NorwasthereanotherFourierwaitinginhishouseatafixedhouryearafteryearforthe"candidateofhumanity。"Noragain，wasthereaninitiatorofanewlife，beginningwithartificialmeanstocreatethefirstnucleusofanassociationproposingtomakemanover，aswasthecasewithBeller，Owen，Cabet，andtheenterpriseoftheFourieritesinTexas，whichwasthetombofutopianism，markedbyasingularepitaph：thedumbnesswhichsucceededthefieryeloquenceofConsiderant。NeitheristherehereasectwhichretiresmodestlyandtimidlyfromtheworldinordertocelebrateinaclosedcircletheperfectideaofcommunismasinthesocialistcoloniesofAmerica。

Here，onthecontrary，inthedoctrineofcriticalcommunism，itissocietyasawholewhichatamomentofitsgeneralprocessdiscoversthecauseofitsdestinedcourseandatacriticalpointassertsitselftoproclaimthelawsofitsmovement。TheforesightindicatedbytheManifestowasnotchronological，itwasnotaprophecynorapromise，butamorphologicalprevision。

Beneaththenoiseofthepassionsoverwhichourdailyconversationextendsitself，beyondthevisiblemovementsofthepersonswhoformedthematerialatwhichthehistoriansstop，beyondthejuridicalandpoliticalapparelofourcivilsociety，farenoughfromthemeaningswhichreligionandartgivetolife，thereremains，growsanddevelopstheelementarystructureofsocietywhichsupportsalltherest。Theanatomicalstudyofthisunderlyingstructureiseconomics。Andashumansocietyhasseveraltimeschanged，partiallyorentirely，initsmostvisibleexteriorform，orinitsideological，religiousorartisticmanifestations，wemustfirstfindthecauseandthereasonofthesechanges，theonlyoneswhichhistoriansrelate，inthetransformationsmorehidden，andatfirstlessvisible，oftheeconomicprocessusofthisstructure。Wemustsetourselvestothestudyofthedifferenceswhichexistbetweenthevariousformsofproductionwhenwehavetodealwithhistoricepochsclearlydistinctandproperlydesignated；andwhenwehavetoexplainthesuccessionoftheseforms，thereplacingofonebytheother，wemuststudythecausesoferosion，andofthedestructionoftheformwhichdisappears；

andfinallywhenwewishtounderstandthehistoricfactdeterminedandconcrete，wemuststudythefrictionsandthecontrastswhichtaketheirrisefromthedifferentcurrents，thatistosay，classes，theirsubdivisionsandtheirintersectionswhichcharacterizeagivensociety。

WhentheManifestodeclaredthatallhistoryuptothepresenttimehasbeennothingbutthehistoryofclassstrugglesandthatthesearethecaseofallrevolutionsasalsoofallreactions，itdidtwothingsatthesametime，itgavetocommunismtheelementsofanewdoctrineandtothecommuniststheguidingthreadtodiscoverintheconfusedeventsofpoliticallifetheconditionsoftheunderlyingeconomicmovement。

Intheselastfiftyyearsthegenericforesightofanewhistoricerahasbecomeforsocialiststhedelicateartofunderstandingineverycasewhatitisexpedienttodo，becausethisneweraisinitselfincontinualformation。Communismhasbecomeanartbecausetheproletarianshavebecome，orareonthepointofbecomingapoliticalparty。Therevolutionaryspiritisembodiedto-dayintheproletarianorganization。Thedesiredunionofcommunistsandproletariansishenceforthanaccomplishedfact。（10*）Theselastfiftyyearshavebeentheeverstrongerproofoftheevergrowingrevoltoftheproducingforcesagainsttheformsofproduction。We"utopians"

havenootheranswertoofferthanthislessonfromeventstothosewhostillspeakofmeteoricdisturbanceswhich，astheywouldhaveit，willdisappearlittlebylittleandwillallresolvethemselvesintothecalmofthisfinalepochofcivilization。Andthislessonsuffices。

ElevenyearsafterthepublicationoftheManifesto，Marxformulatedinclearandprecisefashionthedirectingprinciplesofthematerialisticinterpretationofhistoryintheprefacetoabookwhichistheforerunnerof"Capital。"（11*）

"ThefirstworkwhichIundertookforthepurposeofsolvingthedoubtswhichperplexedmewasacriticalre-examinationofHegel’sPhilosophyofLaw。TheintroductiontothisworkappearedintheGerman-FrenchYearBooks，publishedinParisin1844。

Myinvestigationendedintheconvictionthatlegalrelationsandformsofgovernmentcannotbeexplainedeitherbythemselvesorbytheso-calledgeneraldevelopmentofthehumanmind，butonthecontrary，havetheirrootsintheconditionsofman’sphysicalexistence，whosetotalityHegel，followingtheEnglishandFrenchwritersoftheeighteenthcentury，summedupunderthenameofcivilsociety；andthattheanatomyofcivilsocietymustbesoughtinpoliticaleconomy。

ThestudyofthelatterwhichIbeganatPariswascontinuedatBrusselswitherIhadbetakenmyselfinconsequenceofanorderofGuizotexpellingmefromFrance。

ThegeneralresultwhichIarrivedatandwhich，onceobtained，servedasaguideformysubsequentstudies，canbebrieflyformulatedasfollows：

Inmakingtheirlivelihoodtogethermenenterintocertainnecessaryinvoluntaryrelationswitheachother，industrialrelationswhichcorrespondtowhateverstagesocietyhasreachedinthedevelopmentofitsmaterialproductiveforces。

Thetotalityoftheseindustrialrelationsconstitutestheeconomicstructureofsociety，therealbasisuponwhichthelegalandpoliticalsuperstructureisbuilt，andtowhichdefiniteformsofsocialconsciousnesscorrespond。

Themethodofproducingthemateriallivelihooddeterminesthesocial，politicalandintellectuallifeprocessingeneral。

Itisnotmen’sconsciousnesswhichdeterminestheirlife；onthecontrary，itistheirsociallifewhichdeterminestheirconsciousness。

Atacertainstageoftheirdevelopmentthematerialproductiveforcesofsocietycomeintoconflictwiththeoldconditionsofproductionor，tousealegalexpression，withtheoldpropertyrelationsunderwhichtheseforceshavehithertobeenexerted。Fromformsofdevelopmentoftheproductiveforcestheserelationsturnintofettersofproduction。Thenbeginsanepochofsocialrevolution。Withthechangeoftheeconomicbasisthewholevastsuperstructureundergoessoonerorlaterarevolution。

Inconsideringsuchrevolutionsonemustconstantlydistinguishbetweentheindustrialrevolution，tobecarefullypositedscientifically，whichtakesplaceintheeconomicconditionsofproduction，andthelegal，political，religious，artisticorphilosophical，inshortideological，formswhereinmenbecomeconsciousofthisconflictandfightitout。Aslittleaswejudgeanindividualbywhathehimselfthinksheis，justaslittlecanwejudgesucharevolutionaryepochbyitsownconsciousness。Wemustratherexplainthisconsciousnessoutoftheantagonismsofmen’sindustriallife，outoftheconflictexistingbetweentheforcesofsocialproductionandtherelationsofsocialproduction。

Aformofsocietyneverbreaksdownuntilalltheproductiveforcesaredevelopedforwhichitaffordsroom。Newandhigherrelationsofproductionareneverestablished，untilthematerialconditionsoflifetosupportthemhavebeenpreparedinthelapoftheoldsocietyitself。Thereforemankindalwayssetsforitselfonlysuchtasksasitisabletoperform；foruponcloseexaminationitwillalwaysbefoundthatthetaskitselfonlyariseswherethematerialconditionsforitssolutionarealreadyathandorareatleastinprocessofgrowth。

WemayinbroadoutlinescharacterizetheAsiatic，theantique，thefeudalandthemoderncapitalistmethodsofproductionasprogressiveepochsintheeconomicevolutionofsociety。

Theindustrialrelationsarisingoutofthecapitalisticmethodofproductionconstitutethelastoftheantagonisticformsofsocialproduction；antagonisticnotinthesenseofanindividualantagonism，butofanantagonismgrowingoutofthesocialconditionsofindividuals。

Buttheproductiveforceswhicharedevelopedinthelapofcapitalisticsocietycreateatthesametimethematerialconditionsneededfortheabolitionofthisantagonism。Thecapitalistformofsociety，therefore，bringstoaclosethispreludetothehistoryofhumansociety。"

MarxhadsomeyearsbeforeleftthepoliticalarenaandhedidnotreturntoituntillaterwiththeInternational。ThereactionhadtriumphedinItaly，Austria，HungaryandGermanyoverthepatriotic，liberalordemocraticrevolution。

thebourgeoisieonitssidehadovercometheproletariansofFranceandEngland。

Theindispensableconditionsforthedevelopmentofademocraticandproletarianmovementsuddenlydisappeared。ThebattalionsmallinnumbersindeedoftheManifestocommunistswhohadtakenpartintherevolutionandwhohadparticipatedinalltheactsofresistanceandpopularrebellionagainstreactionsawitsactivitycrushedbythememorableprocessofCologne。ThesurvivorsofthemovementtriedtomakeanewstartatLondon，butsoonMarx，Engelsandothersseparatedthemselvesfromtherevolutionariesandretiredfromthemovement。Thecrisiswaspassed。Alongperiodofreposefollowed。thiswasshownbytheslowdisappearanceoftheChartistmovement，thatistosay，theproletarianmovementofthecountrywhichwasthespinalcolumnofthecapitalistsystem。Historyhadforthemomentdiscreditedtheillusionsoftherevolutionaries。

Beforegivinghimselfalmostentirelytothelongincubationofthealreadydiscoveredelementsofthecritiqueofpoliticaleconomy，Marxillustratedinseveralworksthehistoryoftherevolutionaryperiodfrom1848to1850

andespeciallytheclassstrugglesinFrance，showingthusthatiftherevolutionintheformswhichithadtakenonatthatmomenthadnotsucceeded，therevolutionarytheoryofhistorywasnotcontradictedforallthat。（12*）ThesuggestionsgivenintheManifestofoundheretheircompletedevelopment。

Laterthe18thBrumaireofLouisBonaparte（13*）wasthefirstattempttoapplythenewconceptionofhistorytoaseriesoffactscontainedwithinpreciselimitsoftime。Itisextremelydifficulttorisefortheapparentmovementtotherealmovementofhistoryandtodiscovertheirintimateconnection。

Thereareindeedgreatdifficultiesinrisingfromthephenomenaofpassion，oratory，Parliaments，electionsandtheliketotheinnersocialgearingtodiscoverinthelatterthedifferentinterestsofthelargeandsmallbourgeois，ofthepeasants，theartisans，thelaborers，thepriests，thesoldiers，thebankers，theusurersandthemob。Alltheseinterestsactconsciouslyorunconsciously，jostlingeachother，eliminatingeachother，combiningandfusing，inthediscordantlifeofcivilizedman。

Thecrisiswaspassedandthiswaspreciselytrueinthecountrieswhichconstitutedthehistoricfieldfromwhichcriticalcommunismproceeded。Allthatthecriticalcommunistscoulddowastounderstandthereactioninitshiddeneconomiccausesbecause，forthemoment，tounderstandthereactionwastocontinuetheworkoftherevolution。Thesamethinghappenedunderotherconditionsandotherforms20yearslaterwhenMarx，inthenameoftheInternationalmadeinthe"CivilWarinFrance"anapologyfortheCommunewhichwasatthesametimeitsobjectivecriticism。

TheheroicresignationwithwhichMarxafter1850abandonedpoliticallifewasshownagainwhenheretiredfromtheInternationalafterthecongressattheHaguein1872。Thesetwofactshavetheirvalueforbiographybecausetheygiveglimpsesofhispersonalcharacter。Withhim，infact，ideas，temperament，policyandthoughtwereoneandthesame。But，ontheotherhand，thesefactshaveamuchgreaterbearingforus。Criticalcommunismdoesnotmanufacturerevolutions，itdoesnotprepareinsurrections，itdoesnotfurnisharmsforrevolts。Itminglesitselfwiththeproletarianmovementinthefullintelligenceoftheconnectionwhichitshas，whichitcanhave，andwhichitmusthave，withalltherelationsofsociallifeasawhole。Inaworditisnotaseminaryinwhichsuperiorofficersoftheproletarianrevolutionaretrained，butisitneithermorenorlessthantheconsciousnessofthisrevolutionandespeciallytheconsciousnessofitsdifficulties。

Theproletarianmovementhasgrowninacolossalfashionduringtheselastthirtyyears。Inthemidstofnumberlessdifficulties，throughgainsandlosses，ithaslittlebylittletakenonapoliticalform。Itsmethodshavebeenelaboratedandgraduallyapplied。Allthisisnottheworkofthemagicactionofthedoctrinescatteredbythepersuasivevirtueofwrittenandspokenpropaganda。Fromtheirfirstbeginningsthecommunistshadthisfeelingthattheyweretheextremeleftofeveryproletarianmovement，butinproportionasthelatterdevelopedandspecializeditbecametheirnecessityanddutytoassist，（throughtheelaborationofprogrammes，andthroughtheirparticipationinthepoliticalactionoftheparties）inthevariouscontingenciesoftheeconomicdevelopmentandofthepoliticalsituationgrowingoutofit。

InthefiftyyearswhichseparateusfromthepublicationoftheManifestothespecializationandthecomplexityoftheproletarianmovementhavebecomesuchthatthereishenceforthnomindcapableofembracingitinitscompleteness，ofunderstandingitinitsdetailsandgraspingitsrealcausesandexactrelations。ThesingleInternational，from1864to1873，necessarilydisappearedafterithadfulfilleditstask。Thepreliminaryequalizationofthegeneraltendenciesandoftheideascommonandindispensabletoalltheproletariat，andnoonecanassumeorwillassumetore-constituteanythinglikeit。

Twocauses，notably，contributedinahighdegreetothisspecialization，thiscomplexityoftheproletarianmovement。Inmanycountriesthebourgeoisiefelttheneedofputtinganendintheinterestofitsowndefensetosomeoftheabuseswhichhadariseninconsequenceoftheintroductionoftheindustrialsystem。Thencearoselaborlegislation，orasithasbeenpompouslycalledsociallegislation。Thissamebourgeoisieinitsowninterestor，underthepressureofcircumstanceshasbeenobliged，inmanycountriestoincreasethegenericconditionsofliberty，andnotablytoextendtherightofsuffrage。Thesetwocircumstanceshavedrawntheproletariatintothecircleofdailypoliticallife。Theyhaveconsiderablyincreaseditschanceforactionandtheagilityandsupplenessthusacquiredpermitittostrugglewiththebourgeoisieinelectiveassemblies。Andastheprocessusofthingsdeterminestheprocessusofideas，thispracticalmultiformdevelopmentoftheproletariatisaccompaniedbyagradualdevelopmentofthedoctrinesofcriticalcommunism，aswellinthemannerofunderstandinghistoryorcontemporarylifeasintheminutedescriptionofthemostinfinitesimalpartsofeconomics：inaword，ithasbecomeascience。

Havewenotthere，someask，adeviationfromthesimpleandimperativedoctrineoftheManifesto？Othersagainsay，havewenotlostinintensityandprecisionwhatwehavegainedinextensionandcomplexity？

Thesequestions，inmyopinion，arisefromaninexactconceptionofthepresentproletarianmovementandanopticalillusionastothedegreeofenergyandrevolutionaryvaloroftheformermovements。

Whateverbetheconcessionsthatthebourgeoisiecanmakeinthepresenteconomicorderevenititbeaverygreatreductioninthehoursoflabor，italwaysremainstruethatthenecessityofexploitationuponwhichthewholepresentsocialorderrestsimposeslimitsbeyondwhichcapitalasaprivateinstrumentofproductionhasnomorereasonsforexistence。Ifaconcessionto-daycanallayoneformofdiscontentintheproletariat，theconcessionitselfcandonothinglessthantogiverisetotheneedofnewandeverincreasingconcessions。TheneedoflaborlegislationaroseinEnglandbeforetheChartistmovementandithaditsfirstsuccessesintheperiodwhichimmediatelyfollowedthefallofChartism。theprinciplesandthereasonsofthismovementintheircauseandtheireffectswerestudiedinacriticalmannerbyMarxinCapitalandtheyafterwardspassed，throughtheInternational，intotheprogrammesofthedifferentsocialistparties。Finallythiswholeprocess，concentratingitselfintothedemandforeighthours，becamewiththe1stofMayaninternationalmarshalingoftheproletariat，andameansforestimatingitsprogress。Ontheotherhand，thepoliticalstruggleinwhichtheproletariattakespartdemocratizesitshabits；stillmorerealdemocracytakesbirthwhich，withtime，willnolongerbeabletoadaptitselftothepresentpoliticalform。Beingtheorganasocietybasedonexploitationitisconstitutedasabureaucratichierarchy，asajudicialbureaucracyandamutualaidsocietyofthecapitalistsforthedefenseoftheirspecialprivileges，theperpetualincomefromthepublicdebt，therentoflandandtheinterestoncapitalinallitsforms。Consequentlythetwofacts，whichaccordingtothediscontentedandthehypercriticalseemtomakeusdeviateinfinitelyfromthelineslaiddownbycommunism，become，onthecontrary，newmeansandnewconditionswhichconfirmtheselines。Theapparentdeviationsfromtherevolutionare，atbottom，theverythingwhichishasteningit。

Moreover，wemustnotexaggeratethesignificanceoftherevolutionaryfaithofthecommunistsoffiftyyearsago。GiventhepoliticalsituationofEurope，iftheyhadafaith，itwasthattheywereprecursors，andthistheyhavebeen；theyhopedthatthepoliticalconditionsofItaly，Austria，Hungary，GermanyandPolandmightapproximatetomodernforms，andthishashappenedlater，inpart，andthroughothermeans；iftheyhadahope，itwasthattheproletarianmovementofFranceandEnglandmightcontinuetodevelop。Thereactionwhichintervenedupsetmanythingsandstoppedmorethanonedevelopmentwhichhadalreadybegun。Itupsetalsotheoldrevolutionarytactic，andintheselastyearsanewtactichasarisen。Thereinliesallthechange。（14*）

TheManifestowasdesignedfornothingelsethanthefirstguidingthreadtoascienceandapracticewhichnothingbutexperienceandtimecoulddevelop。

Itgivesonlytheschemeandtherhythmofthegeneralmarchoftheproletarianmovement。

Itisperfectlyevidentthatthecommunistwereinfluencedbytheexperienceofthetwomovementswhichtheyhadbeforetheireyes，thatofFrance，andespeciallytheChartistmovementwhichthemanifestationofApril10thwassoontostrikewithparalysis。Butthisschemedoesnotfixinanyinvariablefashionatacticofwar，whichindeedhadalreadybeenmadefrequently。Therevolutionistshadoftenindeedexplainedintheformofcatechismwhatoughttobeasimpleconsequenceofthedevelopmentofevents。

Thisschemebecamemorevastandcomplexwiththedevelopmentandextensionofthebourgeoissystem。Therhythmofthemovementhasbecomemorevariedandslowerbecausethelaboringmasshasenteredonthesceneasadistinct，politicalparty，whichfactchangesthemannerandthemeasureoftheiractionandconsequentlytheirmovement。

Justasinviewoftheimprovementofmodernweaponsthetacticofstreetriotshasbecomeinopportune，andjustasthecomplexityofthemodernstateshowstheinsufficiencyofasuddencaptureofamunicipalgovernmenttoimposeuponawholepeoplethewillandtheideasofaminority，nomatterhowcourageousandprogressive，evenso，onitsside，themassoftheproletariansnolongerholdstothewordofcommandofafewleaders，nordoesitregulateitsmovementsbytheinstructionsofcaptainswhomightupontheruinsofonegovernmentraiseupanother。Thelaboringmasswhereithasdevelopedpoliticallyhasmadeandismakingitsowndemocraticeducation。Itischoosingitsrepresentativesandsubmittingtheiractiontoitscriticism。Itexaminesandmakesitsowntheideasandthepropositionswhichtheserepresentativessubmittoit。Italreadyknows，oritbeginstounderstandaccordingtothesituationinthevariouscountries，thattheconquestofpoliticalpowercannotandshouldnotbemadebyothersinitsname，andespeciallythatitcannotbetheconsequenceofasingleblow。Inaworditknows，oritisbeginningtounderstandthatthedictatorshipoftheproletariatwhichshallhaveforitstaskthesocializationofthemeansofproductioncannotbetheworkofamassledbyafewandthatitmustbe，andthatitwillbe，theworkoftheproletariansthemselveswhentheyhavebecomeinthemselvesandthroughlongpracticeapoliticalorganization。

Thedevelopmentandtheextensionofthebourgeoissystemhavebeenrapidandcolossalintheselastfiftyyears。ItalreadyinvadessacredandancientRussiaanditiscreating，notonlyinAmerica，AustraliaandinIndia，buteveninJapan，newcentersofmodernproduction，thuscomplicatingtheconditionsofcompetitionandtheentanglementsoftheworldmarket。Theconsequencesofpoliticalchangeshavebeenproduced，orwillnotbelongtowaitfor。

Equallyrapidandcolossalhasbeentheprogressoftheproletariat。Itspoliticaleducationtakeseachdayanewsteptowardtheconquestofpoliticalpower。Therebellionoftheproductiveforcesagainsttheformofproduction，thestruggle，oflivinglaboragainstaccumulatedlabor，becomeseverydaymoreevident。Thebourgeoissystemishenceforthuponthedefensiveanditrevealsitdecadencebythissingularcontradiction；thepeacefulworldofindustryhasbecomeacolossalcampinwhichmilitarismdevelops。Thepeacefulperiodofindustryhasbecomebytheironyofthingstheperiodofthecontinuousinventionofnewenginesofwar。

Socialismhasforceditselfintothesituation。Thosesemi-socialists，eventhosecharlatanswhoencumberwiththeirpresencethepressandthemeetingsofourpartyandwhooftenareanuisancetous，areatributewhichvanityandambitionsofeverysortrenderintheirfashiontothenewpowerwhichrisesonthehorizon。Inspiteoftheforeseenantidotewhichscientificsocialismis，thetruthofwhichmanypeoplehavenotcometounderstand，thereisagroupofquacksonthesocialquestion，allhavingsomeparticularspecifictoeliminatesuchorsuchasocialevil：landnationalization，monopolyofgrainsinthehandsoftheState，democratictaxes，statizationofmortgages，generalstrike，etc。Butsocialdemocracyeliminatesallthesefantasiesbecausetheconsciousnessoftheirsituationleadstheproletarianswhenoncetheyhavebecomefamiliarwiththepoliticalarenatounderstandsocialisminanintegralfashion。Thecometounderstandthattheyshouldlookforonlyonething，theabolitionofwagelabor；thatthereisbutoneformofsocietywhichrenderspossibleandevennecessarytheeliminationofclasses，——theassociationwhichdoesnotproducecommodities，andthatthisformofsocietyisnotlongertheState，butitsopposite，thatistosay，thetechnicalandpedagogicaladministrationofhumansociety，theself-governmentoflabor。BehindtheJacobinsarethegiganticheroesof1793andtheircaricaturesof1848。

Socialdemocracy！Butisnotthat，saysome，anevidentattenuationofthecommunistdoctrineasitisformulatedintheManifestointermssoringingandsodecisive？

ThisisnotthemomenttorecallthatthephrasesocialdemocracyhashadinFrancemanysignificationsfrom1837to1848，allofwhichwerebaseduponvaguesentimentalism。NeitherisitnecessarytoexplainhowtheGermanshavebeenableinthisnomenclaturetosumupalltherichandvastdevelopmentoftheirsocialismfromtheepisodeofLassallenowpassedoverandtransformeduptoourowndays。Itiscertainthatsocialdemocracycansignify，hassignifiedandsignifiesmanythingswhichhavenotbeen，arenot，andneverwillbe，eithercriticalcommunismortheconsciousmarchtowardtheproletarianrevolution。Itisalsocertainthatcontemporarysocialismeveninthecountrieswhereitsdevelopmentismostadvanced，carrieswithitagreatdealofdrosswhichitthrowsofflittlebylittlealongtheroad。Itiscertainalso，infine，thatthisbroaddesignationofsocialdemocracyservesasanescutcheonandabucklertomanyintruders。Buthereweneedtofixourattentiononlyuponcertainpointsofcapitalimportance。

Wemustinsistuponthesecondtermoftheexpressioninordertoavoidanyequivocation。DemocraticwastheconstitutionoftheCommunistLeague；

democraticwasitsfashionofwelcominganddiscussingeachnewteaching；

democraticwasitsinterventionintherevolutionof1848anditsparticipationintherebelliousresistanceagainsttheinvasionofreaction；democraticfinallywastheverywayinwhichtheLeaguewasdissolved。Inthisfirsttypeofourpresentparties，inthisfirstcellsotospeakofourcomplexorganism，elasticandhighlydeveloped，therewasnotonlytheconsciousnessofthemissiontobeaccomplishedasprecursor，buttherewasalreadytheformandthemethodofassociationwhichalonearesuitableforthefirstinitiatorsoftheproletarianrevolution。Itwasnotlongerasect；thatformwasalready，infact，outgrown。Theimmediateandfantasticdominationoftheindividualwaseliminated，whatpredominatedwasadisciplinewhichhaditssourceintheexperienceofnecessityandintheprecisedoctrinewhichmustproceedfromthereflexconsciousnessofthisnecessity。ItwasthesamewiththeInternational，whichappearedauthoritarianonlytothosewhocouldnotmaketheirownauthorityprevailinit。Itmustbethesame，anditisso，intheworkingclasspartiesandwherethischaracterisnotorcannotyetbemarked，theproletarianagitationstillelementaryandconfusedsimpleengendersillusionsandisonlyapretextforintrigues，andwhenitisnotso，thenwehaveapassoverwheremenofunderstandingtouchelbowswiththemadmanandthespy；asforexamplethesocietyofTheInternationalBrotherswhichattacheditselflikeaparasitetotheInternationalanddiscreditedit；oragaintheco-operativewhichdegeneratesintoabusinessandsellsitselftocapitalists；thelaborpartywhichremainsoutsidepoliticsandwhichstudiesthevariationsofthemarkettointroduceitstacticofstrikesintothesinuositiesofcompetition；oragainagroupofmalcontents，forthemostpartsocialoutcastsandlittlebourgeois，whogivethemselvesuptospeculationsonsocialismconsideredasoneofthephasesofpoliticalfashion。Socialdemocracyhasmetalltheseimpedimentauponitswayandithasbeenobligedtorelieveitselfofthemasitwillhavetodoagainfromonetimetoanother。Theartofpersuasiondoesnotalwayssuffice。

Ofteneritwasnecessaryanditisnecessarytoresignourselvesandwaituntilthehardschoolofdisillusionservestoinstruct，whichitdoesbetterthanreasoningsdo。

Alltheseintrinsicdifficultiesoftheproletarianmovement，whichthewilybourgeoisieoftenthannotstirsupofitselfandwhichitmakesthemostof，formaconsiderablepartoftheinternalhistoryofsocialismduringtheselastyears。

Socialismhasnotfoundimpedimentsmerelyinthegeneralconditionsofeconomiccompetitionandintheresistanceofthepoliticalpower，butalsointheveryconditionsoftheproletarianmassandinthemechanism，sometimesobscurealthoughinevitableofitsslowvaried，complexmovements，oftenantagonisticandcontradictory。Thatpreventsmanypeoplefromseeingtheincreasingreductionofallclassstrugglestothesinglestrugglebetweenthecapitalistsandtheproletarianizedworkers。

EvenastheManifestodidnotwrite，astheutopiansdid，theethicsandthepsychologyofthefuturesociety，justsoitdidnotgivethemechanismofthatformationandofthedevelopmentinwhichwefindourselves。Itissurelyenoughthatthesefewpioneershaveopenedtheroad。Wemustwalkuponittoarriveatunderstandingandexperience。Moreovermanisdistinctivelytheexperimentalanimal；thatiswhyhehasahistory，orratherthatiswhyhemakeshisownhistory。

Uponthisroadofcontemporarysocialismwhichconstitutesitsdevelopmentbecauseitisitsexperience，wehavemetthemassofthepeasants。

Socialismwhichatfirstkeptitselfpracticallyandtheoreticallytothestudyandexperienceoftheantagonismsbetweencapitalistsandproletariansinthecircleofindustrialproductionproperlysocalled，hasturneditsactivitytowardthatmassinwhichpeasantstupidityblossoms。Tocapturethepeasantsisthequestionofthehour，althoughthequintessentialSchaefflelongagomobilizedtheanti-collectivistbrainsofthepeasantsforthedefenseoftheexistingorder。Theeliminationandthecaptureofdomesticindustryintothecapitalistform，thedisappearanceofsmallproprietorship，oritslesseningthroughmortgages，thedisappearanceofthecommunaldomains，usury，taxesandmilitarism，allthisisbeginningtoworkmiracleseveninthosebrainsassumedtobepropsoftheexistingorder。

TheGermanshavebeenthepioneersinthisfield。Theywerebroughttoitbytheveryfactoftheirimmenseexpansion；fromthecitiestheyhavegonetothesmallestcentersandtheythusarriveinevitablyatthefrontiersofthecountry。Theirattemptswillbelonganddifficult；thisfactexplains，excuses，andwillexcuse，theerrorswhichhavebeenandwillbecommitted。（15*）

Aslongasthepeasantshallnotbegainedoverweshallalwayshavebehindusthispeasantstupiditywhichunconsciouslyrepeats，andthatbecauseitisstupid，theerrorsofthe18thBrumaireandthe2dofDecember。ThedevelopmentofmodernsocietyinRussiawillprobablyproceedonparallellineswiththisconquestofthecountrydistricts。Whenthatcountryshallhaveenteredintotheliberalerawithallitsimperfectionsandallitsdisadvantages，withallthepurelymodernformsofexploitationandofproletarianization，butalsowiththecompensationsandtheadvantagesofthepoliticaldevelopmentoftheproletariat，socialdemocracywillnolongerhavetofearthethreatofunforeseenperilsfromwithout，anditwillatthesametimehavetriumphedovertheinternalperilsbythecaptureofthepeasants。

TheexampleofItalyisinstructive。Thiscountryafterhavingopenedthecapitalisteradroppedoutforseveralcenturiesfromthecurrenthistory。

Itisatypicalcaseofdecadencewhichcanbestudiedinaprecisefashionfromoriginaldocumentsinallitsphases。ItpartlyreturnedintohistoryatthetimeoftheNapoleonicdomination。Itreconquereditsunityandbecameamodernstateaftertheperiodofthereactionandconspiracies，andundercircumstancesknowntoall，andItalyhasendedbyhavingallthevicesofparliamentarism，ofmilitarismandoffinancewithouthavingatthesametimetheformsofmodernproductionandtheresultingcapacityforcompetitiononequalterms。Itcannotcompetewithcountrieswhereindustryismoreadvancedbyreasonoftheabsolutelackofcoalandscarcityofiron，thelackoftechnicalability，——anditiswaiting，orhopingnow，thattheapplicationofelectricitymaypermitittoregainthetimelost。ItisthiswhichgavetheimpulsetodifferentattemptsfromBiellatoSchio。Amodernstateinasocietyalmostexclusivelyagriculturalandinacountrywhereagricultureisingreatpartbackward，itisthatwhichgivesbirthtothisgeneralsentimentofuniversaldiscontent。

Thencecametheincoherenceandtheinconsistencyoftheparties，therapidoscillationsfromdemagogytodictatorship，themob，themultitude，theinfinitearmyoftheparasitesofpolitics，themakersoffantasticprojects。

Thissingularsocialspectacleofadevelopmentprevented，retarded，embarrassedandthusuncertain，isbroughtoutinboldreliefbyapenetratingspiritwhich，ifitisnotalwaysthefruitandtheexpressionofamodern，broadandrealcultureneverthelessbearswithinitselfastherelicofanexcellentcivilizationthemarkofgreatcerebralrefinement。Italyhasnotbeenforreasonseasytoguessasuitablefieldfortheindigenousformationofsocialistideasandtendencies。TheItalianPhillipeBuoanaroti，atfirstthefriendoftheyoungerRobespierre，becomethecompanionofBabeufandlaterattemptedtore-establishBabeufisminFrance，after1830。SocialismmadeitsfirstappearanceinItalyatthetimeoftheInternational，intheconfusedandincoherentformofBakunism；itwasnot，moreover，alabormovement，butitwastheworkofthesmallbourgeoisandinstinctiverevolutionists。（16*）

Intheselastyearssocialismhasfixeditselfinaformwhichalmostreproducesthegeneraltypeofsocialdemocracy。（17*）NowinItalythefirstsignoflifewhichtheproletariatgaveisintheshapeoftherisingoftheSicilianpeasantsfollowedbyotherrevoltsofthesamekindonthecontinenttowhichotherswillperhapssucceedinthefuture。Isitnotverysignificant？

Afterthisincursionintothehistoryofcontemporarysocialismwegladlyreturntoourprecursorsoffiftyyearsago，whoputonrecordintheManifestohowtheytookpossessionofanadvancepostontheroadofprogress。Andthatistruenotmerelyofthetheorizers，thatistosay，MarxandEngels。

Bothofthesemenwouldhaveexercised，underothercircumstancesandatalltimeseitherbytongueorpen，aconsiderableinfluenceoverpoliticsandsciencesuchwastheforceandoriginalityoftheirmindsandtheextentoftheirknowledgeevenItheyhadnevermetontheirwaytheCommunistLeague。

ButIamreferringtoallthe"unknown"accordingtotheexclusiveandvainjargonofbourgeoisliterature：——oftheshoemaker，Bauer，thetailors，LessnerandEccarius，theminiaturepainter，Pfaender，thewatchmaker，Moll，（18*）ofLochner，etc。，andmanyotherswhowerethefirstconsciousinitiatorsofourmovement。Themotto，"Workingmenofallcountries，unite，"remainstheirmonument。Thepassageofsocialismfromutopiatosciencemarkstheresultoftheirwork。Thesurvivaloftheirinstinctandoftheirfirstimpulseintheworkofto-dayistheineffaceabletitlewhichtheseprecursorshaveacquiredtothegratitudeofallsocialists。

AsanItalian，Ireturnsomuchthemorewillinglytothesebeginningsofmodernsocialismbecauseforme，atleast，thisrecentwarningofEngelsisnotwithoutimportance。"ThusthediscoverythateverywhereandalwayspoliticalconditionsandeventsfindtheirexplanationineconomicconditionswouldnothavebeenmadebyMarxin1845，butratherbyLoriain1886。Hehasatleastsucceededinimpressingthisbeliefuponhiscompatriots，andsincehisbookhasappearedinFrenchevenuponsomeFrenchmenandhemaynowgooninflatedwithprideandvanityasifhehaddiscoveredanepoch-makinghistorictheoryuntiltheItaliansocialistshavetimetodespoiltheillustriousMr。Loriaofthepeacockfeatherswhichhehasstolen。（19*）

Iwouldwillinglyclosehere，butmoreremainstobesaid。

Onallsidesandonallcampsprotestsariseandobjectionsareurgedagainsthistoricalmaterialism。Andsometimesthesevoicesareswelledhereandtherebynewlyconvertedsocialists，socialistwhoarephilosophical，socialistswhoaresentimentalandsometimeshysterical。Thenreappears，asawarning，the"questionofthebelly。"Othersdevotethemselvestoexerciseoflogicalgymnasticswithabstractcategoriesofegoismandaltruism；forothersagaintheinevitablestruggleforexistencealwaysturnsupattherightmoment。

Morality！ButitishightimethatweunderstandthelessonofthismoralityofthebourgeoisepochinthefableofthebeesbyMandeville，whowascontemporarywiththefirstprojectionofclassiceconomics。

AndhasnotthepoliticsofthismoralitybeenexplainedinclassicphrasesthatcanneverbeforgottenbythefirstgreatpoliticalwriterofthecapitalistepochMachiavelli，whodidnotinventMachiavellism，butwhowasitssecretaryandfaithfulanddiligenteditor。Andasforthelogicaltourneybetweenegoismandaltruism，hasitnotbeeninfullviewfromthetimeoftheReverendMalthusuptothatempty，prolixandtiresomereasoner，theindispensableSpencer？Struggleforexistence！Butcouldyouwishtoobserve，studyandunderstandastrugglemoreimportantforusthantheonewhichhasitsbirthandistakingongiganticproportionsintheproletarianagitation？Perhapsyouwouldreducetheexplanationofthisstrugglewhichisdevelopingandworkinginthesupernaturaldomainofsociety，whichmanhimselfhascreatedinthecourseofhistory，throughhislabor，throughimprovedprocessesandthroughsocialinstitutions，andwhichmanhimselfcanchangethroughotherformsoflabor，processesandinstitutions，——youwouldperhapsreduceittothesimpleexplanationofthemoregeneralstruggleinwhichplantandanimals，andmenthemselvesinsofarastheyareanimals，arecontendinginthebosomofnature。

Butletusreturntooursubject。

Criticalcommunismhasneverrefused，anditdoesnotrefuse，towelcomethemultipleandvaluablesuggestions，ideological，ethical，psychologicandpedagogicwhichmaycomefromtheknowledgeandfromthestudyofallformsofcommunismPhalesofChalcedondowntoCabet。（20*）Morethanthis，itisbythestudyandtheknowledgeoftheseformsthattheconsciousnessoftheseparatenessofscientificsocialismfromalltherestbecomesdevelopedandfixed。AndinmakingthisstudywhoistherewhowillrefusetorecognizethatThomasMorewasaheroicsoulandagreatwriteronsocialism？WhowillnotfindinhisheartalargetributeofadmirationforRobertOwenwhofirstgavetotheethicsofcommunismthisindisputableprinciple，thatthecharacterandmoralsofmenarethenecessaryresultoftheconditionsinwhichtheyliveandthecircumstanceswhichsurroundthem？Andthepartisansofcriticalcommunismbelieveitistheirduty，traversinghistoryinthought，toclaimfellowshipwithalltheoppressed，whatevermayhavebeentheirdestiny，whichwasthatofremainingoppressedandofopeningthewayafteranephemeralsuccessfortheruleofnewoppressors。

Butthepartisansofcriticalcommunismdifferentiatethemselvesclearlyononepointfromallotherformsormannersofcommunism，orofsocialism，ancient，modernorcontemporaneous，andthispointisofcapitalimportance。

Thecannotadmitthethatideologiesofthepasthaveremainedwithouteffectandthatthepastattemptsoftheproletariathavebeenalwaysovercomebypurechance，bypureaccident，bytheeffectofacapriceofcircumstances。

Alltheseideologiesalthoughtheyreflectedinfactthesentimentdirectlyduetosocialantitheses，thatistosay，therealclassstruggles，withaloftysenseofjusticeandaprofounddevotiontoanideal，neverthelessallrevealignoranceofthetruecausesagainstwhichtheyhurledthemselvesbyaanactofrevoltspontaneousandoftenheroic。Thencetheirutopiancharacter。Wecanmoreoverexplainwhytheoppressiveconditionsofotherepochsalthoughtheyweremorebarbarousandcrueldidnotbringthataccumulationofenergy，thatconcentrationofforce，orthatcontinuityofresistancewhichisseentoberealizingitselfanddevelopingintheproletariatofourtime。Itisthechangeofsocietyinitseconomicstructure；itistheformationoftheproletariatinthebosomofthegreatindustryandofthemodernstate。Itistheappearanceoftheproletariatuponthepoliticalscene，——itisthenewthings，infine，whichhaveengenderedtheneedofnewideas。Thuscriticalcommunismisneithermoralizer，norpreacher，norherald，norutopian——italreadyholdsthethingitselfinitshandsandintothethingitselfithasputitsethicsanditsidealism。

Thisorientationwhichseemsharshtothesentimentalistsbecauseitistootrue，toorealisticandtooreal，permitsustoretracethehistoryoftheproletariatandoftheotheroppressedclasseswhichprecededit。Weseetheirdifferentphases；wetakeaccountofthefailuresofChartism，oftheConspiracyofEqualsandweexplorestillfurtherbacktoattemptsatrelief，toactsofresistance，andtowars，——tothefamouspeasants’

warinGermany，totheJacquerieandtoFatherDolcino。Inallthesefactsandinalltheseeventswediscoverformsandphenomenarelatingtothefutureofthebourgeoisinproportionasittearstopieces，overthrows，triumphsoverandissuesfromthefeudalsystem。Wecandothesamewiththeclassstrugglesoftheancientworldbutwithlessclearness。Thishistoryoftheproletariatandoftheotheroppressedclasses，ofthevicissitudesoftheirstrugglesandtheirrevolts，isalreadyasufficientguidetoassistusinunderstandingwhytheideologiesofthecommunismofotherepochswerepremature。

Ifthebourgeoisiehasnotarrivedeverywhereatthefinalstageofitsevolution，itsurelyhasarrivedincertaincountriesatitsaccomplishment。

Infact，inthemostadvancedcountriesitissubjectingthevariousolderformsofproduction，eitherdirectlyorindirectly，totheactionandtothelawofcapital。Andthusitsimplifies，orittendstosimplify，thedifferentclassstrugglesofformertimes，whichthenobscuredeachotherbytheirmultiplicity，intothissinglestrugglebetweencapitalwhichisconvertingintomerchandisealltheproductsofhumanlaborindispensabletolifeandthemassofproletarianswhichsellsitslaborpower，——nowalsobecomesimplemerchandise。Thesecretofhistoryissimplified。Itisallprosaic。Andjustasthepresentclassstruggleisthesimplificationofallother，solikewise，thecommunismoftheManifestosimplifiesintorigidandgeneraltheoreticalformulastheideologic，ethic，pyschologicandpedagogicsuggestionoftheotherformsofcommunismnotbydenyingbutbyexaltingthem。Allisprosaicandcommunismitselfpartakesofthischaracter，itisnowascience。

ThusthereareintheManifestoneitherrhetoricnorprotestations。Itdoesnotlamentoverpauperismtoeliminateit。Itshedstearsovernothing。

Thetearsaretransformedofthemselvesintoaspontaneousrevolutionaryforce。Ethicsandidealismconceithenceforthinthis，toputthethoughtofscienceattheserviceoftheproletariat。Ifthisethicsdoesnotappearmoralenoughforthesentimentalists，usuallyhystericalandsilly，letthemgoandborrowaltruismfromitshighpriestSpencerwhowillgiveavagueandinsipiddefinitionofit，suchaswillsatisfythem。

But，again，shouldtheeconomicfactoservealonetoexplainthewholeofhistory。Historicfactors！ButthatisanexpressionofempiricistsorideologistswhorepeatHerder。Societyisacomplexwholeoranorganismaccordingtotheexpressionofsomewhowastetheirtimeindiscussionsoverthevalueandtheanalogicaluseofthisexpression。Thiscomplexushasformeditselfandhaschangedseveraltimes。Whatistheexplanationofthischange？

EvenlongbeforeFeuerbachgaveafinalblowtothetheologicalexplanationofhistory（manmakesreligionandnotreligionman）theoldBalzac（21*）

hadmadeasatireofitbymakingmenthepuppetsofGod。AndhadnotVicoalreadyrecognizedthatProvidencedoesnotactinhistoryfromwithout？

AndthissameVico，acenturybeforeMorgan，hadhenotreducedhistorytoaprocesswhichmanhimselfmakesthroughsuccessiveexperimentationconsistingintheinventionoflanguage，religion，customsandlaws？HadnotLessingaffirmedthathistoryisaneducationofthehumanrace？HadnotRousseauseenthatideasarebornfromneeds。HadnotSaintSimonguessedwhenhedidnotlosehimselfinthedistinctionbetweenorganicandinorganicepochstherealgenesisoftheThirdEstate，anddidnothisideastranslatedintoprosemakeofAugustinThierryareconstructorofhistoricalresearch？Inthefirstfiftyyearsofthiscenturyandnotablyintheperiodfrom1830

to1850theclassstruggleswhichtheancienthistoriansandthoseofItalyduringtheRenaissancehaddescribedsoclearly，instructedbytheexperienceofthesestrugglesinthenarrowdomainoftheirownurbanrepublichadgrownandreachedonbothsidesoftheChannelgreaterproportionsandanevidencealwaysmorepalpable。Borninthemidstofthegreatindustry，illuminatedbytherecollectionandbythestudyoftheFrenchrevolutiontheyhavebecomeintuitivelyinstructivebecausetheyfoundwithmoreorlessclearnessandconsciousnesstheiractualandsuggestedexpressionintheprogrammesofthepoliticalparties：freeexchangeortariffsongraininEnglandandsoon。TheconceptionofhistorychangedtotheobserverinFrance，ontherightwingasontheleftwingoftheliteraryparties，fromGuizottoLouisBlancandtothemodestCabet。SociologywastheneedofthetimeandifitsoughtinvainitstheoreticexpressioninAugustComte，abelatedscholastic，itfounditsartistinBalzacwhowastheactualinventorofclasspsychology。

Toputintotheclassesandintotheirfrictionstherealsubjectofhistoryandthemovementofthisintheirmovement，——thiswasthenonthepointofbeingstudiedanddiscovered，anditwasnecessarytofixatheoryofthisinpreciseterms。

Manhasmadehishistorynotbyametaphoricalevolutionnorwithaviewofwalkingonalineofpreconceivedprogress。Hehasmadeitbycreatinghisownconditions，thatistosay，bycreatingthroughhislaboranartificialenvironment，bydevelopingsuccessivelyhistechnicalaptitudesandbyaccumulatingandtransformingtheproductsofhisactivityinthisnewenvironment。Wehavebutonesinglehistory，whichisactuallymade，andwecannotcomparerealhistory，whichisactuallymade，withanotherwhichissimplypossible。

Whereshallwefindthelawsofthisformationandofthisdevelopment。Theveryancientformationsarenotevidentatfirstsight。Butbourgeoissocietybecauseitisbornrecentlyandhasnotyetreachitsfulldevelopment，eveninallpartsofEurope，bearswithinitselftheembryonictracesofitsoriginanditsprocessus，anditputstheminfullevidenceincountrieswhereitisinprocessofbirthbeforeoureyes，asforexampleinJapan。Insofarasitissocietywhichtransformsalltheproductsofhumanlaborintocommoditiesbymeansofcapital，societywhichassumestheproletariatorcreatesitandwhichbearswithinitselftheanxiety，thetroubleandtheuncertaintyofcontinuousinnovations，itisbornindeterminedtimesaccordingtoclearmethodswhichcanbeindicatedalthoughtheymaybevaried。Infactindifferentcountriesithasdifferentmodesofdevelopment。InItaly，forexample，itbeginsbeforealltheothersandthenstops。InEnglanditistheproductofthreecenturiesofeconomicexpropriationoftheoldformsofproduction，oroftheoldproprietorship，tospeakthelanguageofjurists。Inonecountryitelaboratesitselflittlebylittlecombiningitselfwithpre-existingforces，aswasthecaseinGermany，anditundergoestheirinfluencesthroughadaptation；inanothercountryitbreaksitsenvelopeandcrushesoutresistanceviolently，ashappenedinFrance，wherethegreatrevolutiongivesusthemostintenseandthemostbewilderingexampleofhistoricactionthatisknown，andthusformsthegreatestschoolofsociology。

AsIhavealreadyindicatedthisformationofmodernorbourgeoishistoryhasbeensummedupinrapidandmasterlystrokesintheManifesto，whichhasgivenitsgeneralanatomicalprofilewithitssuccessiveaspects，thetradeguild，commerce，manufactureandthegreatindustryandhasalsoindicatedsomeoftheorgansandappliancesofaderivedandcomplexcharacter，law，politicalforms，etc。Theelementsofthetheorywhichwastoexplainhistorybytheprincipleoftheclassstrugglewherealreadyimplicitlycontainedinit。

Thissamebourgeoissocietywhichrevolutionizedtheearlierformsofproductionhadthrownlightuponitselfanditsprocessusincreatingthedoctrineofitsstructure，economics。InfactithasnotdevelopedintheunconsciousnesswhichcharacterizedprimitivesocietiesbutinthefulllightofthemodernworldbeginningwiththeRenaissance。

Economics，asisknown，wasbornbyfragments，anditsoriginwasassociatedwiththatofthefirstbourgeoisie，whichwasthatofcommerceandthegreatgeographicaldiscoveries，thatistosay，itwascontemporarywiththefirstandsecondphasesofmercantilism。Anditwasborntoanswerspecialquestions：

forexample，isinterestlegitimate？Isitadvantageousforstatesandfornationstoaccumulatemoney？Itcontinuedtogrow，itoccupieditselfwiththemostcomplexsidesoftheproblemofwealth：itdevelopedinthepassagefrommercantilismtomanufactureandthenmorerapidlyandmoreresolutelyinthepassagefromthelattertothegreatindustry。Itwastheintellectualsoulofthebourgeoisiewhichwasconqueringsociety。IthadalreadyasdisciplinealmostdefineditsgenerallinesontheeveoftheFrenchrevolution；itwasthesignoftherebellionagainsttheoldformsoffeudalism，theguild，privilege，limitationsoflabor，thatistosayitwasthesignofliberty。

Thetheoryof"naturalright"whichdevelopedfromtheprecursorsofGrotiustoRousseau，Kant，andtheConstitutionof93，wasnothingelsethantheduplicateandtheideologicalcomplementofeconomics，totheextentthatoftenthethinganditscomplementareconfoundedinoneinthemindandinthepostulatesofwriters；ofthiswehaveatypicalexampleinthePhysiocrats。

Insofarasitwasadoctrineitseparated，distinguishedandanalyzedtheelementsandtheformsoftheprocessusofproduction，ofcirculationandofdistributionandreducedthemallintocategories：money，moneycapital，interest，profit，landrent，wages，etc。Itmarched，sureofitself，accumulatingitsanalysesfromPettytoRicardo。Thesolemistressofthefield，itmetonlyrareobjections。Itstartedfromtwohypotheseswhichitdidnottakethetroubletojustifysincetheyappearedsoevident；namely，thatthesocialorderwhichitillustratedwasthenaturalorder，andthatprivatepropertyinthemeansofproductionwasoneandthesamethingwithhumanliberty；

allofwhichmadewagelaborandtheinferiorityofthewagelaborersintonecessaryconditions。Inotherterms，itdidnotrecognizethehistoriccharacteroftheformswhichitstudied。Theantitheseswhichitmetonitswayinitsattemptatsystematization，afterseveralvainattemptsittriedtoeliminatelogicallyaswasthecasewithRicardoinhisstruggleagainsttheincomefromlandrents。

【推荐阅读】幽幽深宫，醒来一梦似千年，重生于下堂妃身躯中的她，将如何手刃仇人? 点击阅读