencethateithertheideaofgoodortheconceptionofaperfectStatewerecomprehendedintheSocraticteaching，thoughhecertainlydweltonthenatureoftheuniversalandoffinalcauses（cp。Xen。Mem。i。4；Phaedo97）；andadeepthinkerlikehiminhisthirtyorfortyyearsofpublicteaching，couldhardlyhavefalledtotouchonthenatureoffamilyrelations，forwhichthereisalsosomepositiveevidenceintheMemorabilia（Mem。i。2，51
foll。）TheSocraticmethodisnominallyretained；andeveryinferenceiseitherputintothemouthoftherespondentorrepresentedasthecommondiscoveryofhimandSocrates。Butanyonecanseethatthisisamereform，ofwhichtheaffectationgrowswearisomeastheworkadvances。Themethodofinquiryhaspassedintoamethodofteachinginwhichbythehelpofinterlocutorsthesamethesisislookedatfromvariouspointsofview。
ThenatureoftheprocessistrulycharacterizedbyGlaucon，whenhedescribeshimselfasacompanionwhoisnotgoodformuchinaninvestigation，butcanseewhatheisshown，andmay，perhaps，givetheanswertoaquestionmorefluentlythananother。
Neithercanwebeabsolutelycertainthat，Socrateshimselftaughttheimmortalityofthesoul，whichisunknowntohisdiscipleGlauconintheRepublic；noristhereanyreasontosupposethatheusedmythsorrevelationsofanotherworldasavehicleofinstruction，orthathewouldhavebanishedpoetryorhavedenouncedtheGreekmythology。Hisfavoriteoathisretained，andaslightmentionismadeofthedaemonium，orinternalsign，whichisalludedtobySocratesasaphenomenonpeculiartohimself。ArealelementofSocraticteaching，whichismoreprominentintheRepublicthaninanyoftheotherDialoguesofPlato，istheuseofexampleandillustration（’taphorhtikaautoprhospherhontez’）："Letusapplythetestofcommoninstances。""You，"saysAdeimantus，ironically，inthesixthbook，"aresounaccustomedtospeakinimages。"Andthisuseofexamplesorimages，thoughtrulySocraticinorigin，isenlargedbythegeniusofPlatointotheformofanallegoryorparable，whichembodiesintheconcretewhathasbeenalreadydescribed，orisabouttobedescribed，intheabstract。ThusthefigureofthecaveinBookVIIisarecapitulationofthedivisionsofknowledgeinBookVI。
ThecompositeanimalinBookIXisanallegoryofthepartsofthesoul。ThenoblecaptainandtheshipandthetruepilotinBookVIareafigureoftherelationofthepeopletothephilosophersintheStatewhichhasbeendescribed。Otherfigures，suchasthedoginthesecond，third，andfourthbooks，orthemarriageoftheportionlessmaideninthesixthbook，orthedronesandwaspsintheeighthandninthbooks，alsoformlinksofconnectioninlongpassages，orareusedtorecallpreviousdiscussions。
Platoismosttruetothecharacterofhismasterwhenhedescribeshimas"notofthisworld。"AndwiththisrepresentationofhimtheidealStateandtheotherparadoxesoftheRepublicarequiteinaccordance，thoughtheycannotbeshowntohavebeenspeculationsofSocrates。Tohim，astoothergreatteachersbothphilosophicalandreligious，whentheylookedupward，theworldseemedtobetheembodimentoferrorandevil。Thecommonsenseofmankindhasrevoltedagainstthisview，orhasonlypartiallyadmittedit。AndeveninSocrateshimselfthesternerjudgmentofthemultitudeattimespassesintoasortofironicalpityorlove。Meningeneralareincapableofphilosophy，andarethereforeatenmitywiththephilosopher；buttheirmisunderstandingofhimisunavoidable：fortheyhaveneverseenhimashetrulyisinhisownimage；theyareonlyacquaintedwithartificialsystemspossessingnonativeforceoftruth——wordswhichadmitofmanyapplications。Theirleadershavenothingtomeasurewith，andarethereforeignorantoftheirownstature。Buttheyaretobepitiedorlaughedat，nottobequarrelledwith；theymeanwellwiththeirnostrums，iftheycouldonlylearnthattheyarecuttingoffaHydra’shead。ThismoderationtowardsthosewhoareinerrorisoneofthemostcharacteristicfeaturesofSocratesintheRepublic。InallthedifferentrepresentationsofSocrates，whetherofXenophonorPlato，andthedifferencesoftheearlierorlaterDialogues，healwaysretainsthecharacteroftheunweariedanddisinterestedseekeraftertruth，withoutwhichhewouldhaveceasedtobeSocrates。
LeavingthecharacterswemaynowanalyzethecontentsoftheRepublic，andthenproceedtoconsider（1）ThegeneralaspectsofthisHellenicidealoftheState，（2）ThemodernlightsinwhichthethoughtsofPlatomayberead。
BOOKI
SOCRATES—GLAUCON
IWENTdownyesterdaytothePiraeuswithGlauconthesonofAriston，thatImightofferupmyprayerstothegoddess；andalsobecauseIwantedtoseeinwhatmannertheywouldcelebratethefestival，whichwasanewthing。Iwasdelightedwiththeprocessionoftheinhabitants；butthatoftheThracianswasequally，ifnotmore，beautiful。Whenwehadfinishedourprayersandviewedthespectacle，weturnedinthedirectionofthecity；andatthatinstantPolemarchusthesonofCephaluschancedtocatchsightofusfromadistanceaswewerestartingonourwayhome，andtoldhisservanttorunandbiduswaitforhim。Theservanttookholdofmebythecloakbehind，andsaid：Polemarchusdesiresyoutowait。
Iturnedround，andaskedhimwherehismasterwas。
Thereheis，saidtheyouth，comingafteryou，ifyouwillonlywait。
Certainlywewill，saidGlaucon；andinafewminutesPolemarchusappeared，andwithhimAdeimantus，Glaucon’sbrother，NiceratusthesonofNicias，andseveralotherswhohadbeenattheprocession。
SOCRATES—POLEMARCHUS—GLAUCON—ADEIMANTUS
Polemarchussaidtome：Iperceive，Socrates，thatyouandourcompanionarealreadyonyourwaytothecity。
Youarenotfarwrong，Isaid。
Butdoyousee，herejoined，howmanyweare？
Ofcourse。
Andareyoustrongerthanallthese？forifnot，youwillhavetoremainwhereyouare。
Maytherenotbethealternative，Isaid，thatwemaypersuadeyoutoletusgo？
Butcanyoupersuadeus，ifwerefusetolistentoyou？hesaid。
Certainlynot，repliedGlaucon。
Thenwearenotgoingtolisten；ofthatyoumaybeassured。
Adeimantusadded：Hasnoonetoldyouofthetorch—raceonhorsebackinhonourofthegoddesswhichwilltakeplaceintheevening？
Withhorses！Ireplied：Thatisanovelty。Willhorsemencarrytorchesandpassthemonetoanotherduringtherace？
Yes，saidPolemarchus，andnotonlyso，butafestivalwillhecelebratedatnight，whichyoucertainlyoughttosee。Letusrisesoonaftersupperandseethisfestival；therewillbeagatheringofyoungmen，andwewillhaveagoodtalk。Staythen，anddonotbeperverse。
Glauconsaid：Isuppose，sinceyouinsist，thatwemust。
Verygood，Ireplied。
GLAUCON—CEPHALUS—SOCRATES
AccordinglywewentwithPolemarchustohishouse；andtherewefoundhisbrothersLysiasandEuthydemus，andwiththemThrasymachustheChalcedonian，CharmantidesthePaeanian，andCleitophonthesonofAristonymus。TheretoowasCephalusthefatherofPolemarchus，whomIhadnotseenforalongtime，andIthoughthimverymuchaged。Hewasseatedonacushionedchair，andhadagarlandonhishead，forhehadbeensacrificinginthecourt；andthereweresomeotherchairsintheroomarrangedinasemicircle，uponwhichwesatdownbyhim。Hesalutedmeeagerly，andthenhesaid：——
Youdon’tcometoseeme，Socrates，asoftenasyouought：IfIwerestillabletogoandseeyouIwouldnotaskyoutocometome。ButatmyageIcanhardlygettothecity，andthereforeyoushouldcomeoftenertothePiraeus。Forletmetellyou，thatthemorethepleasuresofthebodyfadeaway，thegreatertomeisthepleasureandcharmofconversation。Donotthendenymyrequest，butmakeourhouseyourresortandkeepcompanywiththeseyoungmen；weareoldfriends，andyouwillbequiteathomewithus。
Ireplied：ThereisnothingwhichformypartIlikebetter，Cephalus，thanconversingwithagedmen；forIregardthemastravellerswhohavegoneajourneywhichItoomayhavetogo，andofwhomIoughttoenquire，whetherthewayissmoothandeasy，orruggedanddifficult。AndthisisaquestionwhichIshouldliketoaskofyouwhohavearrivedatthattimewhichthepoetscallthe’thresholdofoldage’——Islifehardertowardstheend，orwhatreportdoyougiveofit？
Iwilltellyou，Socrates，hesaid，whatmyownfeelingis。Menofmyageflocktogether；wearebirdsofafeather，astheoldproverbsays；andatourmeetingsthetaleofmyacquaintancecommonlyis——Icannoteat，Icannotdrink；thepleasuresofyouthandlovearefledaway：therewasagoodtimeonce，butnowthatisgone，andlifeisnolongerlife。Somecomplainoftheslightswhichareputuponthembyrelations，andtheywilltellyousadlyofhowmanyevilstheiroldageisthecause。Buttome，Socrates，thesecomplainersseemtoblamethatwhichisnotreallyinfault。Forifoldagewerethecause，Itoobeingold，andeveryotheroldman，wouldhavefeltastheydo。Butthisisnotmyownexperience，northatofotherswhomIhaveknown。HowwellIremembertheagedpoetSophocles，wheninanswertothequestion，Howdoeslovesuitwithage，Sophocles，——areyoustillthemanyouwere？Peace，hereplied；mostgladlyhaveIescapedthethingofwhichyouspeak；IfeelasifIhadescapedfromamadandfuriousmaster。Hiswordshaveoftenoccurredtomymindsince，andtheyseemasgoodtomenowasatthetimewhenheutteredthem。Forcertainlyoldagehasagreatsenseofcalmandfreedom；whenthepassionsrelaxtheirhold，then，asSophoclessays，wearefreedfromthegraspnotofonemadmasteronly，butofmany。Thetruthis，Socrates，thattheseregrets，andalsothecomplaintsaboutrelations，aretobeattributedtothesamecause，whichisnotoldage，butmen’scharactersandtempers；
forhewhoisofacalmandhappynaturewillhardlyfeelthepressureofage，buttohimwhoisofanoppositedispositionyouthandageareequallyaburden。
Ilistenedinadmiration，andwantingtodrawhimout，thathemightgoon——Yes，Cephalus，Isaid：butIrathersuspectthatpeopleingeneralarenotconvincedbyyouwhenyouspeakthus；theythinkthatoldagesitslightlyuponyou，notbecauseofyourhappydisposition，butbecauseyouarerich，andwealthiswellknowntobeagreatcomforter。
Youareright，hereplied；theyarenotconvinced：andthereissomethinginwhattheysay；not，however，somuchastheyimagine。I
mightanswerthemasThemistoclesansweredtheSeriphianwhowasabusinghimandsayingthathewasfamous，notforhisownmeritsbutbecausehewasanAthenian：’IfyouhadbeenanativeofmycountryorIofyours，neitherofuswouldhavebeenfamous。’Andtothosewhoarenotrichandareimpatientofoldage，thesamereplymaybemade；fortothegoodpoormanoldagecannotbealightburden，norcanabadrichmaneverhavepeacewithhimself。
MayIask，Cephalus，whetheryourfortunewasforthemostpartinheritedoracquiredbyyou？
Acquired！Socrates；doyouwanttoknowhowmuchIacquired？IntheartofmakingmoneyIhavebeenmidwaybetweenmyfatherandgrandfather：formygrandfather，whosenameIbear，doubledandtrebledthevalueofhispatrimony，thatwhichheinheritedbeingmuchwhatIpossessnow；butmyfatherLysaniasreducedthepropertybelowwhatitisatpresent：andIshallbesatisfiedifIleavetothesemysonsnotlessbutalittlemorethanIreceived。
ThatwaswhyIaskedyouthequestion，Ireplied，becauseIseethatyouareindifferentaboutmoney，whichisacharacteristicratherofthosewhohaveinheritedtheirfortunesthanofthosewhohaveacquiredthem；themakersoffortuneshaveasecondloveofmoneyasacreationoftheirown，resemblingtheaffectionofauthorsfortheirownpoems，orofparentsfortheirchildren，besidesthatnaturalloveofitforthesakeofuseandprofitwhichiscommontothemandallmen。Andhencetheyareverybadcompany，fortheycantalkaboutnothingbutthepraisesofwealth。Thatistrue，hesaid。
Yes，thatisverytrue，butmayIaskanotherquestion？Whatdoyouconsidertobethegreatestblessingwhichyouhavereapedfromyourwealth？
One，hesaid，ofwhichIcouldnotexpecteasilytoconvinceothers。
Forletmetellyou，Socrates，thatwhenamanthinkshimselftobeneardeath，fearsandcaresenterintohismindwhichheneverhadbefore；thetalesofaworldbelowandthepunishmentwhichisexactedthereofdeedsdoneherewereoncealaughingmattertohim，butnowheistormentedwiththethoughtthattheymaybetrue：eitherfromtheweaknessofage，orbecauseheisnowdrawingnearertothatotherplace，hehasaclearerviewofthesethings；suspicionsandalarmscrowdthicklyuponhim，andhebeginstoreflectandconsiderwhatwrongshehasdonetoothers。Andwhenhefindsthatthesumofhistransgressionsisgreathewillmanyatimelikeachildstartupinhissleepforfear，andheisfilledwithdarkforebodings。Buttohimwhoisconsciousofnosin，sweethope，asPindarcharminglysays，isthekindnurseofhisage：
Hope，hesays，cherishesthesoulofhimwholivesinjusticeandholinessandisthenurseofhisageandthecompanionofhisjourney；
——hopewhichismightiesttoswaytherestlesssoulofman。
Howadmirablearehiswords！Andthegreatblessingofriches，I
donotsaytoeveryman，buttoagoodman，is，thathehashadnooccasiontodeceiveortodefraudothers，eitherintentionallyorunintentionally；andwhenhedepartstotheworldbelowheisnotinanyapprehensionaboutofferingsduetothegodsordebtswhichheowestomen。Nowtothispeaceofmindthepossessionofwealthgreatlycontributes；andthereforeIsay，that，settingonethingagainstanother，ofthemanyadvantageswhichwealthhastogive，toamanofsensethisisinmyopinionthegreatest。
Wellsaid，Cephalus，Ireplied；butasconcerningjustice，whatisit？——tospeakthetruthandtopayyourdebts——nomorethanthis？
Andeventothisaretherenotexceptions？Supposethatafriendwheninhisrightmindhasdepositedarmswithmeandheasksforthemwhenheisnotinhisrightmind，oughtItogivethembacktohim？NoonewouldsaythatIoughtorthatIshouldberightindoingso，anymorethantheywouldsaythatIoughtalwaystospeakthetruthtoonewhoisinhiscondition。
Youarequiteright，hereplied。
Butthen，Isaid，speakingthetruthandpayingyourdebtsisnotacorrectdefinitionofjustice。
CEPHALUS—SOCRATES—POLEMARCHUS
Quitecorrect，Socrates，ifSimonidesistobebelieved，saidPolemarchusinterposing。
Ifear，saidCephalus，thatImustgonow，forIhavetolookafterthesacrifices，andIhandovertheargumenttoPolemarchusandthecompany。
IsnotPolemarchusyourheir？Isaid。
Tobesure，heanswered，andwentawaylaughingtothesacrifices。
SOCRATES—POLEMARCHUS
Tellmethen，Othouheiroftheargument，whatdidSimonidessay，andaccordingtoyoutrulysay，aboutjustice？
Hesaidthattherepaymentofadebtisjust，andinsayingsoheappearstometoberight。
Ishouldbesorrytodoubtthewordofsuchawiseandinspiredman，buthismeaning，thoughprobablycleartoyou，isthereverseofcleartome。Forhecertainlydoesnotmean，aswewerenowsayingthatI
oughttoreturnareturnadepositofarmsorofanythingelsetoonewhoasksforitwhenheisnotinhisrightsenses；andyetadepositcannotbedeniedtobeadebt。
True。
ThenwhenthepersonwhoasksmeisnotinhisrightmindIambynomeanstomakethereturn？
Certainlynot。
WhenSimonidessaidthattherepaymentofadebtwasjustice，hedidnotmeantoincludethatcase？
Certainlynot；forhethinksthatafriendoughtalwaystodogoodtoafriendandneverevil。
Youmeanthatthereturnofadepositofgoldwhichistotheinjuryofthereceiver，ifthetwopartiesarefriends，isnottherepaymentofadebt，——thatiswhatyouwouldimaginehimtosay？
Yes。
Andareenemiesalsotoreceivewhatweowetothem？
Tobesure，hesaid，theyaretoreceivewhatweowethem，andanenemy，asItakeit，owestoanenemythatwhichisdueorpropertohim——thatistosay，evil。
Simonides，then，afterthemannerofpoets，wouldseemtohavespokendarklyofthenatureofjustice；forhereallymeanttosaythatjusticeisthegivingtoeachmanwhatispropertohim，andthishetermedadebt。
Thatmusthavebeenhismeaning，hesaid。
Byheaven！Ireplied；andifweaskedhimwhatdueorproperthingisgivenbymedicine，andtowhom，whatanswerdoyouthinkthathewouldmaketous？
Hewouldsurelyreplythatmedicinegivesdrugsandmeatanddrinktohumanbodies。
Andwhatdueorproperthingisgivenbycookery，andtowhat？
Seasoningtofood。
Andwhatisthatwhichjusticegives，andtowhom？
If，Socrates，wearetobeguidedatallbytheanalogyoftheprecedinginstances，thenjusticeistheartwhichgivesgoodtofriendsandeviltoenemies。
Thatishismeaningthen？
Ithinkso。
Andwhoisbestabletodogoodtohisfriendsandeviltohisenemiesintimeofsickness？
Thephysician。
Orwhentheyareonavoyage，amidtheperilsofthesea？
Thepilot。
Andinwhatsortofactionsorwithaviewtowhatresultisthejustmanmostabletodoharmtohisenemyandgoodtohisfriends？
Ingoingtowaragainsttheoneandinmakingallianceswiththeother。
Butwhenamaniswell，mydearPolemarchus，thereisnoneedofaphysician？
No。
Andhewhoisnotonavoyagehasnoneedofapilot？
No。
Thenintimeofpeacejusticewillbeofnouse？
Iamveryfarfromthinkingso。
Youthinkthatjusticemaybeofuseinpeaceaswellasinwar？
Yes。
Likehusbandryfortheacquisitionofcorn？
Yes。
Orlikeshoemakingfortheacquisitionofshoes，——thatiswhatyoumean？
Yes。
Andwhatsimilaruseorpowerofacquisitionhasjusticeintimeofpeace？
Incontracts，Socrates，justiceisofuse。
Andbycontractsyoumeanpartnerships？
Exactly。
Butisthejustmanortheskilfulplayeramoreusefulandbetterpartneratagameofdraughts？
Theskilfulplayer。
Andinthelayingofbricksandstonesisthejustmanamoreusefulorbetterpartnerthanthebuilder？
Quitethereverse。
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