Beforeweturnspecificallytothenewworldofthewest，itremainstotakenoteofwhatmayperhapsberegardedastheverygreatestachievementofancientscience。Thiswastheanalysisofspeechsounds，andtheresultingdevelopmentofasystemofalphabeticalwriting。Tocomprehendtheseriesofscientificinductionswhichledtothisresult，wemustgobackinimaginationandtracebrieflythedevelopmentofthemethodsofrecordingthoughtbymeansofgraphicsymbols。Inotherwords，wemusttracetheevolutionoftheartofwriting。Indoingsowecannotholdtonationallinesaswehavedoneintheprecedingtwochapters，thoughtheeffortsofthetwogreatscientificnationsjustconsideredwillenterprominentlyintothestory。

ThefamiliarGreeklegendassuresusthataPhoeniciannamedKadmuswasthefirsttobringaknowledgeoflettersintoEurope。

Anelaborationofthestory，currentthroughoutclassicaltimes，offeredthefurtherexplanationthatthePhoenicianshadinturnacquiredtheartofwritingfromtheEgyptiansorBabylonians。

Knowledgeastothetrueoriginanddevelopmentoftheartofwritingdidnotextendinantiquitybeyondsuchvagariesasthese。Nineteenth-centurystudiesgavethefirstrealclewstoanunderstandingofthesubject。ThesestudiestendedtoauthenticatetheessentialfactonwhichthelegendofKadmuswasfounded；totheextent，atleast，ofmakingitprobablethatthelaterGrecianalphabetwasintroducedfromPhoenicia——thoughnot，ofcourse，byanyindividualnamedKadmus，thelatterbeing，indeed，anameofpurelyGreekorigin。FurtherstudiesofthepastgenerationtendedtocorroboratetheancientbeliefastotheoriginalsourceofthePhoenicianalphabet，butdividedscholarsbetweentwoopinions:theonecontendingthattheEgyptianhieroglyphicswerethesourceuponwhichthePhoeniciansdrew；andtheothercontendingwithequalfervorthattheBabylonianwedgecharactermustbeconcededthathonor。

But，ashasoftenhappenedinotherfieldsafteryearsofacrimoniouscontroversy，anewdiscoveryortwomaysufficetoshowthatneithercontestantwasright。AftertheEgyptologistsoftheschoolofDeRouge[1]thoughttheyhaddemonstratedthatthefamiliarsymbolsofthePhoenicianalphabethadbeencopiedfromthatmodifiedformofEgyptianhieroglyphicsknownasthehieraticwriting，theAssyriologistscameforwardtoprovethatcertaincharactersoftheBabyloniansyllabaryalsoshowalikenesstothealphabeticalcharactersthatseeminglycouldnotbeduetochance。Andthen，whenasettlementofthedisputeseemedalmosthopeless，itwasshownthroughtheEgyptianexcavationsthatcharactersevenmorecloselyresemblingthoseindisputehadbeeninuseallabouttheshoresoftheMediterranean，quiteindependentlyofeitherEgyptianorAssyrianwritings，fromperiodssoancientastobevirtuallyprehistoric。

CoupledwiththisdisconcertingdiscoveryaretherevelationsbroughttolightbytheexcavationsatthesitesofKnossosandotherlong-buriedcitiesoftheislandofCrete。[2]Theseexcavations，whicharestillinprogress，showthattheartofwritingwasknownandpractisedindependentlyinCretebeforethatcataclysmicoverthrowoftheearlyGreekcivilizationwhicharchaeologistsareaccustomedtoascribetothehypotheticalinvasionoftheDorians。ThesignificanceofthisisthattheartofwritingwasknowninEuropelongbeforetheadventofthemythicalKadmus。ButsincetheearlyCretanscriptsarenottobeidentifiedwiththescriptsusedinGreeceinhistoricaltimes，whereasthelatterareundoubtedlyoflinealdescentfromthePhoenicianalphabet，thevalidityoftheKadmuslegend，inamodifiedform，muststillbeadmitted。

Ashasjustbeensuggested，thenewknowledge，particularlythatwhichrelatedtothegreatantiquityofcharacterssimilartothePhoenicianalphabeticalsigns，issomewhatdisconcerting。Itsgeneraltrend，however，isquiteinthesamedirectionwithmostofthenewarchaeologicalknowledgeofrecentdecades——thatistosay，ittendstoemphasizetheideathathumancivilizationinmostofitsimportantelaborationsisvastlyolderthanhashithertobeensupposed。Itmaybeadded，however，thatnodefiniteclewsareasyetavailablethatenableustofixevenanapproximatedatefortheoriginofthePhoenicianalphabet。Thesigns，towhichreferencehasbeenmade，maywellhavebeeninexistenceforthousandsofyears，utilizedmerelyaspropertymarks，symbolsforcountingandthelike，beforetheideaofsettingthemasideasphoneticsymbolswaseverconceived。

Nothingismorecertain，inthejudgmentofthepresent-dayinvestigator，thanthatmanlearnedtowritebyslowandpainfulstages。Itisprobablethattheconceptionofsuchananalysisofspeechsoundsaswouldmaketheideaofanalphabetpossiblecameataverylatestageofsocialevolution，andastheculminatingachievementofalongseriesofimprovementsintheartofwriting。Theprecisestepsthatmarkedthispathofintellectualdevelopmentcanforthemostpartbeknownonlybyinference；yetitisprobablethatthemainchaptersofthestorymaybereproducedwithessentialaccuracy。

FIRSTSTEPS

Fortheveryfirstchaptersofthestorywemustgobackinimaginationtotheprehistoricperiod。Evenbarbaricmanfeelstheneedofself-expression，andstrivestomakehisideasmanifesttoothermenbypictorialsigns。Thecave-dwellersscratchedpicturesofmenandanimalsonthesurfaceofareindeerhornormammothtuskasmementosofhisprowess。TheAmericanIndiandoesessentiallythesamethingto-day，makingpicturesthatcrudelyrecordhissuccessesinwarandthechase。

TheNorthernIndianhadgotnofartherthanthiswhenthewhitemandiscoveredAmerica；buttheAztecsoftheSouthwestandtheMayapeopleofYucatanhadcarriedtheirpicture-makingtoamuchhigherstateofelaboration。[3]Theyhaddevelopedsystemsofpictographsorhieroglyphicsthatwoulddoubtlessinthecourseofgenerationshavebeenelaboratedintoalphabeticalsystems，hadnottheEuropeanscutoffthecivilizationofwhichtheywerethehighestexponents。

WhattheAztecandMayawerestrivingtowardsinthesixteenthcenturyA。D。，variousOrientalnationshadattainedatleastfiveorsixthousandyearsearlier。InEgyptatthetimeofthepyramid-builders，andinBabyloniaatthesameepoch，thepeoplehaddevelopedsystemsofwritingthatenabledthemnotmerelytopresentalimitedrangeofideaspictorially，buttoexpressinfullelaborationandwithfinershadesofmeaningalltheideasthatpertaintohighlyculturedexistence。Themanofthattimemaderecordsofmilitaryachievements，recordedthetransactionsofevery-daybusinesslife，andgaveexpressiontohismoralandspiritualaspirationsinawaystrangelycomparabletothemannerofourowntime。Hehadperfectedhighlyelaboratesystemsofwriting。

EGYPTIANWRITING

Ofthetwoancientsystemsofwritingjustreferredtoasbeinginvogueattheso-calleddawningsofhistory，themorepicturesqueandsuggestivewasthehieroglyphicsystemoftheEgyptians。Thisisacuriouslyconglomeratesystemofwriting，madeupinpartofsymbolsreminiscentofthecrudeststagesofpicture-writing，inpartofsymbolshavingthephoneticvalueofsyllables，andinpartoftruealphabeticalletters。Inaword，theEgyptianwritingrepresentsinitselftheelementsofthevariousstagesthroughwhichtheartofwritinghasdeveloped。[4]

Wemustconceivethatnewfeatureswerefromtimetotimeaddedtoit，whiletheoldfeatures，curiouslyenough，werenotgivenup。

Here，forexample，inthemidstofunintelligiblelinesandpot-hooks，arevariouspicturesthatareinstantlyrecognizableasrepresentationsofhawks，lions，ibises，andthelike。Itcanhardlybequestionedthatwhenthesepictureswerefirstusedcalligraphicallytheyweremeanttorepresenttheideaofabirdoranimal。Inotherwords，thefirststageofpicture-writingdidnotgobeyondthemererepresentationofaneaglebythepictureofaneagle。Butthis，obviously，wouldconfinethepresentationofideaswithinverynarrowlimits。Induecoursesomeinventivegeniusconceivedthethoughtofsymbolizingapicture。Tohimtheoutlineofaneaglemightrepresentnotmerelyanactualbird，butthethoughtofstrength，ofcourage，orofswiftprogress。

Suchauseofsymbolsobviouslyextendstherangeofutilityofanascentartofwriting。Theninduecoursesomewonderfulpsychologist——orperhapsthejointeffortsofmanygenerationsofpsychologists——madetheastoundingdiscoverythatthehumanvoice，whichseemstoflowoninanunbrokenstreamofendlesslyvariedmodulationsandintonations，mayreallybeanalyzedintoacomparativelylimitednumberofcomponentsounds——intoafewhundredsofsyllables。Thatwonderfulideaconceived，itwasonlyamatteroftimeuntilitwouldoccurtosomeotherenterprisinggeniusthatbyselectinganarbitrarysymboltorepresenteachoneoftheseelementarysoundsitwouldbepossibletomakeawrittenrecordofthewordsofhumanspeechwhichcouldbereproduced——rephonated——bysomeonewhohadneverheardthewordsanddidnotknowinadvancewhatthiswrittenrecordcontained。

This，ofcourse，iswhateverychildlearnstodonowintheprimerclass，butwemayfeelassuredthatsuchanideaneveroccurredtoanyhumanbeinguntilthepeculiarformsofpictographicwritingjustreferredtohadbeenpractisedformanycenturies。Yet，aswehavesaid，somegeniusofprehistoricEgyptconceivedtheideaandputitintopracticalexecution，andthehieroglyphicwritingofwhichtheEgyptianswereinfullpossessionattheverybeginningofwhatwetermthehistoricalperiodmadeuseofthisphoneticsystemalongwiththeideographicsystemalreadydescribed。

SofondweretheEgyptiansoftheirpictorialsymbolsusedideographicallythattheyclungtothempersistentlythroughouttheentireperiodofEgyptianhistory。Theyusedsymbolsasphoneticequivalentsveryfrequently，buttheyneverlearnedtodependuponthemexclusively。Thescribealwaysinterspersedhisphoneticsignswithsomeothersignsintendedasgraphicaids。

Afterspellingawordoutinfull，headdedapicture，sometimeseventwoorthreepictures，representativeoftheindividualthing，oratleastofthetypeofthingtowhichthewordbelongs。Twoorthreeillustrationswillmakethisclear。

Thusqeften，monkey，isspelledoutinfull，butthepictureofamonkeyisaddedasadeterminative；second，qenu，cavalry，afterbeingspelled，ismadeunequivocalbytheintroductionofapictureofahorse；third，temati，wings，thoughspelledelaborately，haspicturesofwingsadded；andfourth，tatu，quadrupeds，afterbeingspelled，hasapictureofaquadruped，andthenthepictureofahide，whichistheusualdeterminativeofaquadruped，followedbythreedashestoindicatethepluralnumber。

Itmustnotbesupposed，however，thatitwasamerewhimwhichledtheEgyptianstotheuseofthissystemofdeterminatives。

Therewassoundreasonbackofit。Itamountedtonomorethantheexpedientweadoptwhenwespell"to，""two，"or"too，"inindicationofasinglesoundwiththreedifferentmeanings。TheEgyptianlanguageaboundsinwordshavingmorethanonemeaning，andinwritingtheseitisobviousthatsomemeansofdistinctionisdesirable。ThesamethingoccursevenmorefrequentlyintheChineselanguage，whichismonosyllabic。TheChineseadoptamoreclumsyexpedient，supplyingadifferentsymbolforeachofthemeaningsofasyllable；sothatwhiletheactualword-soundsoftheirspeechareonlyafewhundredsinnumber，thecharactersoftheirwrittenlanguagemounthighintothethousands。

BABYLONIANWRITING

WhilethecivilizationoftheNileValleywasdevelopingthisextraordinarysystemofhieroglyphics，theinhabitantsofBabyloniawerepractisingtheartofwritingalongsomewhatdifferentlines。Itiscertainthattheybeganwithpicture-making，andthatinduecoursetheyadvancedtothedevelopmentofthesyllabary；but，unliketheirEgyptiancousins，themenofBabyloniasawfittodiscardtheoldsystemwhentheyhadperfectedabetterone。[5]Soataveryearlydaytheirwriting——asrevealedtousnowthroughtherecentexcavations——hadceasedtohavethatpictorialaspectwhichdistinguishestheEgyptianscript。Whathadoriginallybeenpicturesofobjects——fish，houses，andthelike——hadcometoberepresentedbymereaggregationsofwedge-shapedmarks。AsthewritingoftheBabvlonianswaschieflyinscribedonsoftclay，theadaptationofthiswedge-shapedmarkinlieuofanordinarylinewasprobablyamerematterofconvenience，sincethesharp-corneredimplementusedinmakingtheinscriptionnaturallymadeawedge-shapedimpressionintheclay。That，however，isadetail。TheessentialthingisthattheBabylonianhadsofullyanalyzedthespeech-soundsthathefeltentireconfidenceinthem，andhavingselectedasufficientnumberofconventionalcharacters——eachmadeupofwedge-shapedlines——torepresentallthephoneticsoundsofhislanguage，spelledthewordsoutinsyllablesandtosomeextentdispensedwiththedeterminativesignswhich，aswehaveseen，playedsoprominentapartintheEgyptianwriting。HiscousinstheAssyriansusedhabituallyasystemofwritingthefoundationofwhichwasanelaboratephoneticsyllabary；asystem，therefore，farremovedfromtheoldcrudepictograph，andinsomerespectsmuchmoredevelopedthanthecomplicatedEgyptianmethod；yet，afterall，asystemthatstoppedshortofperfectionbythewidegapthatseparatesthesyllabaryfromthetruealphabet。

Abriefanalysisofspeechsoundswillaidusinunderstandingtherealnatureofthesyllabary。Letustakeforconsiderationtheconsonantalsoundrepresentedbytheletterb。Amoment’sconsiderationwillmakeitclearthatthissoundentersintoalargenumberofsyllables。Thereare，forexample，atleasttwentyvowelsoundsintheEnglishlanguage，nottospeakofcertaindigraphs；thatistosay，eachoftheimportantvowelshasfromtwotosixsounds。Eachofthesevowelsoundsmayenterintocombinationwiththebsoundalonetoformthreesyllables；

asba，ab，bal，be，eb，bel，etc。Thusthereareatleastsixtyb-soundsyllables。Butthisisnottheend，forotherconsonantalsoundsmaybeassociatedinthesyllablesinsuchcombinationsasbad，bed，bar，bark，cab，etc。Aseachoftheothertwentyoddconsonantalsoundsmayenterintosimilarcombinations，itisobviousthatthereareseveralhundredsoffundamentalsyllablestobetakenintoaccountinanysyllabicsystemofwriting。Foreachofthesesyllablesasymbolmustbesetasideandheldinreserveastherepresentativeofthatparticularsound。Aperfectsyllabary，then，wouldrequiresomehundredormoreofsymbolstorepresentbsoundsalone；andsincethesoundsforc，d，f，andtherestareequallyvaried，theentiresyllabarywouldrunintothousandsofcharacters，almostrivallingincomplexitytheChinesesystem。Butinpracticethemostperfectsyllabary，SuchasthatoftheBabylonians，fellshortofthisdegreeofprecisionthroughignoringtheminorshadesofsound；justasourownalphabetiscontenttorepresentsomethirtyvowelsoundsbyfiveletters，ignoringthefactthata，forexample，hasreallyhalfadozendistinctphoneticvalues。Bysuchslurringofsoundsthesyllabaryisreducedfarbelowitsideallimits；yetevensoitretainsthreeorfourhundredcharacters。

Inpointoffact，suchaworkasProfessorDelitzsch’sAssyrianGrammar[6]presentssignsforthreehundredandthirty-foursyllables，togetherwithsundryalternativesignsanddeterminativestotaxthememoryofthewould-bereaderofAssyrian。Letustakeforexampleafewofthebsounds。IthasbeenexplainedthatthebasisoftheAssyrianwrittencharacterisasimplewedge-shapedorarrow-headmark。Variouslyrepeatedandgrouped，thesemarksmakeupthesyllabiccharacters。

Tolearnsomefourhundredsuchsignsasthesewasthetaskset，asanequivalentoflearningtheabc’s，toanyprimerclassinoldAssyriainthelonggenerationswhenthatlandwasthecultureCentreoftheworld。NorwasthetaskconfinedtothenativesofBabyloniaandAssyriaalone。AboutthefifteenthcenturyB。C。，andprobablyforalongtimebeforeandafterthatperiod，theexceedinglycomplexsyllabaryoftheBabylonianswastheofficialmeansofcommunicationthroughoutwesternAsiaandbetweenAsiaandEgypt，asweknowfromthechancediscoveryofacollectionoflettersbelongingtotheEgyptiankingKhun-aten，preservedatTel-el-Amarna。InthetimeofRamsestheGreattheBabylonianwritingwasinallprobabilityconsideredbyamajorityofthemosthighlycivilizedpeopleintheworldtobethemostperfectscriptpracticable。Doubtlesstheaveragescribeofthetimedidnotintheleastrealizethewasteofenergyinvolvedinhislabors，oreversuspectthattherecouldbeanybetterwayofwriting。

Yettheanalysisofanyoneofthesehundredsofsyllablesintoitscomponentphoneticelements——hadanyonebeengeniusenoughtomakesuchanalysis——ouldhavegiventhekeytosimplerandbetterthings。Butsuchananalysiswasveryhardtomake，asthesequelshows。Noristheutilityofsuchananalysisself-evident，astheexperienceoftheEgyptiansproved。Thevowelsoundissointimatelylinkedwiththeconsonant——thecon-sonant，implyingthisintimaterelationinitsveryname——thatitseemedextremelydifficulttogiveitindividualrecognition。Tosetoffthemerelabialbeginningofthesoundbyitself，andtorecognizeitasanall-essentialelementofphonation，wasthefeatatwhichhumanintelligencesolongbalked。Thegermofgreatthingslayinthatanalysis。Itwasaprocessofsimplification，andallartdevelopmentisfromthecomplextothesimple。Unfortunately，however，itdidnotseemasimplification，butratherquitethereverse。Wemaywellsupposethattheideaofwrestingfromthesyllabaryitssecretofconsonantsandvowels，andgivingtoeachconsonantalsoundadistinctsign，seemedamostcumbersomeandembarrassingcomplicationtotheancientscholars——thatistosay，afterthetimearrivedwhenanyonegavesuchanideaexpression。Wecanimaginethemsaying:"Youwillobligeustousefoursignsinsteadofonetowritesuchanelementarysyllableas’bard，’

forexample。Outuponsuchendlessperplexity！"Norissuchasuggestionpurelygratuitous，foritisanhistoricalfactthattheoldsyllabarycontinuedtobeusedinBabylonhundredsofyearsafterthealphabeticalsystemhadbeenintroduced。[7]

Customiseverythinginestablishingourprejudices。TheJapaneseto-dayrebelagainsttheintroductionofanalphabet，thinkingitambiguous。

Yet，intheend，conservatismalwaysyields，andsoitwaswithoppositiontothealphabet。Oncetheideaoftheconsonanthadbeenfirmlygrasped，theoldsyllabarywasdoomed，thoughgenerationsoftimemightberequiredtocompletetheobsequies——generationsoftimeandtheinfluenceofanewnation。

Wehavenowtoinquirehowandbywhomthisadvancewasmade。

Wecannotbelievethatanynationcouldhavevaultedtothefinalstageofthesimplealphabeticalwritingwithouttracingthedeviousanddifficultwayofthepictographandthesyllabary。Itispossible，however，foracultivatednationtobuildupontheshouldersofitsneighbors，and，profitingbytheexperienceofothers，tomakesuddenleapsupwardandonward。Andthisisseeminglywhathappenedinthefinaldevelopmentoftheartofwriting。ForwhiletheBabyloniansandAssyriansrestedcontentwiththeirelaboratesyllabary，anationoneithersideofthem，geographicallyspeaking，solvedtheproblem，whichtheyperhapsdidnotevenrecognizeasaproblem；wrestedfromtheirsyllabaryitssecretofconsonantsandvowels，andbyadoptinganarbitrarysignforeachconsonantalsound，producedthatmostwonderfulofhumaninventions，thealphabet。

ThetwonationscreditedwiththiswonderfulachievementarethePhoeniciansandthePersians。Butitisnotusuallyconcededthatthetwoareentitledtoanythinglikeequalcredit。ThePersians，probablyinthetimeofCyrustheGreat，usedcertaincharactersoftheBabylonianscriptfortheconstructionofanalphabet；butatthistimethePhoenicianalphabethadundoubtedlybeeninuseforsomecenturies，anditismorethanprobablethatthePersianborrowedhisideaofanalphabetfromaPhoeniciansource。Andthat，ofcourse，makesallthedifference。Grantedtheideaofanalphabet，itrequiresnogreatreachofconstructivegeniustosupplyasetofalphabeticalcharacters；thoughevenhere，itmaybeaddedparenthetically，astudyofthedevelopmentofalphabetswillshowthatmankindhasallalonghadacharacteristicpropensitytocopyratherthantoinvent。

RegardingthePersianalphabet-maker，then，asacopyistratherthanatrueinventor，itremainstoturnattentiontothePhoeniciansourcewhence，asiscommonlybelieved，theoriginalalphabetwhichbecame"themotherofallexistingalphabets"cameintobeing。ItmustbeadmittedattheoutsetthatevidenceforthePhoenicianoriginofthisalphabetistraditionalratherthandemonstrative。ThePhoenicianswerethegreattradersofantiquity；undoubtedlytheywerelargelyresponsibleforthetransmissionofthealphabetfromonepartoftheworldtoanother，onceithadbeeninvented。Toomuchcreditcannotbegiventhemforthis；andastheworldalwayshonorshimwhomakesanideafertileratherthantheoriginatoroftheidea，therecanbelittleinjusticeincontinuingtospeakofthePhoeniciansastheinventorsofthealphabet。Buttheactualfactsofthecasewillprobablyneverbeknown。Foraughtweknow，itmayhavebeensomedreamy-eyedIsraelite，someBabylonianphilosopher，someEgyptianmystic，perhapsevensomeobscureCretan，whogavetothehard-headedPhoeniciantraderthisconceptionofadismemberedsyllablewithitsall-essential，elemental，wonder-workingconsonant。Butitisfutilenowtoattempteventosurmiseonsuchunfathomabledetailsasthese。Sufficeitthattheanalysiswasmade；thatonesignandnomorewasadoptedforeachconsonantalsoundoftheSemitictongue，andthattheentirecumbersomemechanismoftheEgyptianandBabylonianwritingsystemswasrenderedobsolescent。Thesesystemsdidnotyieldatonce，tobesure；allhumanexperiencewouldhavebeensetatnaughthadtheydoneso。Theyheldtheirown，andmuchmorethanheldtheirown，formanycenturies。AfterthePhoeniciansasanationhadceasedtohaveimportance；aftertheiroriginalscripthadbeenendlesslymodifiedbymanyaliennations；aftertheoriginalalphabethadmadetheconquestofallcivilizedEuropeandoffaroutlyingportionsoftheOrient——theEgyptianandBabylonianscribescontinuedtoinditetheirmissivesinthesameoldpictographsandsyllables。

Theinventivethinkermusthavebeenstruckwithamazementwhen，aftermakingthefullestanalysisofspeech-soundsofwhichhewascapable，hefoundhimselfsuppliedwithonlyascoreorsoofsymbols。YetasregardstheconsonantalsoundshehadexhaustedtheresourcesoftheSemitictongue。Astovowels，hescarcelyconsideredthematall。Itseemedtohimsufficienttouseonesymbolforeachconsonantalsound。Thisreducedthehithertocomplexmechanismofwritingtososimpleasystemthattheinventormusthaveregardeditwithsheerdelight。Ontheotherhand，theconservativescholardoubtlessthoughtitdistinctlyambiguous。Intruth，itmustbeadmittedthatthesystemwasimperfect。Itwasavastimprovementontheoldsyllabary，butithaditsdrawbacks。Perhapsithadbeenmadeabittoosimple；

certainlyitshouldhavehadsymbolsforthevowelsoundsaswellasfortheconsonants。Nevertheless，thevowel-lackingalphabetseemstohavetakenthepopularfancy，andtothisdaySemiticpeoplehaveneversupplieditsdeficienciessavewithcertaindotsandpoints。

PeoplesusingtheAryanspeechsoonsawthedefect，andtheGreekssuppliedsymbolsforseveralnewsoundsataveryearlyday。[8]Buttherethematterrested，andthealphabethasremainedimperfect。ForthepurposesoftheEnglishlanguagethereshouldcertainlyhavebeenaddedadozenormorenewcharacters。Itisclear，forexample，that，intheinterestofexplicitness，weshouldhaveaseparatesymbolforthevowelsoundineachofthefollowingsyllables:bar，bay，bann，ball，tociteasingleillustration。

Thereis，tobesure，aseeminglyvalidreasonfornotextendingouralphabet，inthefactthatinmultiplyingsyllablesitwouldbedifficulttoselectcharactersatonceeasytomakeandunambiguous。Moreover，theconservativesmightpointout，withtellingeffect，thatthepresentalphabethasprovedadmirablyeffectiveforaboutthreethousandyears。Yetthefactthatourdictionariessupplydiacriticalmarksforsomethirtyvowelssoundstoindicatethepronunciationofthewordsofourevery-dayspeech，showshowweletmemoryandguessingdotheworkthatmightreasonablybedemandedofareallycompletealphabet。But，whateveritsdefects，theexistingalphabetisamarvellouspieceofmechanism，theresultofthousandsofyearsofintellectualeffort。Itis，perhapswithoutexception，themoststupendousinventionofthehumanintellectwithinhistoricaltimes——anachievementtakingrankwithsuchgreatprehistoricdiscoveriesastheuseofarticulatespeech，themakingofafire，andtheinventionofstoneimplements，ofthewheelandaxle，andofpicture-writing。Itmadepossibleforthefirsttimethateducationofthemassesuponwhichalllaterprogressofcivilizationwassolargelytodepend。

V。THEBEGINNINGSOFGREEKSCIENCE

Herodotus，theFatherofHistory，tellsusthatonceuponatime——whichtime，asthemoderncomputatorshowsus，wasabouttheyear590B。C——awarhadrisenbetweentheLydiansandtheMedesandcontinuedfiveyears。"IntheseyearstheMedesoftendiscomfitedtheLydiansandtheLydiansoftendiscomfitedtheMedes(andamongotherthingstheyfoughtabattlebynight)；andyettheystillcarriedonthewarwithequallybalancedfortitude。Inthesixthyearabattletookplaceinwhichithappened，whenthefighthadbegun，thatsuddenlythedaybecamenight。AndthischangeofthedayThales，theMilesian，hadforetoldtotheIonians，layingdownasalimitthisveryyearinwhichthechangetookplace。TheLydians，however，andtheMedes，whentheysawthatithadbecomenightinsteadofday，ceasedfromtheirfightingandweremuchmoreeager，bothofthem，thatpeaceshouldbemadebetweenthem。"

ThismemorableincidentoccurredwhileAlyattus，fatherofCroesus，waskingoftheLydians。Themodernastronomer，reckoningbackward，estimatesthiseclipseasoccurringprobablyMay25th，585B。C。Thedateisimportantasfixingamile-stoneinthechronologyofancienthistory，butitisdoublymemorablebecauseitisthefirstrecordedinstanceofapredictedeclipse。

Herodotus，whotellsthestory，wasnotbornuntilaboutonehundredyearsaftertheincidentoccurred，buttimehadnotdimmedthefameofthemanwhohadperformedthenecromanticfeatofprophecy。Thales，theMilesian，thanksinpartatleasttothisaccomplishment，hadbeenknowninlifeasfirstonthelistoftheSevenWiseMenofGreece，andhadpassedintohistoryasthefatherofGreekphilosophy。WemayaddthathehadevenfoundwiderpopularfamethroughbeingnamedbyHippolytus，andthenbyFatheraesop，asthephilosopherwho，intentonstudyingtheheavens，fellintoawell；"whereupon，"saysHippolytus，"amaid-servantnamedThrattalaughedathimandsaid，’Inhissearchforthingsintheskyhedoesnotseewhatisathisfeet。’"

Suchcitationsastheseservetobringvividlytomindthefactthatweareenteringanewepochofthought。Hithertoourstudieshavebeenimpersonal。AmongEgyptiansandBabyloniansalikewehavehadtodealwithclassesofscientificrecords，butwehavescarcelycomeacrossasinglename。Now，however，weshallbegintofindrecordsoftheworkofindividualinvestigators。Ingeneral，fromnowon，weshallbeabletotraceeachgreatidea，ifnottoitsoriginator，atleasttosomeonemanofgeniuswhowasprominentinbringingitbeforetheworld。Thefirstofthesevitalizersofthought，whostandsoutatthebeginningsofGreekhistory，isthissameThales，ofMiletus。Hisisnotaverysharplydefinedpersonalityaswelookbackuponit，andwecanbynomeansbecertainthatallthediscoverieswhichareascribedtohimarespecificallyhis。Ofhisindividualityasamanweknowverylittle。Itisnotevenquitecertainastowherehewasborn；Miletusisusuallyacceptedashisbirthplace，butonetraditionmakeshimbybirthaPhenician。Itisnotatallinquestion，however，thatbybloodhewasatleastinpartanIonianGreek。ItwillberecalledthatintheseventhcenturyB。C。，whenThaleswasborn——andforalongtimethereafter——theeasternshoresoftheaegeanSeawerequiteasprominentlythecentreofGreekinfluenceaswasthepeninsulaofGreeceitself。

NotmerelyThales，buthisfollowersanddisciples，AnaximanderandAnaximenes，werebornthere。SoalsowasHerodotas，theFatherofHistory，nottoextendthelist。Thereisnothinganomalous，then，inthefactthatThales，thefatherofGreekthought，wasbornandpassedhislifeonsoilthatwasnotgeographicallyapartofGreece；butthefacthasanimportantsignificanceofanotherkind。Thankstohisenvironment，ThaleswasnecessarilybroughtmoreorlessincontactwithOrientalideas。TherewasclosecommercialcontactbetweenthelandofhisnativityandthegreatBabyloniancapitalofftotheeast，asalsowithEgypt。DoubtlessthisassociationwasofinfluenceinshapingthedevelopmentofThales’smind。Indeed，itwasanacceptedtraditionthroughoutclassicaltimesthattheMilesianphilosopherhadtravelledinEgypt，andhadtheregainedatleasttherudimentsofhisknowledgeofgeometry。Inthefullestsense，then，ThalesmayberegardedasrepresentingalinkinthechainofthoughtconnectingthelearningoftheoldOrientwiththenascentscholarshipofthenewOccident。Occupyingthisposition，itisfittingthatthepersonalityofThalesshouldpartakesomewhatofmystery；thatthescenemaynotbeshiftedtoosuddenlyfromthevague，impersonalEasttotheindividualismofEurope。

Allofthis，however，mustnotbetakenascastinganydoubtupontheexistenceofThalesasarealperson。Eventhedatesofhislife——640to546B。C——maybeacceptedasatleastapproximatelytrustworthy；andthespecificdiscoveriesascribedtohimillustrateequallywellthestageofdevelopmentofGreekthought，whetherThaleshimselforoneofhisimmediatediscipleswerethediscoverer。WehavealreadymentionedthefeatwhichwassaidtohavegivenThaleshisgreatreputation。ThatThaleswasuniversallycreditedwithhavingpredictedthefamouseclipseisbeyondquestion。Thatheactuallydidpredictitinanyprecisesenseofthewordisopentodoubt。Atallevents，hispredictionwasnotbaseduponanysuchpreciseknowledgeasthatofthemodernastronomer。Thereis，indeed，onlyonewayinwhichhecouldhaveforetoldtheeclipse，andthatisthroughknowledgeoftheregularsuccessionofprecedingeclipses。Butthatknowledgeimpliesaccessonthepartofsomeonetolongseriesofrecordsofpracticalobservationsoftheheavens。Suchrecords，aswehaveseen，existedinEgyptandevenmorenotablyinBabylonia。

ThattheserecordswerethesourceoftheinformationwhichestablishedthereputationofThalesisanunavoidableinference。

Inotherwords，themagicalprevisionofthefatherofGreekthoughtwasbutareflexofOrientalwisdom。Nevertheless，itsufficedtoestablishThalesasthefatherofGreekastronomy。Inpointoffact，hisactualastronomicalattainmentswouldappeartohavebeenmeagreenough。Thereisnothingtoshowthathegainedaninklingofthetruecharacterofthesolarsystem。Hedidnotevenrecognizethesphericityoftheearth，butheld，stillfollowingtheOrientalauthorities，thattheworldisaflatdisk。Evenhisfamouscosmogonicguess，accordingtowhichwateristheessenceofallthingsandtheprimordialelementoutofwhichtheearthwasdeveloped，isbutanelaborationoftheBabylonianconception。

WhenweturntotheotherfieldofthoughtwithwhichthenameofThalesisassociated——namely，geometry——weagainfindevidenceoftheOrientalinfluence。Thescienceofgeometry，Herodotusassuresus，wasinventedinEgypt。Itwasthereaneminentlypracticalscience，beingapplied，asthenameliterallysuggests，tothemeasurementoftheearth’ssurface。HerodotustellsusthattheEgyptianswereobligedtocultivatethesciencebecausetheperiodicalinundationswashedawaytheboundary-linesbetweentheirfarms。Theprimitivegeometer，then，wasasurveyor。TheEgyptianrecords，asnowrevealedtous，showthatthesciencehadnotbeencarriedfarinthelandofitsbirth。TheEgyptiangeometerwasabletomeasureirregularpiecesoflandonlyapproximately。Heneverfullygraspedtheideaoftheperpendicularasthetrueindexofmeasurementforthetriangle，butbasedhiscalculationsuponmeasurementsoftheactualsideofthatfigure。Nevertheless，hehadlearnedtosquarethecirclewithacloseapproximationtothetruth，and，ingeneral，hismeasurementsufficedforallhispracticalneeds。JusthowmuchofthegeometricalknowledgewhichaddedtothefameofThaleswasborroweddirectlyfromtheEgyptians，andhowmuchheactuallycreatedwecannotbesure。Noristhequestionraisedindisparagementofhisgenius。Receptivityisthefirstprerequisitetoprogressivethinking，andthatThalesreachedoutafterandimbibedportionsofOrientalwisdomarguesinitselfforthecreativecharacterofhisgenius。Whetherborroweroforiginator，however，Thalesiscreditedwiththeexpressionofthefollowinggeometricaltruths:

1。Thatthecircleisbisectedbyitsdiameter。

2。Thattheanglesatthebaseofanisoscelestriangleareequal。

3。Thatwhentwostraightlinescuteachothertheverticaloppositeanglesareequal。

4。Thattheangleinasemicircleisarightangle。

5。Thatonesideandoneacuteangleofaright-angletriangledeterminetheothersidesofthetriangle。

ItwasbytheapplicationofthelastoftheseprinciplesthatThalesissaidtohaveperformedthereallynotablefeatofmeasuringthedistanceofashipfromtheshore，hismethodbeingpreciselythesameinprincipleasthatbywhichthegunsaresightedonamodernman-of-war。AnotherpracticaldemonstrationwhichThaleswascreditedwithmaking，andtowhichalsohisgeometricalstudiesledhim，wasthemeasurementofanytallobject，suchasapyramidorbuildingortree，bymeansofitsshadow。Themethod，thoughsimpleenough，wasingenious。Itconsistedmerelyinobservingthemomentofthedaywhenaperpendicularstickcastsashadowequaltoitsownlength。

Obviouslythetreeormonumentwouldalsocastashadowequaltoitsownheightatthesamemoment。Itremainsthenbuttomeasurethelengthofthisshadowtodeterminetheheightoftheobject。

SuchfeatsasthisevidencethepracticalityofthegeniusofThales。TheysuggestthatGreekscience，guidedbyimagination，wasstartingonthehigh-roadofobservation。WearetoldthatThalesconceivedforthefirsttimethegeometryoflines，andthatthis，indeed，constitutedhisrealadvanceupontheEgyptians。Wearetoldalsothatheconceivedtheeclipseofthesunasapurelynaturalphenomenon，andthathereinlayhisadvanceupontheChaldeanpointofview。ButifthisbetrueThaleswasgreatlyinadvanceofhistime，foritwillberecalledthatfullytwohundredyearslatertheGreeksunderNiciasbeforeSyracuseweresodisconcertedbytheappearanceofaneclipse，whichwasinterpretedasadirectomenandwarning，thatNiciasthrewawaythelastopportunitytorescuehisarmy。

Thucydides，itistrue，inrecordingthisfactspeaksdisparaginglyofthesuperstitiousbentofthemindofNicias，butThucydidesalsowasamanfarinadvanceofhistime。

AllthatweknowofthepsychologyofThalesissummedupinthefamousmaxim，"Knowthyself，"amaximwhich，takeninconnectionwiththeprovenreceptivityofthephilosopher’smind，suggeststousamarvellouslyroundedpersonality。

ThedisciplesorsuccessorsofThales，AnaximanderandAnaximenes，werecreditedwithadvancingknowledgethroughtheinventionorintroductionofthesundial。Wemaybesure，however，thatthegnomon，whichistherudimentarysundial，hadbeenknownandusedfromremoteperiodsintheOrient，andthemostthatisprobableisthatAnaximandermayhaveelaboratedsomespecialdesign，possiblythebowl-shapedsundial，throughwhichtheshadowofthegnomonwouldindicatethetime。Thesamephilosopherissaidtohavemadethefirstsketchofageographicalmap，butthisagainisastatementwhichmodernresearcheshaveshowntobefallacious，sinceaBabylonianattemptatdepictingthegeographyoftheworldisstillpreservedtousonaclaytablet。Anaximandermay，however，havebeenthefirstGreektomakeanattemptofthiskind。HereagaintheinfluenceofBabylonianscienceuponthegerminatingWesternthoughtissuggested。

ItissaidthatAnaximanderdepartedfromThales’sconceptionoftheearth，and，itmaybeadded，fromtheBabylonianconceptionalso，inthatheconceiveditasacylinder，orratherasatruncatedcone，theupperendofwhichisthehabitableportion。

ThisconceptionisperhapsthefirstoftheseguessesthroughwhichtheGreekmindattemptedtoexplaintheapparentfixityoftheearth。Toaskwhatsupportstheearthinspaceismostnatural，buttheanswergivenbyAnaximander，likethatmorefamiliarGreeksolutionwhichtransformedthecone，orcylinder，intothegiantAtlas，isbutanotherillustrationofthatsubstitutionofunwarrantedinferenceforscientificinductionwhichwehavealreadysooftenpointedoutascharacteristicoftheprimitivestagesofthought。

Anaximanderheldatleastonetheorywhich，asvouchedforbyvariouscopyistsandcommentators，entitleshimtobeconsideredperhapsthefirstteacheroftheideaoforganicevolution。

Accordingtothisidea，mandevelopedfromafishlikeancestor，"growingupassharksdountilabletohelphimselfandthencomingforthondryland。"[1]Thethoughthereexpressedfindsitsgerm，perhaps，intheBabylonianconceptionthateverythingcameforthfromachaosofwaters。YetthefactthatthethoughtofAnaximanderhascomedowntoposteritythroughsuchvariouschannelssuggeststhattheGreekthinkerhadgotfarenoughawayfromtheOrientalconceptiontomakehisviewseemtohiscontemporariesanovelandindividualone。Indeed，nothingweknowoftheOrientallineofthoughtconveysanysuggestionoftheideaoftransformationofspecies，whereasthatideaisdistinctlyformulatedinthetraditionalviewsofAnaximander。

DiogenesLaertiustellsastoryaboutayouthwho，cladinapurpletoga，enteredthearenaattheOlympiangamesandaskedtocompetewiththeotheryouthsinboxing。Hewasderisivelydeniedadmission，presumablybecausehewasbeyondthelegitimateageforjuvenilecontestants。Nothingdaunted，theyouthenteredthelistsofmen，andturnedthelaughonhiscriticsbycomingoffvictor。TheyouthwhoperformedthisfeatwasnamedPythagoras。

Hewasthesameman，ifwemaycreditthestory，whoafterwardsmigratedtoItalyandbecamethefounderofthefamousCrotonianSchoolofPhilosophy；themanwhodevelopedthereligionoftheOrphicmysteries；whoconceivedtheideaofthemusicofthespheres；whopromulgatedthedoctrineofmetempsychosis；whofirst，perhaps，ofallmenclearlyconceivedthenotionthatthisworldonwhichweliveisaballwhichmovesinspaceandwhichmaybehabitableoneveryside。

Astrangedevelopmentthatforastriplingpugilist。ButwemustnotforgetthatintheGreekworldathleticsheldapeculiarplace。ThechiefwinnerofOlympiangamesgavehisnametoanepoch(theensuingOlympiadoffouryears)，andwashonoredalmostbeforeallothersintheland。Asoundmindinasoundbodywasthemottooftheday。Toexcelinfeatsofstrengthanddexteritywasanaccomplishmentthatevenaphilosopherneednotscorn。ItwillberecalledthataeschylusdistinguishedhimselfatthebattleofMarathon；thatThucydides，thegreatestofGreekhistorians，wasageneralinthePeloponnesianWar；thatXenophon，thepupilandbiographerofSocrates，waschieflyfamedforhavingledtheTenThousandinthememorablecampaignofCyrustheYounger；thatPlatohimselfwascreditedwithhavingshowngreataptitudeinearlylifeasawrestler。If，then，PythagorasthephilosopherwasreallythePythagoraswhowontheboxingcontest，wemaysupposethatinlookingbackuponthisathleticfeatfromtheheightsofhispriesthood——forhecametobealmostdeified——heregardeditnotasanindiscretionofhisyouth，butasoneofthegreatestachievementsofhislife。Notunlikelyherecalledwithpridethathewascreditedwithbeingnolessaninnovatorinathleticsthaninphilosophy。Atallevents，traditioncreditshimwiththeinventionof"scientific"

boxing。Wasithe，perhaps，whotaughttheGreekstostrikearisingandswingingblowfromthehip，asdepictedinthefamousmetopesoftheParthenon？Ifso，theinnovationofPythagoraswasaslittleheededinthisregardinasubsequentageaswashistheoryofthemotionoftheearth；fortostrikeaswingingblowfromthehip，ratherthanfromtheshoulder，isatrickwhichthepugilistlearnedanewinourownday。

Butenoughofpugilismandofwhat，atbest，isadoubtfultradition。Ourconcerniswithanother"science"thanthatofthearena。Wemustfollowthepurple-robedvictortoItaly——if，indeed，webenotover-credulousinacceptingthetradition——andlearnoftriumphsofadifferentkindthathaveplacedthenameofPythagorashighonthelistofthefathersofGrecianthought。

ToItaly？Yes，tothewesternlimitsoftheGreekworld。Hereitwas，beyondtheconfinesofactualGreekterritory，thatHellenicthoughtfounditssecondhome，itsfirsthomebeing，aswehaveseen，inAsiaMinor。Pythagoras，indeed，towhomwehavejustbeenintroduced，wasbornontheislandofSamos，whichliesnearthecoastofAsiaMinor，butheprobablymigratedatanearlydaytoCrotona，inItaly。Therehelived，taught，anddevelopedhisphilosophyuntilratherlateinlife，when，havingincurredthedispleasureofhisfellow-citizens，hesufferedthenotunusualpenaltyofbanishment。

OfthethreeothergreatItalicleadersofthoughtoftheearlyperiod，XenophanescameratherlateinlifetoEleaandfoundedthefamousEleaticSchool，ofwhichParmenidesbecamethemostdistinguishedornament。ThesetwowereIonians，andtheylivedinthesixthcenturybeforeourera。Empedocles，theSicilian，wasofDoricorigin。HelivedaboutthemiddleofthefifthcenturyB。C。，atatime，therefore，whenAthenshadattainedapositionofchiefgloryamongtheGreekstates；butthereisnoevidencethatEmpedoclesevervisitedthatcity，thoughitwasrumoredthathereturnedtothePeloponnesustodie。TheothergreatItalicphilosophersjustnamed，living，aswehaveseen，inthepreviouscentury，canscarcelyhavethoughtofAthensasacentreofGreekthought。Indeed，theveryfactthatthesemenlivedinItalymadethatpeninsula，ratherthanthemother-landofGreece，thecentreofHellenicinfluence。Butallthesemen，itmustconstantlybeborneinmind，wereGreeksbybirthandlanguage，fullyrecognizedassuchintheirowntimeandbyposterity。YetthefactthattheylivedinalandwhichwasatnotimeapartofthegeographicalterritoryofGreecemustnotbeforgotten。They，ortheirancestorsofrecentgenerations，hadbeenpioneersamongthoseventuresomecolonistswhoreachedoutintodistantportionsoftheworld，andmadehomesforthemselvesinmuchthesamespiritinwhichcolonistsfromEuropebegantopopulateAmericasometwothousandyearslater。Ingeneral，colonistsfromthedifferentpartsofGreecelocalizedthemselvessomewhatdefinitelyintheirnewhomes；yettheremustnaturallyhavebeenagooddealofcomminglingamongthevariousfamiliesofpioneers，and，toacertainextent，aminglingalsowiththeearlierinhabitantsofthecountry。Thisracialmingling，combinedwiththewell-knownvitalizinginfluenceofthepioneerlife，led，wemaysuppose，toamorerapidandmorevarieddevelopmentthanoccurredamongthehome-stayingGreeks。Inproofofthis，witnesstheremarkableschoolsofphilosophywhich，aswehaveseen，werethusdevelopedattheconfinesoftheGreekworld，andwhichwerepresentlytoinvadeand，asitwere，takebystormthemother-countryitself。

AstothepersonalityofthesepioneerphilosophersoftheWest，ourknowledgeisforthemostpartmoreorlesstraditional。WhathasbeensaidofThalesmayberepeated，inthemain，regardingPythagoras，Parmenides，andEmpedocles。Thattheywererealpersonsisnotatallinquestion，butmuchthatismerelytraditionalhascometobeassociatedwiththeirnames。

Pythagoraswasthesenior，anddoubtlesshisideasmayhaveinfluencedtheothersmoreorless，thougheachisusuallyspokenofasthefounderofanindependentschool。Muchconfusionhasallalongexisted，however，astothepreciseideaswhichweretobeascribedtoeachoftheleaders。Numberlesscommentators，indeed，haveendeavoredtopickoutfromamongthetraditionsofantiquity，aidedbysuchfragments，ofthewritingofthephilosophersashavecomedowntous，theparticularideasthatcharacterizedeachthinker，andtoweavetheseideasintosystems。Butsuchefforts，notwithstandingthementalenergythathasbeenexpendeduponthem，were，ofnecessity，futile，since，inthefirstplace，theancientphilosophersthemselvesdidnotspecializeandsystematizetheirideasaccordingtomodernnotions，and，inthesecondplace，therecordsoftheirindividualteachingshavebeentooscantilypreservedtoserveforthepurposeofclassification。Itisfreelyadmittedthatfablehaswovenanimpenetrablemeshofcontradictionsaboutthepersonalitiesoftheseancientthinkers，anditwouldbefollytohopethatthissameartificerhadbeenlessbusywiththeirbeliefsandtheories。WhenonereadsthatPythagorasadvocatedanexclusivelyvegetablediet，yetthathewasthefirsttotrainathletesonmeatdiet；thathesacrificedonlyinanimatethings，yetthatheofferedupahundredoxeninhonorofhisgreatdiscoveryregardingthesidesofatriangle，andsuchlikeinconsistenciesinthesamebiography，onegainsarealizingsenseoftheextenttowhichdiversetraditionsenterintothestoryasithascomedowntous。Andyetwemustreflectthatmostmenchangetheiropinionsinthecourseofalonglifetime，andthattheantagonisticreportsmaybothbetrue。

Trueorfalse，thesefableshaveanabidinginterest，sincetheyprovetheuniqueandextraordinarycharacterofthepersonalityaboutwhichtheyarewoven。TheallegedwitticismsofaWhistler，inourownday，weredoubtless，forthemostpart，quiteunknowntoWhistlerhimself，yettheyneverwouldhavebeenascribedtohimweretheynotakintowitticismsthathedidoriginate——weretheynot，inshort，typicalexpressionsofhispersonality。Andsooftheheroesofthepast。"Itisnoordinaryman，"saidGeorgeHenryLewes，speakingofPythagoras，"whomfableexaltsintothepoeticregion。Wheneveryoufindromanticormiraculousdeedsattributed，becertainthattheherowasgreatenoughtomaintaintheweightofthecrownofthisfabulousglory。"[1]Wemaynotdoubt，then，thatPythagoras，Parmenides，andEmpedocles，withwhosenamesfablewassobusythroughoutantiquity，weremenofextraordinarypersonality。Weareherechieflyconcerned，however，neitherwiththepersonalityofthemannoryetwiththeprecisedoctrineswhicheachoneofthemtaught。Aknowledgeofthelatterwouldbeinterestingwereitattainable，butintheconfusedstateofthereportsthathavecomedowntouswecannothopetobeabletoascribeeachideawithprecisiontoitspropersource。Atbestwecanmerelyoutline，evenherenottooprecisely，thescientificdoctrineswhichtheItalicphilosophersasawholeseemtohaveadvocated。

Firstandforemost，thereisthedoctrinethattheearthisasphere。Pythagorasissaidtohavebeenthefirstadvocateofthistheory；but，unfortunately，itisreportedalsothatParmenideswasitsauthor。Thisrivalshipforthediscoveryofanimportanttruthweshallseerepeatedoverandoverinmorerecenttimes。Couldweknowthewholetruth，itwouldperhapsappearthattheideaofthesphericityoftheearthwasoriginatedlongbeforethetimeoftheGreekphilosophers。Butitmustbeadmittedthatthereisnorecordofanysorttogivetangiblesupporttosuchanassumption。Sofaraswecanascertain，noEgyptianorBabylonianastronomerevergraspedthewonderfulconceptionthattheearthisround。ThattheItalicGreeksshouldhaveconceivedthatideawasperhapsnotsomuchbecausetheywereastronomersasbecausetheywerepracticalgeographersandgeometers。Pythagoras，aswehavenoted，wasbornatSamos，and，therefore，madearelativelylongseavoyageinpassingtoItaly。Now，aseveryoneknows，themostsimpleandtangibledemonstrationoftheconvexityoftheearth’ssurfaceisfurnishedbyobservationofanapproachingshipatsea。Onacleardayakeeneyemaydiscernthemastandsailsrisinggraduallyabovethehorizon，tobefollowedinduecoursebythehull。Similarly，onapproachingtheshore，highobjectsbecomevisiblebeforethosethatlienearerthewater。ItisatleastaplausiblesuppositionthatPythagorasmayhavemadesuchobservationsastheseduringthevoyageinquestion，andthatthereinmayliethegermofthatwonderfulconceptionoftheworldasasphere。

Towhatextentfurtherproof，basedonthefactthattheearth’sshadowwhenthemooniseclipsedisalwaysconvex，mayhavebeenknowntoPythagoraswecannotsay。ThereisnoproofthatanyoftheItalicphilosophersmadeextensiverecordsofastronomicalobservationsasdidtheEgyptiansandBabylonians；butwemustconstantlyrecallthatthewritingsofclassicalantiquityhavebeenalmostaltogetherdestroyed。Theabsenceofastronomicalrecordsis，therefore，noproofthatsuchrecordsneverexisted。

Pythagoras，itshouldbesaid，isreportedtohavetravelledinEgypt，andhemusttherehavegainedaninklingofastronomicalmethods。Indeed，hespeaksofhimselfspecifically，inaletterquotedbyDiogenes，asonewhoisaccustomedtostudyastronomy。

Yetalatersentenceoftheletter，whichassertsthatthephilosopherisnotalwaysoccupiedaboutspeculationsofhisownfancy，suggesting，asitdoes，thedreamerratherthantheobserver，givesusprobablyatruerglimpseintothephilosopher’smind。Thereis，indeed，reasontosupposethatthedoctrineofthesphericityoftheearthappealedtoPythagoraschieflybecauseitaccordedwithhisconceptionthatthesphereisthemostperfectsolid，justasthecircleisthemostperfectplanesurface。Bethatasitmay，thefactremainsthatwehavehere，asfaraswecantraceitsorigin，thefirstexpressionofthescientifictheorythattheearthisround。HadtheItalicphilosophersaccomplishednothingmorethanthis，theiraccomplishmentwouldnonethelessmarkanepochintheprogressofthought。

ThatPythagoraswasanobserveroftheheavensisfurtherevidencedbythestatementmadebyDiogenes，ontheauthorityofParmenides，thatPythagoraswasthefirstpersonwhodiscoveredorassertedtheidentityofHesperusandLucifer——thatistosay，ofthemorningandtheeveningstar。Thiswasreallyaremarkablediscovery，andonethatwasnodoubtinstrumentallateronindeterminingthattheoryofthemechanicsoftheheavenswhichweshallseeelaboratedpresently。TohavemadesuchadiscoveryarguesagainforthepracticalityofthemindofPythagoras。His，indeed，wouldseemtohavebeenamindinwhichpracticalcommon-sensewasstrangelyblendedwiththecapacityforwideandimaginativegeneralization。Asfurtherevidenceofhispracticality，itisassertedthathewasthefirstpersonwhointroducedmeasuresandweightsamongtheGreeks，thisassertionbeingmadeontheauthorityofAristoxenus。Itwillbeobservedthatheissaidtohaveintroduced，nottohaveinvented，weightsandmeasures，astatementwhichsuggestsaknowledgeonthepartoftheGreeksthatweightsandmeasureswerepreviouslyemployedinEgyptandBabylonia。

Themindthatcouldconceivetheworldasasphereandthatinteresteditselfinweightsandmeasureswas，obviously，amindofthevisualizingtype。Itischaracteristicofthistypeofmindtobeinterestedinthetangibilitiesofgeometry，henceitisnotsurprisingtobetoldthatPythagoras"carriedthatsciencetoperfection。"ThemostfamousdiscoveryofPythagorasinthisfieldwasthatthesquareofthehypotenuseofaright-angledtriangleisequaltothesquaresoftheothersidesofthetriangle。Wehavealreadynotedthefablethathisenthusiasmoverthisdiscoveryledhimtosacrificeahecatomb。

Doubtlessthestoryisapocryphal，butdoubtless，also，itexpressesthetruthastothefervidjoywithwhichthephilosophermusthavecontemplatedtheresultsofhiscreativeimagination。

NolineallegedtohavebeenwrittenbyPythagorashascomedowntous。Wearetoldthatherefrainedfrompublishinghisdoctrines，exceptbywordofmouth。"TheLucaniansandthePeucetians，andtheMessapiansandtheRomans，"weareassured，"flockedaroundhim，comingwitheagernesstohearhisdiscourses；nofewerthansixhundredcametohimeverynight；

andifanyoneofthemhadeverbeenpermittedtoseethemaster，theywroteofittotheirfriendsasiftheyhadgainedsomegreatadvantage。"Nevertheless，weareassuredthatuntilthetimeofPhilolausnodoctrinesofPythagoraswereeverpublished，towhichstatementitisaddedthat"whenthethreecelebratedbookswerepublished，Platowrotetohavethempurchasedforhimforahundredminas。"[2]Butifsuchbooksexisted，theyarelosttothemodernworld，andweareobligedtoaccepttheassertionsofrelativelylatewritersastothetheoriesofthegreatCrotonian。

PerhapswecannotdobetterthanquoteatlengthfromanimportantsummaryoftheremainingdoctrinesofPythagoras，whichDiogeneshimselfquotedfromtheworkofapredecessor。[3]

Despiteitssomewhatinchoatecharacter，thissummaryisamostremarkableone，asabriefanalysisofitscontentswillshow。ItshouldbeexplainedthatAlexander(whoseworkisnowlost)issaidtohavefoundthesedogmassetdowninthecommentariesofPythagoras。Ifthisassertionbeaccepted，wearebroughtonestepnearerthephilosopherhimself。Thesummaryisasfollows:

"Thatthemonadwasthebeginningofeverything。Fromthemonadproceedsanindefiniteduad，whichissubordinatetothemonadastoitscause。Thatfromthemonadandtheindefiniteduadproceednumbers。Andfromnumberssigns。Andfromtheselast，linesofwhichplanefiguresconsist。Andfromplanefiguresarederivedsolidbodies。Andfromsolidbodiessensiblebodies，ofwhichlasttherearefourelements——fire，water，earth，andair。Andthattheworld，whichisinduedwithlifeandintellect，andwhichisofasphericalfigure，havingtheearth，whichisalsospherical，andinhabitedalloverinitscentre，[4]resultsfromacombinationoftheseelements，andderivesitsmotionfromthem；andalsothatthereareantipodes，andthatwhatisbelow，asrespectsus，isaboveinrespectofthem。

"Healsotaughtthatlightanddarkness，andcoldandheat，anddrynessandmoisture，wereequallydividedintheworld；andthatwhileheatwaspredominantitwassummer；whilecoldhadthemastery，itwaswinter；whendrynessprevailed，itwasspring；

andwhenmoisturepreponderated，winter。Andwhileallthesequalitieswereonalevel，thenwastheloveliestseasonoftheyear；ofwhichtheflourishingspringwasthewholesomeperiod，andtheseasonofautumnthemostperniciousone。Oftheday，hesaidthattheflourishingperiodwasthemorning，andthefadingonetheevening；onwhichaccountthatalsowastheleasthealthytime。

"Anotherofhistheorieswasthattheairaroundtheearthwasimmovableandpregnantwithdisease，andthateverythinginitwasmortal；butthattheupperairwasinperpetualmotion，andpureandsalubrious，andthateverythinginthatwasimmortal，andonthataccountdivine。Andthatthesunandthemoonandthestarswereallgods；forinthemthewarmprinciplepredominateswhichisthecauseoflife。Andthatthemoonderivesitslightfromthesun。Andthatthereisarelationshipbetweenmenandthegods，becausemenpartakeofthedivineprinciple；onwhichaccount，also，Godexerciseshisprovidenceforouradvantage。

Also，thatFateisthecauseofthearrangementoftheworldbothgenerallyandparticularly。Moreover，thatarayfromthesunpenetratedboththecoldaetherandthedenseaether；andtheycalltheairthecoldaether，andtheseaandmoisturetheycallthedenseaether。Andthisraydescendsintothedepths，andinthiswayvivifieseverything。Andeverythingwhichpartakesoftheprincipleofheatlives，onwhichaccount，also，plantsareanimatedbeings；butthatalllivingthingshavenotnecessarilysouls。Andthatthesoulisasomethingtomofffromtheaether，bothwarmandcold，fromitspartakingofthecoldaether。Andthatthesoulissomethingdifferentfromlife。Also，thatitisimmortal，becausethatfromwhichithasbeendetachedisimmortal。

"Also，thatanimalsarebornfromoneanotherbyseeds，andthatitisimpossiblefortheretobeanyspontaneousproductionbytheearth。Andthatseedisadropfromthebrainwhichcontainsinitselfawarmvapor；andthatwhenthisisappliedtothewombittransmitsvirtueandmoistureandbloodfromthebrain，fromwhichfleshandsinewsandbonesandhairandthewholebodyareproduced。Andfromthevaporisproducedthesoul，andalsosensation。Andthattheinfantfirstbecomesasolidbodyattheendoffortydays；but，accordingtotheprinciplesofharmony，itisnotperfecttillseven，orperhapsnine，oratmosttenmonths，andthenitisbroughtforth。Andthatitcontainsinitselfalltheprinciplesoflife，whichareallconnectedtogether，andbytheirunionandcombinationformaharmoniouswhole，eachofthemdevelopingitselfattheappointedtime。

"Thesensesingeneral，andespeciallythesight，areavaporofexcessivewarmth，andonthisaccountamanissaidtoseethroughairandthroughwater。Forthehotprincipleisopposedbythecoldone；since，ifthevaporintheeyeswerecold，itwouldhavethesametemperatureastheair，andsowouldbedissipated。Asitis，insomepassageshecallstheeyesthegatesofthesun；andhespeaksinasimilarmannerofhearingandoftheothersenses。

"Healsosaysthatthesoulofmanisdividedintothreeparts:

intointuitionandreasonandmind，andthatthefirstandlastdivisionsarefoundalsoinotheranimals，butthatthemiddleone，reason，isonlyfoundinman。Andthatthechiefabodeofthesoulisinthosepartsofthebodywhicharebetweentheheartandthebrain。Andthatthatportionofitwhichisintheheartisthemind；butthatdeliberationandreasonresideinthebrain。

Moreover，thatthesensesaredropsfromthem；andthatthereasoningsenseisimmortal，buttheothersaremortal。Andthatthesoulisnourishedbytheblood；andthatreasonsarethewindsofthesoul。Thatitisinvisible，andsoareitsreasons，sincetheaetheritselfisinvisible。Thatthelinksofthesoularetheveinsandthearteriesandthenerves。Butthatwhenitisvigorous，andisbyitselfinaquiescentstate，thenitslinksarewordsandactions。Thatwhenitiscastforthupontheearthitwandersabout，resemblingthebody。Moreover，thatMercuryisthestewardofthesouls，andthatonthisaccounthehasthenameofConductor，andCommercial，andInfernal，sinceitishewhoconductsthesoulsfromtheirbodies，andfromearthandsea；andthatheconductsthepuresoulstothehighestregion，andthathedoesnotallowtheimpureonestoapproachthem，nortocomenearoneanother，butcommitsthemtobeboundinindissolublefettersbytheFuries。ThePythagoreansalsoassertthatthewholeairisfullofsouls，andthatthesearethosewhichareaccounteddaemonsandheroes。Also，thatitisbythemthatdreamsaresentamongmen，andalsothetokensofdiseaseandhealth；theselast，too，beingsentnotonlytomen，buttosheepalso，andothercattle。Alsothatitistheywhoareconcernedwithpurificationsandexpiationsandallkindsofdivinationandoracularpredictions，andthingsofthatkind。"[5]

AbriefconsiderationofthissummaryofthedoctrinesofPythagoraswillshowthatitatleastoutlinesamostextraordinaryvarietyofscientificideas。(1)Thereissuggestedatheoryofmonadsandtheconceptionofthedevelopmentfromsimpletomorecomplexbodies，passingthroughthestagesoflines，plainfigures，andsolidstosensiblebodies。(2)Thedoctrineofthefourelements——fire，water，earth，andair——asthebasisofallorganismsisputforward。(3)Theidea，notmerelyofthesphericityoftheearth，butanexplicitconceptionoftheantipodes，isexpressed。(4)Aconceptionofthesanitaryinfluenceoftheairisclearlyexpressed。(5)Anideaoftheproblemsofgenerationandheredityisshown，togetherwithadistinctdisavowalofthedoctrineofspontaneousgeneration——adoctrinewhich，itmaybeadded，remainedinvogue，nevertheless，forsometwenty-fourhundredyearsafterthetimeofPythagoras。

(6)Aremarkableanalysisofmindismade，andadistinctionbetweenanimalmindsandthehumanmindisbasedonthisanalysis。Thephysiologicaldoctrinethattheheartistheorganofonedepartmentofmindisoffsetbytheclearstatementthattheremainingfactorsofmindresideinthebrain。Thisearlyrecognitionofbrainastheorganofmindmustnotbeforgotteninourlaterstudies。Itshouldberecalled，however，thataCrotonianphysician，Alemaean，ayoungercontemporaryofPythagoras，isalsocreditedwiththesametheory。(7)A

knowledgeofanatomyisatleastvaguelyforeshadowedintheassertionthatveins，arteries，andnervesarethelinksofthesoul。InthisconnectionitshouldberecalledthatPythagoraswasapracticalphysician。

Asagainstthesescientificdoctrines，however，someofthembeingatleastremarkableguessesatthetruth，attentionmustbecalledtotheconcludingparagraphofourquotation，inwhichtheoldfamiliardaemonologyisoutlined，quiteaftertheOrientalfashion。Weshallhaveoccasiontosaymoreastothisphaseofthesubjectlateron。Meantime，beforeleavingPythagoras，letusnotethathispracticalstudiesofhumanityledhimtoassertthedoctrinethat"thepropertyoffriendsiscommon，andthatfriendshipisequality。"Hisdisciples，wearetold，usedtoputalltheirpossessionstogetherinonestoreandusethemincommon。Here，then，seemingly，isthedoctrineofcommunismputtothetestofexperimentatthisearlyday。Ifitseemthatreferencetothiscarriesusbeyondtheboundsofscience，itmayberepliedthatquestionssuchasthiswillnotliebeyondtheboundsofthescienceofthenearfuture。

XENOPHANESANDPARMENIDES

ThereisawhimsicaltaleaboutPythagoras，accordingtowhichthephilosopherwaswonttodeclarethatinanearlierstatehehadvisitedHades，andhadthereseenHomerandHesiodtorturedbecauseoftheabsurdthingstheyhadsaidaboutthegods。

Apocrypbalorotherwise，thetalesuggeststhatPythagoraswasanagnosticasregardsthecurrentGreekreligionofhistime。Thesamethingisperhapstrueofmostofthegreatthinkersofthisearliestperiod。Butoneamongthemwasrememberedinlatertimesashavinghadapeculiaraversiontotheanthropomorphicconceptionsofhisfellows。ThiswasXenophanes，whowasbornatColophonprobablyabouttheyear580B。C。，andwho，afteralifeofwandering，settledfinallyinItalyandbecamethefounderoftheso-calledEleaticSchool。

AfewfragmentsofthephilosophicalpoeminwhichXenophanesexpressedhisviewshavecomedowntous，andthesefragmentsincludeatolerablydefiniteavowalofhisfaith。"Godisonesupremeamonggodsandmen，andnotlikemortalsinbodyorinmind，"saysXenophanes。Againheassertsthat"mortalssupposethatthegodsareborn(astheythemselvesare)，thattheywearman’sclothingandhavehumanvoiceandbody；but，"hecontinues，"ifcattleorlionshadhandssoastopaintwiththeirhandsandproduceworksofartasmendo，theywouldpainttheirgodsandgivethembodiesinformliketheirown——horseslikehorses，cattlelikecattle。"Elsewherehesays，withgreatacumen:"Therehasnotbeenaman，norwilltherebe，whoknowsdistinctlywhatIsayaboutthegodsorinregardtoallthings。Forevenifonechanceforthemostparttosaywhatistrue，stillhewouldnotknow；buteveryonethinksthatheknows。"[6]

InthesamespiritXenophanesspeaksofthebattlesofTitans，ofgiants，andofcentaursas"fictionsofformerages。"Allthistellsofthequestioningspiritwhichdistinguishesthescientificinvestigator。Preciselywhitherthisspiritledhimwedonotknow，butthewritersofalatertimehavepreservedatraditionregardingabeliefofXenophanesthatperhapsentitleshimtobeconsideredthefatherofgeology。ThusHippolytusrecordsthatXenophanesstudiedthefossilstobefoundinquarries，anddrewfromtheirobservationremarkableconclusions。

Hiswordsareasfollows:"Xenophanesbelievesthatoncetheearthwasmingledwiththesea，butinthecourseoftimeitbecamefreedfrommoisture；andhisproofsaresuchasthese:

thatshellsarefoundinthemidstofthelandandamongthemountains，thatinthequarriesofSyracusetheimprintsofafishandofsealshadbeenfound，andinParostheimprintofananchovyatsomedepthinthestone，andinMeliteshallowimpressionsofallsortsofseaproducts。Hesaysthattheseimprintsweremadewheneverythinglongagowascoveredwithmud，andthentheimprintdriedinthemud。Further，hesaysthatallmenwillbedestroyedwhentheearthsinksintotheseaandbecomesmud，andthattheracewillbeginanewfromthebeginning；andthistransformationtakesplaceforallworlds。"[7]Here，then，weseethisearliestofpaleontologistsstudyingthefossil-bearingstrataoftheearth，anddrawingfromhisobservationsamarvellouslyscientificinduction。AlmosttwothousandyearslateranotherfamouscitizenofItaly，LeonardodaVinci，wasindependentlytothinkoutsimilarconclusionsfromlikeobservations。Butnotuntilthenineteenthcenturyofourera，sometwenty-fourhundredyearsafterthetimeofXenophanes，wastheoldGreek’sdoctrinetobeacceptedbythescientificworld。TheideasofXenophaneswereknowntohiscontemporariesand，aswesee，quotedforafewcenturiesbyhissuccessors，thentheywereignoredorquiteforgotten；andifanyphilosopherofanensuingagebeforethetimeofLeonardochampionedalikerationalexplanationofthefossils，wehavenorecordofthefact。ThegeologicaldoctrineofXenophanes，then，mustbelistedamongthoseremarkableGreekanticipationsofnineteenth-centurysciencewhichsufferedalmosttotaleclipseintheinterveningcenturies。

AmongthepupilsofXenophaneswasParmenides，thethinkerwhowasdestinedtocarryontheworkofhismasteralongthesamescientificlines，thoughatthesametimeminglinghisscientificconceptionswiththemysticismofthepoet。WehavealreadyhadoccasiontomentionthatParmenideschampionedtheideathattheearthisround；notingalsothatdoubtsexistastowhetherheorPythagorasoriginatedthisdoctrine。Noexplicitanswertothisquestioncanpossiblybehopedfor。Itseemsclear，however，thatforalongtimetheItalicSchool，towhichboththesephilosophersbelonged，hadamonopolyofthebeliefinquestion。

Parmenides，likePythagoras，iscreditedwithhavingbelievedinthemotionoftheearth，thoughtheevidencefurnishedbythewritingsofthephilosopherhimselfisnotasdemonstrativeasonecouldwish。Unfortunately，thecopyistsofalaterageweremoreconcernedwithmetaphysicalspeculationsthanwithmoretangiblethings。ButasfarasthefragmentaryreferencestotheideasofParmenidesmaybeaccepted，theydonotsupporttheideaoftheearth’smotion。Indeed，Parmenidesismadetosayexplicitly，inpreservedfragments，that"theworldisimmovable，limited，andspheroidalinform。"[8]

Nevertheless，somemoderninterpretershavefoundanoppositemeaninginParmenides。ThusRitterinterpretshimassupposing"thattheearthisinthecentrespherical，andmaintainedinrotarymotionbyitsequiponderance；arounditliecertainrings，thehighestcomposedoftherareelementfire，thenextloweracompoundoflightanddarkness，andlowestofallonewhollyofnight，whichprobablyindicatedtohismindthesurfaceoftheearth，thecentreofwhichagainheprobablyconsideredtobefire。"[9]Butthis，liketoomanyinterpretationsofancientthought，appearstoreadintothefragmentsideaswhichthewordsthemselvesdonotwarrant。Thereseemsnoreasontodoubt，however，thatParmenidesactuallyheldthedoctrineoftheearth’ssphericity。Anotherglimpseofhisastronomicaldoctrinesisfurnishedusbyafragmentwhichtellsusthatheconceivedthemorningandtheeveningstarstobethesame，adoctrinewhich，aswehaveseen，wasascribedalsotoPythagoras。Indeed，wemayrepeatthatitisquiteimpossibletodistinguishbetweentheastronomicaldoctrinesofthesetwophilosophers。

ThepoemofParmenidesinwhichthecosmogonicspeculationsoccurtreatsalsooftheoriginofman。Theauthorseemstohavehadaclearconceptionthatintelligencedependsonbodilyorganism，andthatthemoreelaboratelydevelopedtheorganismthehighertheintelligence。Butintheinterpretationofthisthoughtwearehamperedbythecharacteristicvaguenessofexpression，whichmaybestbeevidencedbyputtingbeforethereadertwoEnglishtranslationsofthesamestanza。HereisRitter’srendering，asmadeintoEnglishbyhistranslator，Morrison:

"Forexactlyaseachhasthestateofhislimbsmany-jointed，Soinvariablystandsitwithmenintheirmindandtheirreason；ForthesystemoflimbsisthatwhichthinkethinmankindAlikeinallandineach:forthoughtisthefulness。"[10]

ThesamestanzaisgiventhusbyGeorgeHenryLewes:

"Suchastoeachmanisthenatureofhismany-jointedlimbs，Suchalsoistheintelligenceofeachman；foritisThenatureoflimbs(organization)whichthinkethinmen，Bothinoneandinall；forthehighestdegreeoforganizationgivesthehighestdegreeofthought。"[11]

Hereitwillbeobservedthatthereisvirtualagreementbetweenthetranslatorsexceptastothelastclause，butthatclauseismostessential。TheGreekphraseis<grtogarpleonestinohma>。

Ritter，itwillbeobserved，rendersthis，"forthoughtisthefulness。"Lewesparaphrasesit，"forthehighestdegreeoforganizationgivesthehighestdegreeofthought。"Thedifferenceisintentional，sinceLeweshimselfcriticisesthetranslationofRitter。Ritter’stranslationiscertainlythemoreliteral，butthefactthatsuchdiversityispossiblesuggestsoneofthechiefelementsofuncertaintythathamperourinterpretationofthethoughtofantiquity。Unfortunately，themindofthecommentatorhasusuallybeendirectedtowardssuchsubtleties，ratherthantowardstheexpressionofpreciseknowledge。HenceitisthatthephilosophersofGreeceareusuallythoughtofasmeredreamers，andthattheirtruestatusasscientificdiscoverersissooftenoverlooked。Withtheseintangibilitieswehavenopresentconcernbeyondthisbaremention；forusitsufficestogainasclearanideaaswemayofthereallyscientificconceptionsofthesethinkers，leavingthesubtletiesoftheirdeductivereasoningforthemostpartuntouched。

【推荐阅读】幽幽深宫，醒来一梦似千年，重生于下堂妃身躯中的她，将如何手刃仇人? 点击阅读