Thebeginningofthenineteenthcenturyismarkedbyviolentcrisesandbythosefirstlabormovementswhichhavetheirimmediateorigininthedistressattendinglockouts。Theidealofthe"naturalorder"isoverthrown。

Wealthhasengenderedpoverty。Thegreatindustryinchangingallsocialrelationshasincreasedvices，maladiesandsubjection。Ithas，inaword，causeddegeneration。Progresshasengenderedretrogression。Whatmustbedonethatprogressmayengendernothingelsebutprogress，thatistosay，prosperity，health，security，educationandintellectualdevelopmentequalforall？WiththisquestionOweniswhollyconcernedandheshareswithFourierandSaintSimonthischaracteristicthathenolongerappealstoself-sacrificeandtoreligion，andthathewishestoresolveandsurmountthesocialantitheseswithoutdiminishingthetechnicalandindustrialenergyofman，butrathertoincreasethis。ItisbythisroadthatOwenbecameacommunistandheisthefirstwhobecamesointheenvironmentcreatedbymodernindustry。

Theantithesisrestsentirelyonthecontradictionbetweenthemodeofproductionandthemodeofdistribution。Thisantithesismust，then，besuppressedinasocietywhichproducescollectively。Owenbecomesutopian。Thisperfectsocietymustneedsberealizedexperimentallyandtothishedevoteshimselfwithaheroicconstancyandunequaledself-sacrificebringingamathematicalprecisionevenintohisthoughtsofitsdetails。

Theantithesisbetweenproductionanddistributiononcediscovered，therearoseinEnglandfromThompsontoBrayaseriesofwritersofasocialismwhichisnotstrictlyutopian，butwhichshouldbequalifiedasone-sidedforitsobjectistocorrectthemanifestvicesofsocietybyasmanyappropriateremedies。（22*）

Infactthefirststageofallthosewhoareontheroadtowardsocialismisthediscoveryofthecontradictionbetweenproductionanddistribution。

Then，theseingenuousquestionsimmediatelyarise：Whynotabolishpoverty？

Whynoteliminatelockouts？Whynotsuppressthemiddleman？Whynotfavorthedirectexchangeofproductsinconsiderationofthelaborthattheycontain。？

Whynotgivetheworkertheentireproductofhislabor，etc。Thesedemandsreducethethings，tenaciousandresistant，ofreallife，intoasmanyreasoning，andtheyhavefortheirobjecttocombatthecapitalistsystemasifitwereamachinefromwhichonecantakeawayortowhichonecanaddpieces，wheelsandgearing。

Thepartisansofcriticalcommunismhavebrokendefinitelywithallthesetendencies。Theyhavebeenthesuccessorsandthecontinuersofclassicaleconomics。（23*）Whatisthedoctrineofthestructureofpresentsociety？

Noonecancombatthisstructureinpractice，inpoliticsorinrevolutionwithoutfirsttakinganexactaccountofitselementsanditsrelationsandmakingafundamentalstudyofthedoctrinewhichexplainsit。Theseforms，theseelementsandtheserelationsariseincertainhistoricconditionsbuttheyconstituteasystemandanecessity。Howcanitbehopedtodestroysuchasystembyanactoflogicalnegationandhoweliminateitbyreasoning？

Eliminatepauperism？Butitisanecessaryconditionofcapitalism。Givetheworkertheentireproductofhislabor？Butwhatwouldbecomeoftheprofitofcapital，andwhereandhowcouldthemoneyexpendedinthepurchaseofcommoditiesbeincreasedifamongallthecommoditieswhichitmeetsandwithwhichitmakesexchangestherewerenotaparticularonewhichreturnstothebuyermorethanitcostshim；andisnotthiscommoditypreciselythelaborpowerofthewageworker？Theeconomicsystemisnotatissueofreasoningsbutitisasumandacomplexusoffactswhichengendersacomplextissueofrelations。Itisafoolishthingtoassumethatthissystemoffactswhichtherulingclasshasestablishedwithgreatpainsthroughthecenturiesbyviolence，bysagacity，bytalentandbysciencewillconfessitselfvanquished，willdestroyitselftogivewaytothedemandsofthepoorandtothereasoningsoftheiradvocates。Howdemandthesuppressionofpovertywithoutdemandingtheoverthrowofalltherest？Todemandofthissocietythatitshallchangeitslawwhichconstitutesitsdefenseistodemandandabsurdthing。TodemandofthisStatethatitshallceasetobethebucklerandthedefenseofthissocietyandofthislawisplungingintoabsurdities。（24*）Theone-sidedsocialismwhichwithoutbeingclearlyutopianstartsfromthehypothesisthatsocietyadmitsofcertainerratawithoutrevolution，thatistosaywithoutafundamentalchangeinthegeneralelementarystructureofsocietyitself，isamerepieceofingenuity。ThiscontradictionwiththerigidlawsoftheprocessofthingsisshowninallitsevidenceinProudhon，who，reproducingwithoutknowingit，orcopyingdirectly，someoftheone-sidedEnglishsocialists，wishedtoarrestandchangehistory，armedwithadefinitionandasyllogism。

Thepartisansofcriticalcommunismrecognizedthathistoryhasarighttofollowitscourse。Thebourgeoisphasecanbeoutgrownanditwillbe。

Butaslongasitexistsithasitslaws。Therelativityoftheseconsistsinthefactthattheygrowanddevelopincertaindeterminedconditions，buttheirrelativityisnotsimplytheoppositeofnecessity，amereappearance，asoap-bubble。Theselawsmaydisappearandtheywilldisappearbytheveryfactofthechangeofsociety，buttheydonotyieldtothearbitrarysuggestionwhichdemandsachange，proclaimsareform，orformulatesaprogramme。Communismmakescommoncausewiththeproletariatbecauseinthisresidestherevolutionaryforcewhich，bursts，breaks，shakesanddissolvesthepresentsocialformandcreatesinit，littlebylittle，newconditions；ortobemoreexact，theveryfactofitsmovementshowstousthatthesenewconditionsarealreadyborn。

Thetheoryoftheclassstrugglewasfound。Itwasseentoappearbothintheoriginsofthebourgeoisie（whoseintrinsicprocessuswasalreadyillustratedbythescienceofeconomics），andinthisnewappearanceoftheproletariat。Therelativityofeconomiclawswasdiscovered，butatthesametimetheirrelativenecessitywasunderstood。Hereinliesthewholemethodandjustificationofthenewmaterialisticconceptionofhistory。Thosedeceivethemselveswho，callingittheeconomicinterpretationofhistory，thinktheyunderstanditcompletely。Thatdesignationisbettersuited，andisonlysuited，tocertainanalyticattempts，（25*）which，takenseparatelyandinadistinctfashionontheonesidetheeconomicformsandcategories，andontheother，forexample，law，legislation，politics，customs，——proceedtostudythereciprocalinfluencesofthedifferentsidesoflifeconsideredinanabstractfashion。Quitedifferentisourposition。Oursistheorganicconceptionofhistory。Thetotalityoftheunityofsociallifeisthesubjectmatterpresenttoourminds。Itiseconomicsitselfwhichdissolvesinthecourseofoneprocess，toreappearinasmanymorphologicalstages，ineachofwhichitservesasasubstructureforalltherest。Finally，itisnotourmethodtoextendtheso-calledeconomicfactorisolatedinanabstractfashionoveralltherest，asouradversariesimagine，butitis，beforeeverythingelse，toformandhistoricconceptionofeconomicsandtoexplaintheotherchangesbymeansofitschanges。Thereliesouranswertoallthecriticismswhichcometousfromallthedomainsoflearnedignorance，notexceptingthesocialistswhoareinsufficientlygroundedandwhoaresentimentalorhysterical。AndweexplainourpositionthusasMarxhasdoneinhisCapital，notthefirstbookofcriticalcommunism，butthelastgreatbookofbourgeoiseconomics。

AtthemomentwhentheManifestowaswrittenthehistorichorizondidnotgobeyondtheclassicworld，thescarcelystudiedGermanantiquitiesandtheBiblicaltraditionwhichhadonlylatelybeenreducedtotheprosaicconditionsofallprofanehistory。Ourhistorichorizonisnowquiteanotherthing，sinceitextendstotheAryanantiquitiesandtotheancientdepositsofEgyptandMesopotamiawhichprecedealltheSemitictraditions。Anditextendsstillfurtherbackintoprehistory，thatistosay，intounwrittenhistory。Morganhasgivenusaknowledgeofancientsociety，thatistosayapre-politicalsociety，andthekeytounderstandhowfromitcameallthelaterformsmarkedbymonogamy，thedevelopmentofthepaternalfamily，theappearanceofproperty，firstofthegens，thenofthefamily，lastlyindividual，andbythesuccessiveestablishmentofthealliancesbetweengenteswhicharetheoriginoftheState。Allthisisillustratedbytheknowledgeoftheprocessoftechniqueinthediscoveryandintheuseofthemeansandinstrumentsoflaborandbytheunderstandingoftheeffectofthisprocessuponthesocialcomplexus，urgingitincertaindirectionsandmakingittraversecertainstages。Thesediscoveriesmaystillbecorrectedatcertainpoints，notablybythestudyofthedifferentspecificfashionsaccordingtowhichindifferentpartsoftheworldthepassagefrombarbarismtocivilizationhasbeeneffected。But，henceforth，onefactisindisputable，namely，thatwehavebeforeoureyesthegeneralembryogenicrecordofhumandevelopmentfromprimitivecommunismtothosecomplexformationsasatAthensoratRomewiththeirconstitutionsofcitizensarrangedinclassesaccordingtocensuswhichnotlongagoconstitutedthecolumnsofHerculesforresearchintowrittentradition。TheclasseswhichtheManifestoassumedhavebeenlaterresolvedintotheirprocessofformationandinthiscanalreadyberecognizedtheplexusofreasonsandofdifferenteconomiccausesforthecategoriesoftheeconomicscienceofourbourgeoisepoch。ThedreamofFouriertofindaplaceforanepochofcivilizationintheseriesoflongandvastprocesshasbeenrealized。AscientificsolutionhasbeenfoundfortheproblemoftheoriginofinequalityamongmenwhichRousseauhadtriedtosolvebyargumentsofanoriginaldialectic，relyinghoweverupontoofewrealdata。

Attwopoints，theextremepointsforus，thehumanprocessispalpable。

Oneoftheseistheoriginofthebourgeoisie，sorecentandinthefulllightofthescienceofeconomics；theotheristheancientformationofsocietydividedintoclasses，whichmarksthepassagefromhigherbarbarismtocivilization（theepochoftheState）touseexpressionsemployedbyMorgan。

Allthatisfoundbetweenthesetwoepochsiswhathas，uptothistime，formedthesubjectmatterofthechroniclers，thehistoriansproperlyso-called，thejurists，thetheologiansandthephilosophers。Wemustnotbeover-hastyintabulatingit。Attheverybeginningwemustunderstandtheeconomicsrelativetoeachepoch，（26*）inordertoexplainspecificallytheclasseswhichdevelopinit，avoidinghypotheticalanduncertaindataandtakingcarenottocarryoverourownconditionsintoeachepoch。Forthat，skilledfingersareneeded。Thus，forexample，whattheManifestosaysofthefirstoriginofthebourgeoisieproceedingfromtheserfsoftheMiddleAgesincorporatedlittlebylittleintothecitiesisnotageneraltruth。ThismodeoforiginispeculiartoGermanyandtotheothercountrieswhichreproduceitsprocess。

ItisnotthecaseeitherinItaly，norinSouthernFrance，norinSpain，whichwerethefieldsuponwhichbeganthefirsthistoryofthebourgeoisie，thatistosay，ofmoderncivilization。InthisfirstphasearefoundallthepremisesofthewholecapitalistsocietyasMarxinformedusinanotetothefirstvolumeofCapital。（27*）ThisfirstphasewhichreachesitsperfectformintheItalianmunicipalitiesformsthepre-historicbackgroundforthatcapitalistaccumulationwhichMarxhasexplainedwithsomanycharacteristicdetailsintheevolutionofEngland。ButIwillstopthere。

Theproletarianscanhaveinviewnothingbutthefuture。Thatwithwhichallscientificsocialistsareprimarilyconcernedisthepresentinwhicharespontaneouslydevelopedandinwhichareripeningtheconditionsofthefuture。Theknowledgeofthepastispracticallyofuseandofinterestonlyinsofarasitthrowslightuponandexplainsthepresent。Forthemomentitisenoughtosaythatthepartisansofcriticalcommunismfiftyyearsagoconceivedtheelementsofthenewanddefinitephilosophyofhistory。

Soonthisfashionofseeingwillimposeitselfbecauseitwillbeimpossibletothinkthecontrary；andthisdiscoverywillhavethefateofColumbus’

egg。Andperhapsbeforeandarmysoscientistshasmadeanapplicationofthisconceptiontothecontinuousnarrationofthewholehistory，thesuccessoftheproletariatwillhavebecomesuchthatthebourgeoisepochwillappeartoallassomethingthatmustbeleftbehindbecauseitwillnearlybesoinreality。Tounderstandistoleavebehind（Hegel）。

When，fiftyyearsago，theManifestomadeoftheproletarians，oftheunfortunateswhoexcitedpity，thepredestinedgrave-diggersofthebourgeoisie，thecircumferenceofthisburialplacemusthaveappearedverysmalltotheimaginationofthewriterswhoscarcelyconcealedinthegravityoftheirstyletheidealismoftheirintellectualpassion。TheprobablecircumferenceintheirimaginationthenembracedonlyFranceandEngland，anditwouldscarcelyhavetouchedthefrontiersofothercountries，forinstance，Germany。

To-daythecircumferenceappearstousimmensebyreasonoftherapidandcolossalextensionofthebourgeoisformofproductionwhichbyinevitablereactionenlarges，makesuniversalandmultipliesthemovementoftheproletariatandimmenselyexpandsthesceneuponwhichisprojectedthepictureofthecomingcommunism。Theburialplaceextendsasfarastheeyecanreach。Themoreproductiveforcesthismagiciancallsforth，themoreheexcitesandpreparesforcesthatmustrebelagainsthimself。

Allthosewhowerecommunistsideological，religiousandutopian，orevenpropheticandapocalypticinthepasthavealwaysbelievedthatthereignofjustice，equalityandhappinesswasdestinedtohavetheworldforitstheatre。To-daythewordisinvadedbycivilizationandeverywhereisdevelopingthatsocietywhichlivesuponclassantagonismsandclassdomination，theformofbourgeoisproduction（Japanmayserveusforanexample。）Theco-existenceofthetwonationsinoneandthesamestate，whichthedivinePlatohadalreadydescribed，isperpetuated。Theearthwillnotbewonovertocommunismto-morrow。Butastheconfinesofthebourgeoisworldenlarge，morenumerousarethosewhoenterintoit，abandoningandleavingbehindthelowerformsofproduction，——andthustheattemptofcommunismgainsinfirmnessandprecision。especiallybecauseinthedomainandstruggleofcompetition，thedeviationsduetoconquestandcolonizationarediminishing。TheproletarianInternational，whileembryonicintheCommunistLeagueoffiftyyearsago，henceforthbecomesInteroceanicanditaffirmsonthefirstofveryMaythattheproletariansofthewholewordarereallyandactivelyunited。Thefuturegrave-diggersofthebourgeoisieandtheirdescendantstomanygenerationswilleverrememberthedateoftheCommunistManifesto。

NOTES

1。IrefertothatformwhichtheManifestodesignatesironicallyunderthenameof"Germanor’True’Socialism。"Thisparagraph，whichisunintelligibleforthosewhoarenotwellversedintheGermanphilosophyofthatepoch，notablyincertainofitstendenciesmarkedbyacutedegeneracy，has，withgoodreason，beensurpressedintheSpanishtranslation。

2。Itisbettertousetheexpression"democraticsocializationofthemeansofproduction"thanthatof"collectiveproperty"

becausethelatterimpliesacertaintheoreticalerrorinthat，tobeginwith，itsubstitutesfortherealeconomicfactajuridicalexpressionandmoreoverinthemindofmorethanoneitisconfusedwiththeincreaseofmonopolies，withtheincreasingstatizationofpublicutilitiesandwithalltheotherfantasmagoriaoftheeverrecurringStatesocialism，thewholeeffectofwhichistoincreasetheeconomicmeansofoppressioninthehandsoftheoppressingclass。

3。Twenty-fiveoctavopagesintheoriginaledition（London，February，1848）foracopyofwhichIamindebtedtothespecialkindnessofEngels。

IshouldsayhereinpassingthatIhaveresistedthetemptationtoaffixanybibliographicalnotes，referencesandcitations，forIshouldthenhavebeenmakingaworkofscholarship，orabook，ratherthanasimpleessay。

Ihopethereaderwilltakemywordforitthatthereareinthisessaynoallusions，orstatementsoffactoropinion，whichIcouldnotsubstantiatewithauthorities。

4。The"UmrissezueinerKritikderNational-oekonomie"appearedintheGerman-FrenchYearBook，Paris，1844，pp。85-114；andhisbookonTheConditionoftheWorkingClassinEnglandatLeipzigin1845。

5。Intheselastyearsmanyjuristshavethoughttheyfoundinthere-adjustmentofthecivilCodeapracticalmeansforamelioratingtheconditionoftheproletariat。Butwhyhavetheynotaskedthepopetobecometheheadofthefreethoughtleague？ThemostdelightfuloftheseisthatItalianauthorwhooccupyinghimselfwiththeclassstruggleasksthatbythesideofthecodewhichestablishestherightsofcapitalanotherbeelaboratedwhichshouldguaranteetherightsoflabor。

6。ThisdevelopmenthasbeengiveninMarx’sCapitalwhichcanbeconsideredasaphilosophyofhistory。

7。ItwasnotuntilafterthepublicationoftheItalianeditionofthisessaythatIhadatmaydisposalforsomemonthsacompletecollectionoftheNeueRheinischeZeitungforwhichIoweheartythankstothePartei-ArchivofBerlin。Theimpressionderivedfromthisreadingsurpassesexpectation。

Itisdesirableeitherthatthisjournalwhichnowhasbecomeveryrare，bereprintedentireorthatthemostimportantarticlesandlettersinitbereproduced。

8。MiseredelaPhilosophie，byKarlMarx，ParisandBrussels，1847；newedition，Paris，GiardandBriere，1896。

9。Thisismadeupofarticleswhichappearedin1849intheNeueRheinischeZeitungandwhichreproducedthelecturesgivenbyMarxtotheGermanWorkingmen’sCircleofBrusselsin1847。Ithassincebeenpublishedasapropagandaleaflet。

10。SeeChapterIIoftheManifesto。

11。Z&uuml；rKritikderpolitischenOekonomie，Berlin，1859，pp。

IV-VIofthepreface。（InsteadofretranslatingthisextractfromtheFrenchIhaveavailedmyselfoftheassistanceofComradeHitch，whohastranslateddirectfromtheGermanofMarx。

12。ThesearticleswhichappearedintheNeueRheinischePolitischokonomischeReview，Hamburg，1850，haverecentlybeenbroughttogetherintoapamphletbyEngels（Berlin，1895）underthetitleofDieKlassenkampfeinFrankreich1848bis1850。ThislittleworkhasaprefacebyEngels。

13。AppearedforthefirsttimeinNewYorkin1852inareview。SeveraleditionshavesincebeenmadeinGermany。AFrenchtranslationappearedin1891publishedbyDelory，Lille。

14。IntheprefacetotheClassStruggleinFrancein1848-50andelsewhereEngelstreatedfundamentallytheobjectivedevelopmentofthenewrevolutionarytactic。（ItiswelltorememberthatthefirstItalianeditionofthisessayappearedJune18th，andthesecond，October15，1895。

15。InmyopinionthisisthecaseinFrance。TherecentdiscussionsoftheagrarianprogrammesubmittedtothedeliberationsofthesocialdemocracyinGermanyconfirmthereasonswhichIhaveindicated。

16。ItwasotherwiseinGermany。After1830socialismwasimportedthereandbecameacurrentliterature；itunderwentphilosophicalalterationsofwhichGruenwasthetypicalrepresentative。Butalreadybeforethenewdoctrinesocialismhadreceivedacharacteristicimprintwhichwasproletarian，thankstothepropagandaandthewritingsofWeitling。AsMarxsaidin1844intheParisVorwaerts，"itwasthegiantinthecradle。"

17。ItiswhatmanypeoplecallMarxism。Marxismisandremainsadoctrine。

Partiescandrawneithertheirnamenorthejustificationfromadoctrine。

"IamnoMarxist"said——guesswho？Marxhimself。

18。ItishewhoestablishedthefirstrelationsbetweenMarxandtheLeagueandwhoservedastheintermediaryinthepublicationoftheManifesto。

Hefellintheinsurrectionof1849atMurg。

19。Marx’sCapital，Vol。III，Hamburg，1894，pp。xix-xx。Thedateof1845refersprincipallytothebookDieheiligeFamilie，Frankfort，1845，whichwasproducedincollaborationbyMarxandAngels。Thisbookisindispensabletoanunderstandingofthetheoreticaloriginofhistoricalmaterialism。

20。IstopwithCabetwholivedattheepochoftheManifesto。

IdonotthinkIoughttogoasfarasthesporadicformsofBellamyandHertzka。

21。TheBalzacofthe17thcentury。

22。ItisthesewriterswhomMengerthoughthehaddiscoveredastheauthorsofscientificsocialism。

23。Itisforthisreasonthatcertaincritics，Wieserforexample，proposetoabandonRicardo’stheoryofvaluebecauseitleadstosocialism。

24。ThustherearisesnotablyinFrancetheillusionofasocialmonarchywhich，succeedingtheliberalepoch，shouldsolveharmoniouslywhatiscalledthesocialquestion。ThisabsurdityreproducesitselfininfinitevarietiesofsocialismofthepulpitandStatesocialism。Tothedifferentformsofideologicalandreligiousutopianismisjoinedanewformofbureaucraticandfiscalutopianism，theUtopiaoftheidiots。

25。ForexampleintheessaysofTh。Rogers。

26。WhowouldhavethoughtafewyearsagoofthediscoveryandtheauthenticinterpretationofanancientBabylonianlaw？

27。Note189，p。740，ofthe3rdGermanedition。

Part2：

HistoricalmaterialismI

Thisclassofstudies，likemanyothers，butthismorethananyother，isconfrontedwithagreatdifficulty，indeedanirksomehindrance，inthatviceofmindseducatedbyliterarymethodsalonewhichisordinarilycalledverbalism。Thisbadhabitcreepsintoandspreadsitselfthroughalldomainsofknowledge；butinstudieswhichrelatetotheso-calledmoralworld，thatistosay，tothehistorico-socialcomplexus，itveryoftenhappensthatthecultandthedominionofwordssucceedincorruptingandblottingouttherealandlivingsenseofthings。

Inthefieldwherealongobservation，repeatedexperiences，thecertainuseofimprovedinstruments，thegeneralorpartialapplicationofthecalculushaveresultedinputtingthemindintoaconstantandmethodicalrelationwiththingsandtheirvariations，asinthenaturalsciencesproperlyso-called——therethemythandsuperstitionofwordsareleftbehindandvanquished；

therethequestionsofterminologynolongerhavemorethanthesecondaryvalueofpureconvention。Inthestudyofhumanrelationsandactions，onthecontrary，thepassions，theinterests，theprejudicesofschool，sect，classandreligion，theliteraryabuseofthetraditionalmeansofrepresentingthought，andscholasticism，evervanquishedandalwaysreborn，concealtheactualthings，ortransformtheminvoluntarilyintoterms，intowords，intoabstractandconventionalfashionsofspeech。

Wemust，firstofall，takeaccountofthisdifficultywhenweusetheexpressionortheformula"materialisticconceptionofhistory。"

Manyhaveimagined，doimagine，andwillimaginethatitispossibleandconvenienttopenetrateintothesenseofthephrasebythesimpleanalysisofthewordswhichcomposeitinsteadofarrivingatitfromthecontextofanexplanation，fromthegeneticstudyoftheformationofthedoctrine，（1*）

orfromthepolemicalwritingsinwhichitspartisansrefutetheobjectionsofitsopponents。Verbalismtendsalwaystoshutitselfupinpurelyformaldefinitions；itgivesriseinthemindstothiserroneousbelief，thatitisaneasythingtoreduceintotermsandintosimpleandpalpableexpressionstheagitatedandimmensecomplexusofnatureandhistoryandthatitiseasytopicturethemultiformandcomplicatedinterlacingsofcausesandeffects；

inclearerterms，itobliteratesthemeaningoftheproblemsbecauseitseesinthemnothingbutquestionsofnomenclature。

If，moreover，itthenhappensthatverbalismfindsasupportincertaintheoreticalhypotheses，forexample，thatmatterindicatessomethingwhichisbeloworopposedtoanotherhigherornoblerthingwhichiscalledspirit；

orifithappenstobeatonewiththatliteraryhabitwhichopposesthewordmaterialism，understoodinadisparagingsense，toallthat，inaword，iscalledidealism，thatistosay，tothesumtotaloftheanti-egoisticinclinationsandacts；thenourembarrassmentisextreme！Thenwearetoldthatinthisdoctrineitisattemptedtoexplainthewholeofmanbythemerecalculationofhismaterialinterestsandthatnovaluewhateverisallowedtoanyidealinterest。Theinexperience，theincapacityandthehasteofcertainpartisansandpropagandistsofthisdoctrinehavealsobeenacauseoftheseconfusions。Intheireagernesstoexplaintootherswhattheythemselvesonlyhalfunderstand，atatimewhenthedoctrineitselfisonlyinitsbeginningsandstillhasneedofmanydevelopments，theyhavebelievedtheycouldapplyit，suchasitwas，towhateverhistoricfacttheywereconsidering，andtheyhavealmostreducedittotatters，exposingitthustotheeasycriticismandtheridiculeofpeopleonthewatchforscientificnovelties，andotheridlepersonsofthesametype。

Sinceithasbeenmyprivilegeinthesefirstpagessimplytorebuttheseprejudices（inapreliminaryfashion）andunmasktheintentionsandthetendenciesunderlyingthem，itmustberememberedthatthemeaningofthisdoctrineought，beforeallelse，tobedrawnfromthepositionwhichittakesandoccupieswithregardtothedoctrinesagainstwhichitisinrealityopposed，andparticularlywithregardtotheideologiesofeverysort；——thattheproofofitsvalueconsistsexclusivelyinthemoresuitableandmoreappropriateexplanationofthesuccessionofhumaneventswhichisderivedfromit；——

thatthisdoctrinedoesnotimplyasubjectivepreferenceforacertainqualityoracertainsumofhumaninterestsopposedbyfreechoicetootherinterests，butthatitmerelyaffirmstheobjectivecoordinationandsubordinationofallinterestsinthedevelopmentofallsociety；andthisitaffirms，thankstothatgeneticprocessuswhichconsistsingoingfromtheconditionstotheconditioned，fromtheelementsofformationtothethingsformed。

Lettheverbalistsreasonastheylikeoverthevalueofthewordmatterinsofarasitimpliesorrecallsametaphysicalconception，orinsofarasitistheexpressionofthelasthypotheticalsubstratumofexperience。

Wearenothereinthedomainofphysics，chemistryorbiology；weareonlysearchingfortheexplicitconditionsofhumanassociationinsofarasitisnolongersimplyanimal。Itisnotforustosupportourinductionsorourdeductionsuponthedataofbiology，but，onthecontrary，torecognizebeforeallelsethepeculiaritiesofhumanassociation，whichformanddevelopthroughthesuccessionandthegrowingperfectionoftheactivityofmanhimselfingivenandvariableconditions，andtofindtherelationsofco-ordinationandsubordinationoftheneedswhicharethesubstratumofwillandaction。

Itisnotproposedtodiscoveranintentionnortoformulateacriticism；

itismerelythenecessityarisingfromthefactsthatmustbeputinevidence。

Andasmen，notbyfreechoice，butbecausetheycouldnotactotherwise，satisfyfirstcertainelementaryneeds，which，intheirturn，giverisetoothersintheirupwarddevelopment，andasforthesatisfactionoftheirneeds，whatevertheymaybe，theyinventandemploycertainmeansandcertaintoolsandassociatethemselvesincertaindefinitefashions，thematerialismofhistoricalinterpretationisnothingelsethananattempttoreconstructbythoughtwithmethodthegenesisandthecomplexityofthesociallifewhichdevelopsthroughtheages。Thenoveltyofthisdoctrinedoesnotdifferfromthatofalltheotherdoctrineswhichaftermanyexcursionsthroughthedomainsoftheimaginationhavefinallyarrived，verypainfully，atreachingtheproseofrealityandhaltingthere。

II

Thereisacertainaffinity，apparentlyatleast，betweenthatformalviceofverbalismandanotherdefectofthemind，whoseoriginsmay，however，bevaried。InconsiderationofsomeofitsmostcommonandpopulareffectsIwillcallitphraseology，althoughthiswordisnotanexactexpressionofthethinganddoesnotsetforthitsorigin。

Forlongcenturiesmenhavewrittenonhistory，haveexplainedit，haveillustratedit。Themostvariedinterests，fromtheinterestsmoreimmediatelypracticaltotheinterestspurelyesthetic，havemoveddifferentwriterstoconceiveandtoexecutethistypeofcomposition。Thesedifferenttypeshavealwaystakenbirthindifferentcountrieslongaftertheoriginsofcivilization，ofthedevelopmentofthestateandofthepassagefromtheprimitivecommunistsocietytothesocietywhichrestsuponclassdifferencesandclassantagonisms。Thehistorians，eveniftheyhavebeenasartlessasHerodotus，werealwaysbornandformedinasocietyhavingnothingingenuousinit，butverycomplicatedandcomplex，andatatimewhenthereasonsforthiscomplicationandcomplexitywereunknownandtheiroriginsforgotten。

Thiscomplexity，withallthecontrastswhichitbearswithinitselfandwhichitrevealslaterandmakesburstforthinitsvariousvicissitudes，stoodforthbeforethenarratorsassomethingmysteriousandcallingforanexplanation，andifthehistorianwishedtogivesomesequenceandacertainconnectiontothethingsnarrated，hewasobligedtoaddcertaingeneralviewstothesimplenarration。FromthejealousyofthegodsofFatherHerodotustotheenvironmentofM。Taine，aninfinitenumberofconceptsservingasmeansofexplanationandascomplementstothethingsrelatedhavebeenimposeduponthenarratorsbythenaturalvoicesoftheirimmediatethought。Classtendencies，religiousideas，popularprejudices，influencesorimitationsofacurrentphilosophy，excursionsofimaginationandadesiretogiveanartisticappearancetofactsknownonlyinafragmentaryfashion，allthesecausesandotheranalogouscauseshavecontributedtoformthesubstratumofthemoreorlessartlesstheoryofeventswhichisimplicitlyatthebottomofthenarration，orwhichservesatleasttoflavorandadornit。Whethermenspeakofchanceorofdestiny，whethertheyappealtotheprovidentialdirectionofhumaneventsoradheretothewordandconceptofchance，theonlydivinityleftintherigidandoftencoarseconceptionofMachiavelli，orwhethertheyspeak，asisfrequentenoughatthepresenttime，ofthelogicofevents，alltheseconceptionswereandareeffectsandresultsofingenuousthought，ofimmediatethought，ofthoughtwhichcannotjustifytoitselfitscourse，anditsproducts，eitherbythepathsofcriticismorbythemethodsofexperience。Tofillupwithconventionalcauses（e。g。，chance）orwithastatementoftheoreticalplausibility（e。g。，theinevitablecourseofeventswhichsometimesisconfusedinthemindwiththenotionofprogressthegapsofourknowledgeastothefashioninwhichthingshavebeenactuallyproducedbytheirownnecessitywithoutcareforourfreewinandourconsent，thatisthemotiveandtheresultofthispopularphilosophy，latentorexplicit，inthechroniclers，whichbyreasonofitssuperficialcharacterdissolvesassoonasscientificcriticismappears。

Inalltheseconceptsandalltheseimaginingswhichinthelightofcriticismappearassimpleprovisionaldevicesandeffectsofanunripethought，butwhichoftenseemto"culturedpeople"thenonplusultraofintelligence——inalltheseagreatpartofthehumanprocessusisrevealedandreflected；

and，consequently。Weshouldnotconsiderthemasgratuitousinventionsnorasproductsofamomentaryillusion。Theyareapartandamomentinthedevelopmentofwhatwecallthehumanmind。Iflateritisobservedthattheseconceptsandtheseimaginingsaremingledandconfoundedintheacceptedopinionsofculturedpeople，orofthosewhopassforsuch，theymakeupanimmensemassofprejudicesandtheyconstituteanimpedimentwhichignoranceopposestotheclearandcompletevisionoftherealthings。Theseprejudicesturnupagainasetymologicalderivationsinthelanguageofprofessionalpoliticians，ofso-calledpublicistsandjournalistsofeverykind，andofferthesupportofrhetorictoself-styledpublicopinion。

Toopposeandthentoreplacethismirageofuncriticalconceptions，theseidolsoftheimagination，theseeffectsofliteraryartifice，thisconventionalismbytherealsubjects，ortheforceswhicharepositivelyacting——thatistosay，menintheirvariousanddiversifiedsocialrelations——thisistherevolutionaryenterpriseandthescientificaimofthenewdoctrinewhichrendersobjectiveandImightsaynaturalizestheexplanationofthehistoricalprocessus。

Acertaindefinitenation，thatistosay，notacertainmassofindividuals，butaplexusofmenorganizedinsuchandsuchafashionbynaturalrelationsofconsanguinity，orfollowingsuchorsuchanartificialorcustomaryorderofrelationshipandaffinity，orbyreasonofpermanentproximity；——thisnation，onacertaincircumscribedandlimitedterritory，havingsuchandsuchfertility，productiveinsuchandsuchamanneracquiredthroughcertaindefiniteformsbycontinuouslabor；——thisnation，thusdistributedoverthisterritoryandthusdividedandarticulatedbytheeffectofadefinitedivisionoflaborwhichisscarcelybeginningtogivebirthtoorwhichhasalreadydevelopedandripenedsuchandsuchadivisionofclasses，orwhichhasalreadydisintegratedortransformedawholeseriesofclasses；——thisnationwhichpossessessuchandsuchinstrumentsfromtheflintstonetotheelectriclightandfromthebowandarrowtotherepeatingrifle，whichproducesaccordingtoacertainfashionandsharesitsproductsconformablytoitswayofproducing；——thisnation，whichbyalltheserelationsconstitutesasocietyinwhicheitherbyhabitsofmutualaccommodationorbyexplicitconventions，orbyactsofviolencesufferedandendured，hasalreadygivenbirth，orisonthepointofgivingbirthtolegal-politicalrelationswhichresultintheformationofthestate；——thisnation，whichbytheorganizationofthestate，whichisonlyameansforfixing，defendingandperpetuatinginequalities，byreasonoftheantagonismswhichitbearswithinitself，renderscontinuouslyunstabletheorganizationitself，whenceresultthepoliticalmovementsandrevolutions，andthereforethereasonsforprogressandretrogression；——thereisthesumofwhatisatthebottomofallhistory。

Andthereisthevictoryofrealisticproseoverallthefantasticandideologicalcombinations。

Certainlyitrequiressomeresignationtoseethingsastheyare，passingbeyondthephantomswhichforcenturieshavepreventedrightvision。Butthisrevelationofrealisticdoctrinewasnotandisnotdesignedtobetherebellionofthematerialmanagainsttheidealman。Ithasbeenandis，onthecontrary，thediscoveryoftheprinciplesandthemotiveswhicharerealandwhichbelongtoallhumandevelopment，includingallthatwecalltheidealinpositiveconditions，determinedbyfactswhichcarryinthemselvesthereasonsandthelawandtherhythmoftheirowndevelopment。

III

Butitwouldbeacompleteerrortobelievethatthewriterswhonarrate，explain，orillustratehavethemselvesinventedandgivenlifetothisenormousmassofunripeconcepts，imaginings，andexplanationswhich，thankstotheforceofprejudice，concealedforcenturiestherealtruth。Itmayhappen，anditcertainlydoeshappen，thatsomeoftheseconceptsarethefruitandtheproductofpersonalviews，orofliterarycurrentsformedinthenarrowprofessionalcircleoftheuniversitiesandacademies。Thepeopleinthiscaseareabsolutelyignorantofthem。Buttheimportantfactisthathistoryitselfhasputontheseveils；thatistosay，thattheveryactorsandworkersofthehistoricevents——greatmassesofpeople，directingandorderingclasses，mastersofstate，sectsorparties，inthenarrowestsenseoftheword，ifwemakeexceptionforanoccasionalmomentoflucidinterval——

neverhaduptotheendofthepastcenturyaconsciousnessoftheirownwork，unlessitbethroughsomeideologicalenvelopewhichpreventedanysightoftherealcauses。Alreadyatthedistantepochwhenbarbarismwaspassingoverintocivilization，thatistosay，whenthefirstdiscoveriesofagriculture，thestableestablishmentofapopulationuponadefiniteterritory，thefirstdivisionoflaborinsociety，thefirstalliancesofdifferentgentes，gavetheconditionsinwhichdevelopedpropertyandthestate，oratleastthecity——eventhen，attheepochofallthefirstsocialrevolutions，menideallytransformedtheirwork，seeinginitthemiraculousactsofgodsandheroes。Somuchsothat，whileactingastheycouldandastheymust，grantedthenecessityandthefactoftheirrelativeeconomicdevelopment，theyconceivedanexplanationoftheirownworkasifitdidnotbelongtothem。Thisideologicalenvelopeofhumanworkshaschangedsincethenmorethanonceinform，inappearance，incombinationsandinrelationsinthecourseofthecenturies，fromtheimmediateproductionoftheingenuousmythsuptothecomplicatedtheologicalsystemsandtoTheCityofGodofSt。Augustine——fromthesuperstitiouscredulityinmiraclesdowntothebewilderingmiraclesofthemetaphysicians，thatistosay，downtotheIdeawhichforthedecadentsofHegelianismengendersofitself，initself，byitsowndisaggregation，themostincongruousvariationsofsociallifeinthecourseofhistory。

Now，preciselybecausethevisualangleofideologicalinterpretationhasnotbeenfinallyoutgrownuntilverylately，andbecauseitisonlyinourdaysthatasumtotaloftherealandreallyactingrelationshasbeenclearlydistinguishedfromtheingenuousreflectionsofmythandthemoreartificialreflectionsofreligionandmetaphysics，ourdoctrinestatesanewproblemandcarrieswithinitselfgravedifficultiesforwhoeverwishestofititforprovidingaspecificexplanationofthehistoryofthepast。

Theproblemconsistsinthis：thatourdoctrinenecessitatesanewcriticismofthesourcesofhistory。AndIdonotwishtobeunderstoodasspeakingexclusivelyofthecriticismofdocumentsintheproperandordinarysenseoftheword，becauseasforthiswemaycontentourselveswithwhatisdeliveredtousreadymadebythecritics，thescholars，andtheprofessionalphilologists。

ButIwouldspeakofthatimmediatesourcewhichisbehindthesocalleddocumentsproperlyandwhich，beforeexpressingitselfandfixingitselfinthese，residesinthespiritandintheformoftheconsciousnessinwhichtheactorsaccountedtothemselvesforthemotivesoftheirownwork。Thisspirit，thatistosay，thisconsciousness，isofteninadequatetothecauseswhichwearenowinapositiontodiscover，fromwhichitfollowsthattheactorsseemtousenveloped，asitwere，inacircleofillusions。Tostripthehistoricfactsfromtheseenvelopeswhichclothetheveryfactswhiletheyaredeveloping——thisistomakeanewcriticismofthesourcesintherealisticsenseofthewordandnotintheformaldocumentarysense。

Itis，inshort，tomakereactupontheknowledgeofpastconditionstheconsciousnessofwhichwearenowcapable，andtherebytoreconstructthemanew。

Butthisrevisionofthemostdirectsources，ifitmarkstheextremelimitofthehistoricself-consciousnesswhichmaybereached，maybeanoccasionforfallingintoaseriouserror。Asweplaceourselvesatapointofviewwhichisbeyondtheideologicalviewstowhichtheactorsinhistorywereindebtedforaconsciousnessoftheirworkandinwhichtheyoftenfoundboththemotivesandthejustificationoftheiraction，wemayfalselybelievethattheseideologicalviewswereapureappearance，asimpleartifice，apureillusioninthevulgarsenseoftheword。MartinLuther，liketheothergreatreformers，hiscontemporaries，neverknew，asweknowto-day，thattheReformationwasbutanepisodeinthedevelopmentoftheThirdEstate，andaneconomicrevoltoftheGermannationagainsttheexploitationofthePapalcourt。Hewaswhathewas，asanagitatorandapolitician，becausehewaswhollytakenupwiththebeliefwhichmadehimseeintheclassmovementwhichgaveanimpulsetotheagitationareturntotrueChristianityandadivinenecessityinthevulgarcourseofevents。Thestudyofremoteeffects，thatistosay，theincreasingstrengthofthebourgeoisieofthecitiesagainstthefeudallords，theincreaseoftheterritorialdominionoftheprincesattheexpenseoftheinter-territorialandsuper-territorialpoweroftheemperorandthepope，theviolentrepressionofthemovementofthepeasantsandthemoreproperlyproletarianmovementoftheAnabaptistspermitusnowtoreconstructtheauthentichistoryoftheeconomiccausesoftheReformation，particularlyinthefinalproportionswhichittook，whichisthebestofproofs。Butthatdoesnotmeanthatweareprivilegedtodetachthefactarrivedatfromthemodeofitsrealizationandtoanalyzethecircumstantialintegralitybyaposthumousanalysisaltogethersubjectiveandsimplified。

Theinnercauses，or，aswouldbesaidnow，theprofaneandprosaicmotivesoftheReformation，appeartousclearlyinFrance，whereitwasnotvictorious；

clearlyagainintheLowCountries，where，apartfromthedifferencesofnationality，thecontrastsofeconomicinterestsareshownstrikinglyinthestruggleagainstSpain；veryclearlyagaininEngland，wherethereligiousrenovationrealized，thankstopoliticalviolence，placedinfulllightthepassagetothoseconditionswhichareforourmodernbourgeoisietheforerunnersofcapitalism。Postfactum，andafterthetardyrealizationofunforeseenconsequences，thehistoryoftherealmovementswhichweretheinnercausesoftheReformation，ingreatpartunknowntotheactorsthemselves，willappearinfulllight。Butthatthefactcameaboutpreciselyasitdidcomeabout，thatittookoncertaindeterminedforms，thatitclotheditselfincertainvestments，thatitpainteditselfincertaincolors，thatitputinmovementcertainpassions，thatitdisplayedaspecialdegreeoffanaticism——intheseconsistitsspecificcharacter，whichnoanalyticabilitycanmakeotherwisethanasitwas。Onlytheloveofparadoxinseparablefromthezealofthepassionatepopularizersofanewdoctrinecanhavebroughtsometobelievethattowritehistoryitwassufficienttoputonrecordmerelytheeconomicmoment（oftenstillunknownandoftenunknowable），andthereupontocasttotheearthalltherestasauselessburdenwithwhichmenhadcapriciouslyloadedthemselves，asasuperfluity，ameretrifle，oreven，asitwere，somethingnotexistent。

Fromthefactthathistorymustbetakeninitsentiretyandthatinitthekernelandthehuskarebutone，asGoethesaidofallthings，threeconsequencesfollow：

First，itisevidentthatinthedomainofhistorico-socialdeterminism，thelinkingofcausestoeffects，ofconditionstothethingsconditioned，ofantecedentstoconsequents，isneverevidentatfirstsightinthesubjectivedeterminismofindividualpsychology。Inthislastdomainitwasarelativelyeasythingforabstractandformalphilosophytodiscover，passingaboveallthebaublesoffatalismandfreewill，theevidenceofthemotiveineveryvolition，because，infine，thereisnowishwithoutitsdeterminingmotive。Butbeneaththemotivesandthewishthereisthegenesisofboth，andtoreconstructthisgenesiswemustleavetheclosedfieldofconsciousnesstoarriveattheanalysisofthesimplenecessities，which，ontheoneside，arederivedfromsocialconditions，andontheothersidearelostintheobscurebackgroundoforganicdispositions，inancestryandinatavism。Itisnototherwisewithhistoricaldeterminism，where，inthesameway，webeginwithmotivesreligious，political，aesthetic，passionate，etc。，butwherewemustsubsequentlydiscoverthecausesofthesemotivesinthematerialconditionsunderlyingthem。Nowthestudyoftheseconditionsshouldbesospecifiedthatwemayperceiveindubitablynotonlywhatarethecauses，butagainbywhatmediationstheyarriveatthatformwhichrevealsthemtotheconsciousnessasmotiveswhoseoriginisoftenobliterated。

Andthencefollowsindubitablythissecondconsequencesthatinourdoctrinewehavenottore-translateintoeconomiccategoriesallthecomplexmanifestationsofhistory，butonlytoexplaininthelastanalysis（Engels）allthehistoricfactsbymeansoftheunderlyingeconomicstructure（Marx），whichnecessitatesanalysisandreductionandtheninterlinkingandconstruction。

Itresultsfromthis，inthethirdplace，that，passingfromtheunderlyingeconomicstructuretothepicturesquewholeofagivenhistory，weneedtheaidofthatcomplexusofnotionsandknowledgewhichmaybecalled，forlackofabetterterm，socialpsychology。Idonotmeanbythattoalludetothefantasticexistenceofasocialpsychenortotheconceptofanassumedcollectivespiritwhichbyitsownlaws，independentoftheconsciousnessofindividualsandoftheirmaterialanddefinablerelations，realizesitselfandshowsitselfinsociallife。Thatispuremysticism。NeitherdoIwishtoalludetothoseattemptsatgeneralizationwhichfilluptreatisesonsocialpsychologyandthegeneralideaofwhichistotransportandapplytoasubjectwhichiscalledsocialconsciousnesstheknowncategoriesandformsofindividualpsychology。NoragaindoIwishtoalludetothatmassofsemi-organicandsemi-psychologicaldenominationsbytheaidofwhichsomeattributetothesocialbeing，asSchaeffledoes，abrain，aspinalcolumn，sensibility，sentiment，conscience，will，etc。ButIwishtospeakofmoremodestandmoreprosaicthings，thatistosay，ofthoseconcreteandprecisestatesofmindwhichmakeusknowastheyreallyweretheplebeiansofRomeatacertainepoch，theartisansofFlorenceatthemomentwhenthemovementoftheCiompiburstforth，orthosepeasantsofFrancewithinwhomwasengendered，tofollowTaine’sexpression，the"spontaneousanarchy"of1789，thosepeasantswhofinallybecamefreelaborersandsmallproprietors，or，aspiringtoproperty，transformedthemselvesrapidlyfromvictorsovertheforeignerintoautomaticinstrumentsofreaction。Thissocialpsychology，whichnoonecanreducetoabstractcanonsbecause，inmostcases，itismerelydescriptive，thisiswhatthechroniclers，theorators，theartists，theromancersandtheideologistsofeverysorthaveseenanduptonowhaveconceivedastheexclusiveobjectoftheirstudies。Inthispsychology，whichisthespecificconsciousnessofmeningivensocialcondition，theagitators，oratorsandpropagandiststrusttoday，andtoittheyappeal。Weknowthatitisthefruit，theoutcome，theeffectofcertainsocialconditionsactuallydetermined——thisclass，inthissituation，determinedbythefunctionswhichitfulfills，bythesubjectioninwhichitisheld，bythedominionwhichitexercises；andfinally，theseclasses，thesefunctions，thissubjectionandthisdominioninvolvesuchandsuchadeterminedformofproductionanddistributionoftheimmediatemeansoflife，thatistosay，adeterminedeconomicstructure。Thissocialpsychology，byitsnaturealwayscircumstantial，isnottheexpressionoftheabstractandgenericprocessoftheself-styledhumanintellect。Itisalwaysaspecifiedformationfromspecifiedconditions。Weholdthisprincipletobeindisputable，thatitisnottheformsofconsciousnesswhichdeterminethehumanbeing，butitisthemannerofbeingwhichdeterminestheconsciousness（Marx）。

Buttheseformsofconsciousness，evenastheyaredeterminedbytheconditionsoflife，constituteinthemselvesalsoapartofhistory。Thisdoesnotconsistonlyintheeconomicanatomy，butinallthatcombinationwhichclothesandcoversthatanatomyevenuptothemulticoloredreflectionsoftheimagination。

Inotherwords，thereisnofactinhistorywhichdoesnotrecallbyitsorigintheconditionsoftheunderlyingeconomicstructure，butthereisnofactinhistorywhichisnotpreceded，accompaniedandfollowedbydeterminedformsofconsciousness，whetheritbesuperstitiousorexperimental，ingenuousorreflective，impulsiveorself-controlled，fantasticorreasoning。

【推荐阅读】幽幽深宫，醒来一梦似千年，重生于下堂妃身躯中的她，将如何手刃仇人? 点击阅读