InviewingthisastronomicalsystemoftheEgyptiansonecannotavoidthequestionastojustwhatinterpretationwasplaceduponitasregardstheactualmechanicalstructureoftheuniverse。A

proximalanswertothequestionissupplieduswithagooddealofclearness。ItappearsthattheEgyptianconceivedtheskyasasortoftangibleormaterialroofplacedabovetheworld，andsupportedateachofitsfourcornersbyacolumnorpillar，whichwaslateronconceivedasagreatmountain。Theearthitselfwasconceivedtobearectangularbox，longerfromnorthtosouththanfromeasttowest；theuppersurfaceofthisbox，uponwhichmanlived，beingslightlyconcaveandhaving，ofcourse，thevalleyoftheNileasitscentre。Thepillarsofsupportweresituatedatthepointsofthecompass；thenorthernonebeinglocatedbeyondtheMediterraneanSea；thesouthernoneawaybeyondthehabitableregionstowardsthesourceoftheNile，andtheeasternandwesternonesinequallyinaccessibleregions。

Circlingaboutthesouthernsideofthe，worldwasagreatriversuspendedinmid-aironsomethingcomparabletomountaincliffs；

onwhichriverthesun-godmadehisdailycourseinaboat，fightingdaybydayhisever-recurringbattleagainstSet，thedemonofdarkness。Thewidechannelofthisriverenabledthesun-godtoalterhiscoursefromtimetotime，asheisobservedtodo；inwinterdirectinghisbarktowardsthefartherbankofthechannel；insummerglidingclosetothenearerbank。Astothestars，theyweresimilarlights，suspendedfromthevaultoftheheaven；butjusthowtheirobservedmotionoftranslationacrosstheheavenswasexplainedisnotapparent。Itismorethanprobablethatnooneexplanationwas，universallyaccepted。

Inexplainingtheoriginofthismechanismoftheheavens，theEgyptianimaginationranriot。EachseparatepartofEgypthaditsownhierarchyofgods，andmoreorlessitsownexplanationsofcosmogony。Theredoesnotappeartohavebeenanyonecentralstoryofcreationthatfounduniversalacceptance，anymorethantherewasonespecificdeityeverywhererecognizedassupremeamongthegods。PerhapsthemostinterestingofthecosmogonicmythswasthatwhichconceivedthatNuit，thegoddessofnight，hadbeentornfromthearmsofherhusband，Sibutheearth-god，andelevatedtotheskydespiteherprotestsandherhusband’sstruggles，theretoremainsupportedbyherfourlimbs，whichbecamemetamorphosedintothepillars，ormountains，alreadymentioned。TheforcibleelevationofNuithadbeeneffectedonthedayofcreationbyanewgod，Shu，whocameforthfromtheprimevalwaters。ApaintingonthemummycaseofoneBetuhamon，nowintheTurinMuseum，illustrates，inthegraphicmannersocharacteristicoftheEgyptians，thisactofcreation。AsMaspero[2]pointsout，thestruggleofSiburesultedincontortedattitudestowhichtheirregularitiesoftheearth’ssurfacearetobeascribed。

Incontemplatingsuchaschemeofcelestialmechanicsasthatjustoutlined，onecannotavoidraisingthequestionastojustthedegreeofliteralnesswhichtheEgyptiansthemselvesputuponit。Weknowhowessentiallyeye-mindedtheEgyptianwas，touseamodernpsychologicalphrase——thatistosay，howessentialtohimitseemedthatallhisconceptionsshouldbevisualized。Theevidencesofthisareeverywhere:allhisgodsweremadetangible；hebelievedintheimmortalityofthesoul，yethecouldnotconceiveofsuchimmortalityexceptinassociationwithanimmortalbody；hemustmummifythebodyofthedead，else，ashefirmlybelieved，thedissolutionofthespiritwouldtakeplacealongwiththedissolutionofthebodyitself。Hisworldwaspeopledeverywherewithspirits，buttheywerespiritsassociatedalwayswithcorporealbodies；hisgodsfoundlodgmentinsunandmoonandstars；inearthandwater；inthebodiesofreptilesandbirdsandmammals。Heworshippedallofthesethings:thesun，themoon，water，earth，thespiritoftheNile，theibis，thecat，theram，andapisthebull；but，sofaraswecanjudge，hisimaginationdidnotreachtotheideaofanabsolutelyincorporealdeity。Similarlyhisconceptionofthemechanismoftheheavensmustbeatangiblymechanicalone。Hemustthinkofthestarryfirmamentasasubstantialentitywhichcouldnotdefythelawofgravitation，andwhich，therefore，musthavethesamemannerofsupportasisrequiredbytheroofofahouseortemple。WeknowthatthisideaofthematerialityofthefirmamentfoundelaborateexpressioninthoselatercosmologicalguesseswhichweretodominatethethoughtofEuropeuntilthetimeofNewton。Weneednotdoubt，therefore，thatfortheEgyptianthissolidvaultoftheheavenshadaveryrealexistence。Ifnowandthensomedreamerconceivedthegreatbodiesofthefirmamentasfloatinginalessmaterialplenum——andsuchiconoclasticdreamersthereareinallages——norecordofhismusingshascomedowntous，andwemustfreelyadmitthatifsuchthoughtsexistedtheywerealientothecharacteroftheEgyptianmindasawhole。

WhiletheEgyptiansconceivedtheheavenlybodiesastheabiding-placeofvariousoftheirdeities，itdoesnotappearthattheypractisedastrologyinthelateracceptanceofthatword。ThisisthemoreremarkablesincetheconceptionofluckyandunluckydayswascarriedbytheEgyptianstotheextremesofabsurdity。"Onedaywasluckyorunlucky，"saysErman，[3]

"accordingasagoodorbadmythologicalincidenttookplaceonthatday。Forinstance，the1stofMechir，onwhichdaytheskywasraised，andthe27thofAthyr，whenHorusand，Setconcludedpeacetogetheranddividedtheworldbetweenthem，wereluckydays；ontheotherhand，the14thofTybi，onwhichIsisandNephthysmournedforOsiris，wasanunluckyday。Withtheunluckydays，which，fortunately，werelessinnumberthantheluckydays，theydistinguisheddifferentdegreesofill-luck。Somewereveryunlucky，othersonlythreatenedill-luck，andmany，likethe17thandthe27thChoiakh，werepartlygoodandpartlybadaccordingtothetimeofday。Luckydaysmight，asarule，bedisregarded。Atmostitmightbeaswelltovisitsomespeciallyrenownedtemple，orto’celebrateajoyfuldayathome，’butnoparticularprecautionswerereallynecessary；and，aboveall，itwassaid，’whatthoualsoseestonthedayislucky。’Itwasquiteotherwisewiththeunluckyanddangerousdays，whichimposedsomanyandsuchgreatlimitationsonpeoplethatthosewhowishedtobeprudentwerealwaysobligedtobeartheminmindwhendeterminingonanycourseofaction。Certainconditionswereeasytocarryout。Musicandsingingweretobeavoidedonthe14thTybi，thedayofthemourningofOsiris，andnoonewasallowedtowashonthe16thTybi；whilstthenameofSetmightnotbepronouncedonthe24thofPharmuthi。Fishwasforbiddenoncertaindays；andwhatwasstillmoredifficultinacountrysorichinmice，onthe12thofTybinomousemightbeseen。Themosttiresomeprohibitions，however，werethosewhichoccurrednotinfrequently，namely，thoseconcerningworkandgoingout:

forinstance，fourtimesinPaophithepeoplehadto’donothingatall，’andfivetimestositthewholedayorhalfthedayinthehouse；andthesamerulehadtobeobservedeachmonth。Itwasimpossibletorejoiceifachildwasbornonthe23dofThoth；theparentsknewitcouldnotlive。Thosebornonthe20thofChoiakhwouldbecomeblind，andthosebornonthe3dofChoiakh，deaf。"

CHARMSANDINCANTATIONS

Wheresuchconceptionsasthesepertained，itgoeswithoutsayingthatcharmsandincantationsintendedtobreakthespelloftheunluckyomenswereequallyprevalent。Suchincantationsconsistedusuallyoftherecitationofcertainphrasesbasedoriginally，itwouldappear，uponincidentsinthehistoryofthegods。Thewordswhichthegodhadspokeninconnectionwithsomeluckyincidentwould，itwasthought，proveeffectivenowinbringinggoodlucktothehumansupplicant——thatistosay，themagicianhopedthroughrepeatingthewordsofthegodtoexercisethemagicpowerofthegod。Itwasevenpossible，withtheaidofthemagicalobservances，partlytobalkfateitself。Thusthepersonpredestinedthroughbirthonanunluckydaytodieofaserpentbitemightpostponethetimeofthisfatefulvisitationtoextremeoldage。Thelikeuncertaintyattachedtothosespellswhichonepersonwassupposedtobeabletoexerciseoveranother。Itwasheld，forexample，thatifsomethingbelongingtoanindividual，suchasalockofhairoraparingofthenails，couldbesecuredandincorporatedinawaxenfigure，thisfigurewouldbeintimatelyassociatedwiththepersonalityofthatindividual。Anenemymightthussecureoccultpoweroverone；anyindignitypractiseduponthewaxenfigurewouldresultinlikeinjurytoitshumanprototype。Ifthefigurewerebruisedorbeaten，someaccidentwouldovertakeitsdouble；iftheimagewereplacedoverafire，thehumanbeingwouldfallintoafever，andsoon。But，ofcourse，suchmysteriousevilsasthesewouldbemetandcombatedbyequallymysteriousprocesses；andsoitwasthattheentireartofmedicinewascloselylinkedwithmagicalpractices。Itwasnot，indeed，held，accordingtoMaspero，thatthemagicalspellsofenemieswerethesolesourcesofhumanailments，butonecouldneverbesuretowhatextentsuchspellsenteredintotheaffliction；andsocloselywerethehumanactivitiesassociatedinthemindoftheEgyptianwithoneformoranotherofoccultinfluencesthatpurelyphysicalconditionswereatadiscount。Inthelatertimes，atanyrate，thephysicianwasusuallyapriest，andtherewasacloseassociationbetweenthematerialandspiritualphasesoftherapeutics。Erman[4]tellsusthatthefollowingformulahadtoberecitedatthepreparationofallmedicaments:"ThatIsismightmakefree，makefree。ThatIsismightmakeHorusfreefromallevilthathisbrotherSethaddonetohimwhenheslewhisfather，Osiris。OIsis，greatenchantress，freeme，releasemefromallevilredthings，fromthefeverofthegod，andthefeverofthegoddess，fromdeathanddeathfrompain，andthepainwhichcomesoverme；asthouhastfreed，asthouhastreleasedthysonHorus，whilstIenterintothefireandcomeforthfromthewater，"etc。Again，whentheinvalidtookthemedicine，anincantationhadtobesaidwhichbeganthus:"Comeremedy，comedriveitoutofmyheart，outoftheselimbsstronginmagicpowerwiththeremedy。"Headds:"TheremayhavebeenafewrationalistsamongsttheEgyptiandoctors，forthenumberofmagicformulaevariesmuchinthedifferentbooks。ThebookthatwehavespeciallytakenforafoundationforthisaccountofEgyptianmedicine——thegreatpapyrusoftheeighteenthdynastyeditedbyEbers[5]——contains，forinstance，farfewerexorcismsthansomelaterwritingswithsimilarcontents，probablybecausethedoctorwhocompiledthisbookofrecipesfromoldersourceshadverylittlelikingformagic。"

Itmustbeunderstood，however——indeed，whathasjustbeensaidimpliesasmuch——thatthephysicianbynomeansrelieduponincantationsalone；onthecontrary，heequippedhimselfwithanastonishingvarietyofmedicaments。Hehadaparticularfondnessforwhatthemodernphysicianspeaksofasa"shot-gun"

prescription——onecontainingagreatvarietyofingredients。Notonlydidherbsofmanykindsenterintothis，butsuchsubstancesaslizard’sblood，theteethofswine，putridmeat，themoisturefrompigs’ears，boiledhorn，andnumerousotherevenmorerepellentingredients。WhoeverisfamiliarwiththeformulaeemployedbyEuropeanphysiciansevensorecentlyastheeighteenthcenturywillnoteastrikingsimilarityhere。ErmanpointsoutthatthemodernEgyptianevenofthisdayholdscloselytomanyofthepracticesofhisremoteancestor。Inparticular，theefficacyofthebeetleasamedicinalagenthasstoodthetestofagesofpractice。"Againstallkindsofwitchcraft，"saysanancientformula，"agreatscarabaeusbeetle；

cutoffhisheadandwings，boilhim；puthiminoilandlayhimout；thencookhisheadandwings，puttheminsnakefat，boil，andletthepatientdrinkthemixture。"ThemodernEgyptian，saysErman，usesalmostpreciselythesamerecipe，exceptthatthesnakefatisreplacedbymodernoil。

InevidenceoftheimportancewhichwasattachedtopracticalmedicineintheEgyptofanearlyday，thenamesofseveralphysicianshavecomedowntousfromanagewhichhaspreservedveryfewnamesindeed，savethoseofkings。InreferencetothisErmansays[6]:"Westillknowthenamesofsomeoftheearlybodyphysiciansofthistime；Sechmetna’eonch，’chiefphysicianofthePharaoh，’andNesmenanhischief，the’superintendentofthephysiciansofthePharaoh。’Thepriestsalsoofthelioness-headedgoddessSechmetseemtohavebeenfamedfortheirmedicalwisdom，whilstthesonofthisgoddess，thedemi-godImhotep，wasinlatertimesconsideredtobethecreatorofmedicalknowledge。TheseancientdoctorsoftheNewEmpiredonotseemtohaveimprovedupontheolderconceptionsabouttheconstructionofthehumanbody。"

AstotheactualscientificattainmentsoftheEgyptianphysician，itisdifficulttospeakwithprecision。Despitethecumbersomeformulaeandthegrotesqueincantations，weneednotdoubtthatacertainpracticalvalueattendedhistherapeutics。

Hepractisedalmostpureempiricism，however，andcertainlyitmusthavebeenalmostimpossibletodeterminewhichones，ifany，ofthenumerousingredientsoftheprescriptionhadrealefficacy。

Thepracticalanatomicalknowledgeofthephysician，thereiseveryreasontobelieve，wasextremelylimited。Atfirstthoughtitmightseemthatthepracticeofembalmingwouldhaveledtothecustomofdissectinghumanbodies，andthattheEgyptians，asaresultofthis，wouldhaveexcelledintheknowledgeofanatomy。Buttheactualresultswereratherthereverseofthis。

Embalmingthedead，itmustberecalled，wasapurelyreligiousobservance。Ittookplaceunderthesuperintendenceofthepriests，butsogreatwasthereverenceforthehumanbodythattheprieststhemselveswerenotpermittedtomaketheabdominalincisionwhichwasanecessarypreliminaryoftheprocess。Thisincision，asweareinformedbybothHerodotus[7]andDiodorus[8]，wasmadebyaspecialofficer，whosestatus，ifwemaybelievetheexplicitstatementofDiodorus，wasquitecomparabletothatofthemodernhangman。Theparaschistas，ashewascalled，havingperformedhisnecessarybutobnoxiousfunction，withtheaidofasharpEthiopianstone，retiredhastily，leavingtheremainingprocessestothepriests。These，however，confinedtheirobservationstotheabdominalviscera；

undernoconsiderationdidtheymakeotherincisionsinthebody。

Itfollows，therefore，thattheiropportunityforanatomicalobservationswasmostlimited。

Sinceeventhenecessarymutilationinflictedonthecorpsewasregardedwithsuchhorror，itfollowsthatanythinginthewayofdissectionforalesssacredpurposewasabsolutelyprohibited。

Probablythesameprohibitionextendedtoalargenumberofanimals，sincemostofthesewereheldsacredinonepartofEgyptoranother。Moreover，thereisnothinginwhatweknowoftheEgyptianmindtosuggesttheprobabilitythatanyEgyptianphysicianwouldmakeextensiveanatomicalobservationsfortheloveofpureknowledge。AllEgyptianscienceiseminentlypractical。IfwethinkoftheEgyptianasmysterious，itisbecauseofthesuperstitiousobservancesthatweeverywhereassociatewithhisdailyacts；butthese，aswehavealreadytriedtomakeclear，werereallybasedonscientificobservationsofakind，andtheattemptattrueinferencesfromtheseobservations。ButwhetherornottheEgyptianphysiciandesiredanatomicalknowledge，theresultsofhisinquirieswerecertainlymostmeagre。Theessentialsofhissystemhadtodowithaseriesofvessels，allegedtobetwenty-twoortwenty-fourinnumber，whichpenetratedtheheadandweredistributedinpairstothevariousmembersofthebody，andwhichwerevaguelythoughtofascarriersofwater，air，excretoryfluids，etc。Yetbackofthisvagueness，asmustnotbeoverlooked，therewasanall-essentialrecognitionoftheheartasthecentralvascularorgan。Theheartiscalledthebeginningofallthemembers。Itsvessels，wearetold，"leadtoallthemembers；whetherthedoctorlayshisfingerontheforehead，onthebackofthehead，onthehands，ontheplaceofthestomach(？)，onthearms，oronthefeet，everywherehemeetswiththeheart，becauseitsvesselsleadtoallthemembers。"[9]ThisrecognitionofthepulsemustbecreditedtotheEgyptianphysicianasapieceofpracticalknowledge，insomemeasureoff-settingthevaguenessofhisanatomicaltheories。

ABSTRACTSCIENCE

But，indeed，practicalknowledgewas，ashasbeensaidoverandover，theessentialcharacteristicofEgyptianscience。YetanotherillustrationofthisisfurnishedusifweturntothemoreabstractdepartmentsofthoughtandinquirewhatweretheEgyptianattemptsinsuchafieldasmathematics。TheanswerdoesnottendgreatlytoincreaseouradmirationfortheEgyptianmind。Weareledtosee，indeed，thattheEgyptianmerchantwasabletoperformallthecomputationsnecessarytohiscraft，butweareforcedtoconcludethattheknowledgeofnumbersscarcelyextendedbeyondthis，andthatevenherethemethodsofreckoningweretediousandcumbersome。Ourknowledgeofthesubjectrestslargelyupontheso-calledpapyrusRhind，[10]whichisasortofmythologicalhand-bookoftheancientEgyptians。Analyzingthisdocument，ProfessorErmanconcludesthattheknowledgeoftheEgyptianswasadequatetoallpracticalrequirements。Theirmathematicstaughtthem"howintheexchangeofbreadforbeertherespectivevaluewastobedeterminedwhenconvertedintoaquantityofcorn；howtoreckonthesizeofafield；howtodeterminehowagivenquantityofcornwouldgointoagranaryofacertainsize，"andlikeevery-dayproblems。Yettheywereobligedtomakesomeoftheirsimplecomputationsinaveryroundaboutway。Itwouldappear，forexample，thattheirmentalarithmeticdidnotenablethemtomultiplybyanumberlargerthantwo，andthattheydidnotreachaclearconceptionofcomplexfractionalnumbers。Theydid，indeed，recognizethateachpartofanobjectdividedinto10piecesbecame1/10ofthatobject；theyevengraspedtheideaof2/3thisbeingaconceptioneasilyvisualized；buttheyapparentlydidnotvisualizesuchaconceptionas3/10exceptinthecrudeformof1/10plus1/10

plus1/10。Theirentireideaofdivisionseemsdefective。Theyviewedthesubjectfromthemoreelementarystand-pointofmultiplication。Thus，inordertofindouthowmanytimes7iscontainedin77，anexistingexampleshowsthatthenumbersrepresenting1times7，2times7，4times7，8times7weresetdownsuccessivelyandvariousexperimentaladditionsmadetofindoutwhichsetsofthesenumbersaggregated77——

17——

214——

428——

856

Alinebeforethefirst，second，andfourthofthesenumbersindicatedthatitisnecessarytomultiply7by1plus2plus8——thatis，by11，inordertoobtain77；thatistosay，7goes11timesin77。Allthisseemsverycumbersomeindeed，yetwemustnotoverlookthefactthattheprocesswhichgoesoninourownmindsinperformingsuchaproblemasthisispreciselysimilar，exceptthatwehavelearnedtoslurovercertainoftheintermediatestepswiththeaidofamemorizedmultiplicationtable。Inthelastanalysis，divisionisonlytheobversesideofmultiplication，andanyonewhohasnotlearnedhismultiplicationtableisreducedtosomesuchexpedientasthatoftheEgyptian。Indeed，wheneverwepassbeyondtherangeofourmemorizedmultiplicationtable-whichformostofusendswiththetwelves——theexperimentalcharacterofthetrialmultiplicationthroughwhichdivisionisfinallyeffecteddoesnotsogreatlydifferfromtheexperimentaleffortswhichtheEgyptianwasobligedtoapplytosmallernumbers。

Despitehisdefectivecomprehensionoffractions，theEgyptianwasabletoworkoutproblemsofrelativecomplexity；forexample，hecoulddeterminetheanswerofsuchaproblemasthis:

anumbertogetherwithitsfifthpartmakes21；whatisthenumber？TheprocessbywhichtheEgyptiansolvedthisproblemseemsverycumbersometoanyoneforwhomarudimentaryknowledgeofalgebramakesitsimple，yetthemethodwhichweemploydiffersonlyinthatweareenabled，thankstoourhypotheticalx，tomakeashortcut，andtheessentialfactmustnotbeoverlookedthattheEgyptianreachedacorrectsolutionoftheproblem。Withallduedesiretogivecredit，however，thefactremainsthattheEgyptianwasbutacrudemathematician。Here，aselsewhere，itisimpossibletoadmirehimforanyhighdevelopmentoftheoreticalscience。First，last，andallthetime，hewaspractical，andthereisnothingtoshowthatthethoughtofscienceforitsownsake，forthemereloveofknowing，everenteredhishead。

Ingeneral，then，wemustadmitthattheEgyptianhadnotprogressedfarinthehardwayofabstractthinking。Heworshippedeverythingabouthimbecausehefearedtheresultoffailingtodoso。Heembalmedthedeadlestthespiritoftheneglectedonemightcometotormenthim。Eye-mindedashewas，hecametohaveanartisticsense，tolovedecorativeeffects。Butheletthesealwaystakeprecedenceoverhissenseoftruth；as，forexample，whenhemodifiedhislistsofkingsatAbydostofitthespacewhichthearchitecthadlefttobefilled；hehadnohistoricalsensetoshowtohimthattruthshouldtakeprecedenceovermeredecoration。Andeverywherehelivedinthesamehappy-go-luckyway。Helovedpersonalease，thepleasuresofthetable，theluxuriesoflife，games，recreations，festivals。Hetooknoheedforthemorrow，exceptasthemorrowmightministertohispersonalneeds。Essentiallyasensualbeing，hescarcelyconceivedthemeaningoftheintellectuallifeinthemodernsenseoftheterm。Hehadperforcelearnedsomethingsaboutastronomy，becausethesewerenecessarytohisworshipofthegods；aboutpracticalmedicine，becausethisministeredtohismaterialneeds；aboutpracticalarithmetic，becausethisaidedhiminevery-dayaffairs。Thebarerudimentsofanhistoricalsciencemaybesaidtobecrudelyoutlinedinhisdefectivelistsofkings。Butbeyondthishedidnotgo。Scienceasscience，andforitsownsake，wasunknowntohim。Hehadgodsforallmaterialfunctions，andfestivalsinhonorofeverygod；buttherewasnogoddessofmerewisdominhispantheon。TheconceptionofMinervawasreservedforthecreativegeniusofanotherpeople。

III。SCIENCEOFBABYLONIAANDASSYRIA

ThroughoutclassicalantiquityEgyptiansciencewasfamous。WeknowthatPlatospentsomeyearsinEgyptinthehopeofpenetratingtheallegedmysteriesofitsfabledlearning；andthestoryoftheEgyptianpriestwhopatronizinglyassuredSolonthattheGreekswerebutbabeswasquotedeverywherewithoutdisapproval。EvensolateasthetimeofAugustus，wefindDiodorus，theSicilian，lookingbackwithvenerationupontheOrientallearning，towhichPlinyalsoreferswithunboundedrespect。FromwhatwehaveseenofEgyptianscience，allthisfurnishesuswithasomewhatstrikingcommentaryupontheattainmentsoftheGreeksandRomansthemselves。Toreferatlengthtothiswouldbetoanticipateourpurpose；whatnowconcernsusistorecallthatallalongtherewasanothernation，orgroupofnations，thatdisputedthepalmforscientificattainments。ThisgroupofnationsfoundahomeinthevalleyoftheTigrisandEuphrates。TheirlandwasnamedMesopotamiabytheGreeks，becausealargepartofitlaybetweenthetworiversjustmentioned。ThepeoplesthemselvesarefamiliartoeveryoneastheBabyloniansandtheAssyrians。ThesepeopleswereofSemiticstock——allied，therefore，totheancientHebrewsandPhoeniciansandofthesameracialstemwiththeArameansandArabs。

ThegreatcapitaloftheBabyloniansduringthelaterperiodoftheirhistorywasthefamedcityofBabylonitself；themostfamouscapitaloftheAssyrianswasNineveh，thatcitytowhich，aseveryBible-studentwillrecall，theprophetJonahwasjourneyingwhenhehadamuch-exploitedexperience，therecordofwhichformsnopartofscientificannals。ItwasthekingsofAssyria，issuingfromtheirpalacesinNineveh，whodominatedthecivilizationofWesternAsiaduringtheheydayofHebrewhistory，andwhosedeedsaresofrequentlymentionedintheHebrewchronicles。Lateron，intheyear606B。C。，NinevehwasoverthrownbytheMedes[1]andBabylonians。Thefamouscitywascompletelydestroyed，nevertoberebuilt。Babylon，however，thoughconqueredsubsequentlybyCyrusandheldinsubjectionbyDarius，[2]thePersiankings，continuedtoholdswayasagreatworld-capitalforsomecenturies。ThelastgreathistoricaleventthatoccurredwithinitswallswasthedeathofAlexandertheGreat，whichtookplacethereintheyear322B。C。

InthetimeofHerodotusthefameofBabylonwasatitsheight，andthefatherofhistoryhasleftusamostentertainingaccountofwhathesawwhenhevisitedthewonderfulcapital。

Unfortunately，Herodotuswasnotascholarintheproperacceptanceoftheterm。HeprobablyhadnoinklingoftheBabylonianlanguage，sothevoluminousrecordsofitsliteraturewereentirelyshutofffromhisobservation。HethereforeenlightensusbutlittleregardingthescienceoftheBabylonians，thoughhisobservationsontheirpracticalcivilizationgiveusincidentalreferencesofnosmallimportance。SomewhatmoredetailedreferencestothescientificattainmentsoftheBabyloniansarefoundinthefragmentsthathavecomedowntousofthewritingsofthegreatBabylonianhistorian，Berosus，[3]whowasborninBabylonabout330B。C。，andwhowas，therefore，acontemporaryofAlexandertheGreat。

ButthewritingsofBerosusalso，oratleastsuchpartsofthemashavecomedowntous，leaveverymuchtobedesiredinpointofexplicitness。TheygivesomeglimpsesofBabylonianhistory，andtheydetailatsomelengththestrangemythicaltalesofcreationthatenteredintotheBabylonianconceptionofcosmogony——detailswhichfindtheircounterpartinthealliedrecitalsoftheHebrews。Buttakenallinall，theglimpsesoftheactualstateofChaldean[4]learning，asitwascommonlycalled，amountedtoscarcelymorethanvaguewonder-tales。NoonereallyknewjustwhatinterpretationtoputuponthesetalesuntiltheexplorersofthenineteenthcenturyhadexcavatedtheruinsoftheBabylonianandAssyriancities，bringingtolighttherelicsoftheirwonderfulcivilization。Buttheserelicsfortunatelyincludedvastnumbersofwrittendocuments，inscribedontablets，prisms，andcylindersofterra-cotta。Whennineteenth-centuryscholarshiphadpenetratedthemysteriesofthestrangescript，andferretedoutthesecretsofanunknowntongue，theworldatlastwasinpossessionofauthenticrecordsbywhichthetraditionsregardingtheBabyloniansandAssyrianscouldbetested。Thankstothesematerials，anewsciencecommonlyspokenofasAssyriologycameintobeing，andamostimportantchapterofhumanhistorywasbroughttolight。ItbecameapparentthattheGreekideasconcerningMesopotamia，thoughvagueintheextreme，werefoundedonfact。NooneanylongerquestionsthattheMesopotamiancivilizationwasfullyonaparwiththatofEgypt；indeed，itisratherheldthatsuperioritylaywiththeAsiatics。Certainly，inpointofpurelyscientificattainments，theBabylonianspassedsomewhatbeyondtheirEgyptiancompetitors。AlltheevidenceseemstosuggestalsothattheBabyloniancivilizationwasevenmoreancientthanthatofEgypt。Theprecisedatesarehereindispute；norforourpresentpurposeneedtheygreatlyconcernus。ButtheAssyrio-BabylonianrecordshavemuchgreaterhistoricalaccuracyasregardsmattersofchronologythanhavetheEgyptian，anditisbelievedthatourknowledgeoftheearlyBabylonianhistoryiscarriedback，withsomecertainty，toKingSargonofAgade，[5]

forwhomthedate3800B。C。isgenerallyaccepted；whilesomewhatvaguerrecordsgiveusglimpsesofperiodsasremoteasthesixth，perhapseventheseventhoreighthmillenniumsbeforeourera。

AtaveryearlyperiodBabylonitselfwasnotacapitalandNinevehhadnotcomeintoexistence。Theimportantcities，suchasNippurandShirpurla，weresituatedfarthertothesouth。Itisonthesiteofthesecitiesthattherecentexcavationshavebeenmade，suchasthoseoftheUniversityofPennsylvaniaexpeditionsatNippur，[6]whicharegivingusglimpsesintoremoterrecessesofthehistoricalperiod。

Evenifwedisregardthemoreproblematicalearlydates，wearestillconcernedwiththerecordsofacivilizationextendingunbrokenthroughoutaperiodofaboutfourthousandyears；theactualperiodisinallprobabilitytwiceorthricethat。

Naturallyenough，thecurrentofhistoryisnotanunbrokenstreamthroughoutthislongepoch。Itappearsthatatleasttwoutterlydifferentethnicelementsareinvolved。ApreponderanceofevidenceseemstoshowthattheearliestcivilizedinhabitantsofMesopotamiawerenotSemitic，butanalienrace，whichisnowcommonlyspokenofasSumerian。Thispeople，ofwhomwecatchglimpseschieflythroughtherecordsofitssuccessors，appearstohavebeensubjugatedoroverthrownbySemiticinvaders，who，comingperhapsfromArabia(theiroriginisindispute)，tookpossessionoftheregionoftheTigrisandEuphrates，learnedfromtheSumeriansmanyoftheusefularts，and，partlyperhapsbecauseoftheirmixedlineage，wereenabledtodevelopthemostwonderfulcivilizationofantiquity。Couldweanalyzethedetailsofthiscivilizationfromitsearliesttoitslatestperiodweshouldofcoursefindthesamechangeswhichalwaysattendracialprogressanddecay。Weshouldthenbeable，nodoubt，tospeakofcertaingoldenepochsandtheirperiodsofdecline。Toacertainmeagreextentweareabletodothisnow。Weknow，forexample，thatKingKhammurabi，wholivedabout2200B。C。，wasagreatlaw-giver，theancientprototypeofJustinian；andtheepochsofsuchAssyriankingsasSargonII。，Asshurnazirpal，Sennacherib，andAsshurbanapalstandoutwithmuchdistinctness。Yet，asawhole，therecorddoesnotenableustotracewithclearnesstheprogressofscientificthought。Atbestwecangainfewerglimpsesinthisdirectionthaninalmostanyother，foritistherecordofwarandconquestratherthanofthepeacefulartsthatcommandedtheattentionoftheancientscribe。Soindealingwiththescientificachievementsofthesepeoples，weshallperforceconsidertheirvariedcivilizationsasaunity，andattempt，asbestwemay，tosummarizetheirachievementsasawhole。Forthemostpart，weshallnotattempttodiscriminateastowhatshareinthefinalproductwasduetoSumerian，whattoBabylonian，andwhattoAssyrian。WeshallspeakofBabylonianscienceasincludingalltheseelements；anddrawingourinformationchieflyfromtherelativelylateAssyrianandBabyloniansources，which，therefore，representtheculminatingachievementsofalltheseagesofeffort，weshallattempttodiscoverwhatwastheactualstatusofMesopotamianscienceatitsclimax。Insofaraswesucceed，weshallbeabletojudgewhatscientificheritageEuropereceivedfromtheOrient；forintherecordsofBabyloniansciencewehavetodowiththeEasternmindatitsbest。LetusturntothespecificinquiryastotheachievementsoftheChaldeanscientistwhosefamesodazzledtheeyesofhiscontemporariesoftheclassicworld。

Ourfirstconcernnaturallyisastronomy，thisbeinghere，asinEgypt，thefirst-bornandthemostimportantofthesciences。ThefameoftheChaldeanastronomerwasindeedwhatchieflycommandedtheadmirationoftheGreeks，anditwasthroughtheresultsofastronomicalobservationsthatBabyloniatransmittedhermostimportantinfluencestotheWesternworld。"OurdivisionoftimeisofBabylonianorigin，"saysHornmel；[7]"toBabyloniaweowetheweekofsevendays，withthenamesoftheplanetsforthedaysoftheweek，andthedivisionintohoursandmonths。"Hencethealmostpersonalinterestwhichweofto-daymustneedsfeelintheeffortsoftheBabylonianstar-gazer。

Itmustnotbesupposed，however，thattheChaldeanastronomerhadmadeanyveryextraordinaryadvancesupontheknowledgeoftheEgyptian"watchersofthenight。"Afterall，itrequiredpatientobservationratherthananypeculiargeniusintheobservertonoteinthecourseoftimesuchbroadastronomicalconditionsastheregularityofthemoon’sphases，andtherelationofthelunarperiodstothelongerperiodicaloscillationsofthesun。Norcouldthecuriouswanderingsoftheplanetsescapetheattentionofevenamoderatelykeenobserver。

ThechiefdistinctionbetweentheChaldeanandEgyptianastronomersappearstohaveconsistedintherelativeimportancetheyattachedtovariousofthephenomenawhichtheybothobserved。TheEgyptian，aswehaveseen，centredhisattentionuponthesun。Thatluminarywastheabodeofoneofhismostimportantgods。Hisworshipwasessentiallysolar。TheBabylonian，ontheotherhand，appearstohavebeenpeculiarlyimpressedwiththeimportanceofthemoon。Hecouldnot，ofcourse，overlooktheattention-compellingfactofthesolaryear；

buthisunitoftimewasthelunarperiodofthirtydays，andhisyearconsistedoftwelvelunarperiods，or360days。Hewasperfectlyaware，however，thatthisperioddidnotcoincidewiththeactualyear；buttherelativeunimportancewhichheascribedtothesolaryearisevidencedbythefactthatheinterpolatedanaddedmonthtoadjustthecalendaronlyonceinsixyears。

Indeed，itwouldappearthattheBabyloniansandAssyriansdidnotadoptpreciselythesamemethodofadjustingthecalendar，sincetheBabylonianshadtwointercularmonthscalledElulandAdar，whereastheAssyrianshadonlyasinglesuchmonth，calledthesecondAdar。[8](TheVe’AdaroftheHebrews。)Thisdiversityfurtheremphasizesthefactthatitwasthelunarperiodwhichreceivedchiefattention，theadjustmentofthisperiodwiththesolarseasonsbeinganecessaryexpedientofsecondaryimportance。ItisheldthattheselunarperiodshaveoftenbeenmadetodoserviceforyearsintheBabyloniancomputationsandinthealliedcomputationsoftheearlyHebrews。ThelivesoftheHebrewpatriarchs，forexample，asrecordedintheBible，areperhapsreckonedinlunar"years。"Dividedbytwelve，the"years"

ofMethuselahaccordfairlywiththeusualexperienceofmankind。

Yet，ontheotherhand，theconvenienceofthesolaryearincomputinglongperiodsoftimewasnotunrecognized，sincethisperiodisutilizedinreckoningthereignsoftheAssyriankings。

Itmaybeaddedthatthereignofaking"wasnotreckonedfromthedayofhisaccession，butfromtheAssyriannewyear’sday，eitherbeforeorafterthedayofaccession。Theredoesnotappeartohavebeenanyfixedruleastowhichnewyear’sdayshouldbechosen；butfromthenumberofknowncases，itappearstohavebeenthegeneralpracticetocountthereigningyearsfromthenewyear’sdaynearesttheaccession，andtocalltheperiodbetweentheaccessiondayandthefirstnewyear’sday’thebeginningofthereign，’whentheyearfromthenewyear’sdaywascalledthefirstyear，andthefollowingoneswerebroughtsuccessivelyfromit。Notwithstanding，inthedatesofseveralAssyrianandBabyloniansovereignstherearecasesoftheyearofaccessionbeingconsideredasthefirstyear，thusgivingtworeckoningsforthereignsofvariousmonarchs，amongothers，Shalmaneser，Sennacherib，Nebuchadrezzar。"[9]ThisuncertaintyastotheyearsofreckoningagainemphasizesthefactthatthesolaryeardidnothavefortheAssyrianchronologyquitethesamesignificancethatithasforus。

TheAssyrianmonthcommencedontheeveningwhenthenewmoonwasfirstobserved，or，incasethemoonwasnotvisible，thenewmonthstartedthirtydaysafterthelastmonth。Sincetheactuallunarperiodisabouttwenty-nineandone-halfdays，apracticaladjustmentwasrequiredbetweenthemonthsthemselves，andthiswasprobablyeffectedbycountingalternatemonthsasOnly29

daysinlength。Mr。R。CampbellThompson[10]isledbyhisstudiesoftheastrologicaltabletstoemphasizethisfact。Hebelievesthat"theobjectoftheastrologicalreportswhichrelatedtotheappearanceofthemoonandsunwastohelpdetermineandforetellthelengthofthelunarmonth。"Mr。

Thompsonbelievesalsothatthereisevidencetoshowthattheintercularymonthwasaddedataperiodlessthansixyears。Inpointoffact，itdoesnotappeartobequiteclearlyestablishedastopreciselyhowtheadjustmentofdayswiththelunarmonths，andlunarmonthswiththesolaryear，waseffected。Itisclear，however，accordingtoSmith，"thatthefirst28daysofeverymonthweredividedintofourweeksofsevendayseach；theseventh，fourteenth，twenty-first，twenty-eighthdaysrespectivelybeingSabbaths，andthattherewasageneralprohibitionofworkonthesedays。"Here，ofcourse，isthefoundationoftheHebrewsystemofSabbaticaldayswhichwehaveinherited。Thesacrednessofthenumbersevenitself——thebeliefinwhichhasnotbeenquiteshakenoffeventothisday——wasdeducedbytheAssyrianastronomerfromhisobservationofthesevenplanetarybodies——namely，Sin(themoon)，Samas(thesun)，Umunpawddu(Jupiter)，Dilbat(Venus)，Kaimanu(Saturn)，Gudud(Mercury)，Mustabarru-mutanu(Mars)。[11]Twelvelunarperiods，makingupapproximatelythesolaryear，gavepeculiarimportancetothenumbertwelvealso。Thusthezodiacwasdividedintotwelvesignswhichastronomersofallsubsequenttimeshavecontinuedtorecognize；andtheduodecimalsystemofcountingtookprecedencewiththeBabylonianmathematiciansoverthemoreprimitiveand，asitseemstous，moresatisfactorydecimalsystem。

AnotherdiscrepancybetweentheBabylonianandEgyptianyearsappearsinthefactthattheBabyloniannewyeardatesfromabouttheperiodofthevernalequinoxandnotfromthesolstice。

LockyerassociatesthiswiththefactthattheperiodicalinundationoftheTigrisandEuphratesoccursabouttheequinoctialperiod，whereas，aswehaveseen，theNilefloodcomesatthetimeofthesolstice。ItisbutnaturalthatsoimportantaphenomenonastheNilefloodshouldmakeastrongimpressionuponthemindsofapeoplelivinginavalley。Thefactthatoccasionalexcessiveinundationshaveledtomostdisastrousresultsisevidencedintheincorporationofstoriesofthealmosttotaldestructionofmankindbysuchfloodsamongthemythtalesofallpeopleswhoresideinvalleycountries。ThefloodingoftheTigrisandEuphrateshadnot，itistrue，quitethesamesignificancefortheMesopotamiansthattheNilefloodhadfortheEgyptians。Neverthelessitwasamostimportantphenomenon，andmayveryreadilybeimaginedtohavebeenthemosttangibleindextotheseasons。Butinrecognizingthetimeoftheinundationsandthevernalequinox，theAssyriansdidnotdethronethemoonfromitsaccustomedprecedence，fortheyearwasreckonedascommencingnotpreciselyatthevernalequinox，butatthenewmoonnextbeforetheequinox。

ASTROLOGY

Beyondmarkingtheseasons，thechiefintereststhatactuatedtheBabylonianastronomerinhisobservationswereastrological。

AfterquotingDiodorustotheeffectthattheBabylonianpriestsobservedthepositionofcertainstarsinordertocasthoroscopes，ThompsontellsusthatfromaveryearlydaytheverynameChaldeanbecamesynonymouswithmagician。Headdsthat"fromMesopotamia，bywayofGreeceandRome，acertainamountofBabylonianastrologymadeitswayamongthenationsofthewest，anditisquiteprobablethatmanysuperstitionswhichwecommonlyrecordasthepeculiarproductofwesterncivilizationtooktheiroriginfromthoseoftheearlydwellersonthealluviallandsofMesopotamia。OneAssurbanipal，kingofAssyriaB。C。668-626，addedtotheroyallibraryatNinevehhiscontributionoftablets，whichincludedmanyseriesofdocumentswhichrelatedexclusivelytotheastrologyoftheancientBabylonians，whointurnhadborroweditwithmodificationsfromtheSumerianinvadersofthecountry。Amongthesemustbementionedtheserieswhichwascommonlycalled’theDayofBel，’

andwhichwasdecreedbythelearnedtohavebeenwritteninthetimeofthegreatSargonI。，kingofAgade，3800B。C。Withsuchancientworksasthesetoguidethem，theprofessionofdeducingomensfromdailyeventsreachedsuchapitchofimportanceinthelastAssyrianEmpirethatasystemofmakingperiodicalreportscameintobeing。Bythesethekingwasinformedofalltheoccurrencesintheheavensandonearth，andtheresultsofastrologicalstudiesinrespecttoafterevents。Theheadsoftheastrologicalprofessionweremenofhighrankandposition，andtheirofficewashereditary。ThevarietyofinformationcontainedinthesereportsisbestgatheredfromthefactthattheyweresentfromcitiesasfarremovedfromeachotherasAssurinthenorthandErechinthesouth，anditcanonlybeassumedthattheyweredespatchedbyrunners，ormenmountedonswifthorses。

AsreportsalsocamefromDilbat，Kutba，Nippur，andBursippa，allcitiesofancientfoundation，thekingwasprobablywellacquaintedwiththegeneralcourseofeventsinhisempire。"[12]

Fromcertainpassagesintheastrologicaltablets，ThompsondrawstheinterestingconclusionthattheChaldeanastronomerswereacquaintedwithsomekindofamachineforreckoningtime。Hefindsinoneofthetabletsaphrasewhichheinterpretstomeanmeasure-governor，andheinfersfromthistheexistenceofakindofacalculator。HecallsattentionalsotothefactthatSextusEmpiricus[13]statesthattheclepsydrawasknowntotheChaldeans，andthatHerodotusassertsthattheGreeksborrowedcertainmeasuresoftimefromtheBabylonians。HefindsfurthercorroborationinthefactthattheBabylonianshadatime-measurebywhichtheydividedthedayandthenight；ameasurecalledkasbu，whichcontainedtwohours。Inareportrelatingtothedayofthevernalequinox，itisstatedthattherearesixkasbuofthedayandsixkasbuofthenight。

Whiletheastrologersdeducedtheiromensfromallthecelestialbodiesknowntothem，theychieflygaveattentiontothemoon，notingwithgreatcaretheshapeofitshorns，anddeducingsuchaconclusionasthat"ifthehornsarepointedthekingwillovercomewhateverhegoreth，"andthat"whenthemoonislowatitsappearance，thesubmission(ofthepeople)ofafarcountrywillcome。"[14]Therelationsofthemoonandsunwereasourceofconstantobservation，itbeingnotedwhetherthesunandmoonwereseentogetherabovethehorizon；whetheronesetastheotherrose，andthelike。Andwhateverthephenomena，therewasalways，ofcourse，adirectassociationbetweensuchphenomenaandthewell-beingofhumankind——inparticulartheking，atwhoseinstance，anddoubtlessatwhoseexpense，theobservationswerecarriedout。

Fromomensassociatedwiththeheavenlybodiesitisbutasteptoomensbaseduponotherphenomenaofnature，andwe，shallseeinamomentthattheBabylonianprophetsmadefreeuseoftheiropportunitiesinthisdirectionalso。Butbeforeweturnfromthefieldofastronomy，itwillbewelltoinformourselvesastowhatsystemtheChaldeanastronomerhadinventedinexplanationofthemechanicsoftheuniverse。Ouranswertothisinquiryisnotquiteasdefiniteascouldbedesired，thevaguenessoftherecords，nodoubt，coincidingwiththelikevaguenessinthemindsoftheChaldeansthemselves。Sofaraswecaninterpretthesomewhatmysticalreferencesthathavecomedowntous，however，theBabyloniancosmologywouldseemtohaverepresentedtheearthasacircularplanesurroundedbyagreatcircularriver，beyondwhichroseanimpregnablebarrierofmountains，andrestinguponaninfiniteseaofwaters。Thematerialvaultoftheheavenswassupposedtofindsupportupontheoutlyingcircleofmountains。

Buttheprecisemechanismthroughwhichtheobservedrevolutionoftheheavenlybodieswaseffectedremainshere，aswiththeEgyptiancosmology，somewhatconjectural。Thesimplefactwouldappeartobethat，fortheChaldeansasfortheEgyptians，despitetheirmostcarefulobservationsofthetangiblephenomenaoftheheavens，noreallysatisfactorymechanicalconceptionofthecosmoswasattainable。WeshallseeinduecoursebywhatfalteringstepstheEuropeanimaginationadvancedfromthecrudeideasofEgyptandBabyloniatotherelativelyclearvisionofNewtonandLaplace。

WeturnnowfromthefieldoftheastrologertothecloselyalliedprovinceofChaldeanmagic——aprovincewhichincludestheother；which，indeed，issoall-encompassingasscarcelytoleaveanyphaseofBabylonianthoughtoutsideitsbounds。

Thetabletshavingtodowithomens，exorcisms，andthelikemagicpracticesmakeupanastonishinglylargeproportionoftheBabylonianrecords。InviewingthemitishardtoavoidtheconclusionthatthesuperstitionswhichtheyevidencedabsolutelydominatedthelifeoftheBabyloniansofeverydegree。Yetitmustnotbeforgottenthatthegreatestinconsistencieseverywhereexistbetweenthesuperstitiousbeliefsofapeopleandthepracticalobservancesofthatpeople。Nootherproblemissodifficultforthehistorianasthatwhichconfrontshimwhenheendeavorstopenetratethemysteriesofanalienreligion；andwhen，asinthepresentcase，thesuperstitionsinvolvedhavebeentransmittedfromgenerationtogeneration，theirexactpracticalphasesasinterpretedbyanyparticulargenerationmustbesomewhatproblematical。ThetabletsuponwhichourknowledgeoftheseomensisbasedaremanyofthemfromthelibrariesofthelaterkingsofNineveh；buttheomensthemselvesare，insuchcases，inscribedintheoriginalAccadianforminwhichtheyhavecomedownfromremoteages，accompaniedbyanAssyriantranslation。Thusthesuperstitionsinvolvedhadbackofthemhundredsofyears，eventhousandsofyears，ofprecedent；andweneednotdoubtthattheideaswithwhichtheyareassociatedwereinterwovenwithalmosteverythoughtanddeedofthelifeofthepeople。ProfessorSayceassuresusthattheAssyriansandBabylonianscountednofewerthanthreehundredspiritsofheaven，andsixhundredspiritsofearth。"LiketheJewsoftheTalmud，"hesays，"theybelievedthattheworldwasswarmingwithnoxiousspirits，whoproducedthevariousdiseasestowhichmanisliable，andmightbeswallowedwiththefoodanddrinkwhichsupportlife。"FoxTalbotwasinclinedtobelievethatexorcismsweretheexclusivemeansusedtodriveawaythetormentingspirits。Thisseemsunlikely，consideringtheuniformassociationofdrugswiththemagicalpracticesamongtheirpeople。Yetthereiscertainlyastrangesilenceofthetabletsinregardtomedicine。Talbottellsusthatsometimesdivineimageswerebroughtintothesick-chamber，andwrittentextstakenfromholybookswereplacedonthewallsandboundaroundthesickman’smembers。Ifthesefailed，recoursewashadtotheinfluenceofthemamit，whichtheevilpowerswereunabletoresist。Onatablet，writtenintheAccadianlanguageonly，theAssyrianversionbeingtaken，however，wasfoundthefollowing:

1。Takeawhitecloth。Initplacethemamit，2。inthesickman’srighthand。

3。Takeablackcloth，4。wrapitaroundhislefthand。

5。Thenalltheevilspirits(alonglistofthemisgiven)

6。andthesinswhichhehascommitted7。shallquittheirholdofhim8。andshallneverreturn。

Thesymbolismoftheblackclothinthelefthandseemsevident。

Thedyingmanrepentsofhisformerevildeeds，andheputshistrustinholiness，symbolizedbythewhiteclothinhisrighthand。Thenfollowsomeobscurelinesaboutthespirits:

1。Theirheadsshallremovefromhishead。

2。Theirheadsshallletgohishands。

3。Theirfeetshalldepartfromhisfeet。

Whichperhapsmaybeexplainedthus:welearnfromanothertabletthatthevariousclassesofevilspiritstroubleddifferentpartsofthebody；someinjuredthehead，somethehandsandthefeet，etc。，thereforethepassagebeforemaymean"thespiritswhosepowerisoverthehandshallloosetheirhandsfromhis，"etc。

"But，"concludesTalbot，"Icanoffernodecidedopinionuponsuchobscurepointsoftheirsuperstition。"[15]

Inregardtoevilspirits，aselsewhere，thenumbersevenhadapeculiarsignificance，itbeingheldthatthatnumberofspiritsmightenterintoamantogether。Talbothastranslated[16]a"wildchant"whichhenames"TheSongoftheSevenSpirits。"

1。Thereareseven！Thereareseven！

2。Inthedepthsoftheoceanthereareseven！

3。Intheheightsoftheheaventhereareseven！

4。Intheoceanstreaminapalacetheywereborn。

5。Maletheyarenot:femaletheyarenot！

6。Wivestheyhavenot！Childrenarenotborntothem！

7。Rulestheyhavenot！Governmenttheyknownot！

8。Prayerstheyhearnot！

9。Thereareseven！Thereareseven！Twiceoverthereareseven！

Thetabletsmakefrequentallusiontothesesevenspirits。Onestartsthus:

1。Thegod(——)shallstandbyhisbedside；

2。Thesesevenevilspiritsheshallrootoutandshallexpelthemfromhisbody，3。andthesesevenshallneverreturntothesickmanagain。[17]

Altogethersimilararetheexorcismsintendedtowardoffdisease。ProfessorSaycehaspublishedtranslationsofsomeofthese。[18]Eachoftheseendswiththesamephrase，andtheydifferonlyinregardtotheparticularmaladiesfromwhichfreedomisdesired。Onereads:

"Fromwasting，fromwantofhealth，fromtheevilspiritoftheulcer，fromthespreadingquinsyofthegullet，fromtheviolentulcer，fromthenoxiousulcer，maythekingofheavenpreserve，maythekingofearthpreserve。"

Anotherisphrasedthus:

"Fromthecruelspiritofthehead，fromthestrongspiritofthehead，fromtheheadspiritthatdepartsnot，fromtheheadspiritthatcomesnotforth，fromtheheadspiritthatwillnotgo，fromthenoxiousheadspirit，maythekingofheavenpreserve，maythekingofearthpreserve。"

Astoomenshavingtodowiththeaffairsofeverydaylifethenumberislegion。Forexample，Mopperthaspublished，intheJournalAsiatique，[19]thetranslationofatabletwhichcontainsonitstwosidesseveralscoresofbirth-portents，afewofwhichmaybequotedatrandom:

"Whenawomanbearsachildandithastheearsofalion，astrongkingisinthecountry。""Whenawomanbearsachildandithasabird’sbeak，thatcountryisoppressed。""Whenawomanbearsachildanditsrighthandiswanting，thatcountrygoestodestruction。""Whenawomanbearsachildanditsfeetarewanting，theroadsofthecountryarecut；thathouseisdestroyed。""Whenawomanbearsachildandatthetimeofitsbirthitsbeardisgrown，floodsareinthecountry。""Whenawomanbearsachildandatthetimeofitsbirthitsmouthisopenandspeaks，thereispestilenceinthecountry，theAir-godinundatesthecropsofthecountry，injuryinthecountryiscaused。"

Someoftheseportents，itwillbeobserved，arenotinmuchdangerofrealization，anditiscurioustosurmisebywhatstretchoftheimaginationtheycanhavebeeninvented。Thereis，forexample，onthesametabletjustquoted，onereferencewhichassuresusthat"whenasheepbearsaliontheforcesmarchmultitudinously；thekinghasnotarival。"Thereareotheromens，however，thataresoeasyofrealizationastoleadonetosupposethatanyBabylonianwhoregardedallthesuperstitioussignsmusthavebeeninconstantterror。ThusatablettranslatedbyProfessorSayce[20]givesalonglistofomensfurnishedbydogs，inwhichweareassuredthat:

1。Ifayellowdogentersintothepalace，exitfromthatpalacewillbebaleful。

2。Ifadogtothepalacegoes，andonathroneliesdown，thatpalaceisburned。

3。ifablackdogintoatempleenters，thefoundationofthattempleisnotstable。

4。Iffemaledogsonelitterbear，destructiontothecity。

Itisneedlesstocontinuethesecitations，sincetheybutreiterateendlesslythesamestory。Itisinterestingtorecall，however，thattheobservationsofanimatenature，whichweredoubtlesssuperstitiousintheirmotive，hadgiventheBabylonianssomeinklingsofaknowledgeofclassification。Thus，accordingtoMenant，[21]someofthetabletsfromNineveh，whicharewritten，asusual，inboththeSumerianandAssyrianlanguages，andwhich，therefore，likepracticallyallAssyrianbooks，drawupontheknowledgeofoldBabylonia，givelistsofanimals，makinganattemptatclassification。Thedog，lion，andwolfareplacedinonecategory；theox，sheep，andgoatinanother；thedogfamilyitselfisdividedintovariousraces，asthedomesticdog，thecoursingdog，thesmalldog，thedogofElan，etc。Similarattemptsatclassificationofbirdsarefound。

Thus，birdsofrapidflight，sea-birds，andmarsh-birdsaredifferentiated。Insectsareclassifiedaccordingtohabit；thosethatattackplants，animals，clothing，orwood。Vegetablesseemtobeclassifiedaccordingtotheirusefulness。Onetabletenumeratestheusesofwoodaccordingtoitsadaptabilityfortimber-workofpalaces，orconstructionofvessels，themakingofimplementsofhusbandry，orevenfurniture。Mineralsoccupyalongseriesinthesetablets。Theyareclassedaccordingtotheirqualities，goldandsilveroccupyingadivisionapart；preciousstonesforminganotherseries。OurBabylonians，then，mustbecreditedwiththedevelopmentofarudimentaryscienceofnaturalhistory。

WehavejustseenthatmedicalpracticeintheBabylonianworldwasstrangelyunderthecloudofsuperstition。Butitshouldbeunderstoodthatourestimate，throughlackofcorrectdata，probablydoesmuchlessthanjusticetotheattainmentsofthephysicianofthetime。Asalreadynoted，theexistingtabletschancenottothrowmuchlightonthesubject。Itisknown，however，thatthepractitionerofmedicineoccupiedapositionofsome，authorityandresponsibility。Theproofofthisisfoundintheclausesrelatingtothelegalstatusofthephysicianwhicharecontainedinthenowfamouscode[22]oftheBabylonianKingKhamurabi，whoreignedabout2300yearsbeforeourera。Theseclauses，thoughthrowingnolightonthescientificattainmentsofthephysicianoftheperiod，aretoocurioustobeomitted。

Theyareclauses215to227ofthecelebratedcode，andareasfollows:

215。Ifadoctorhastreatedamanforaseverewoundwithalancetofbronzeandhascuredtheman，orhasopenedatumorwithabronzelancetandhascuredtheman’seye，heshallreceivetenshekelsofsilver。

216。Ifitwasafreedman，heshallreceivefiveshekelsofsilver。

217。Ifitwasaman’sslave，theowneroftheslaveshallgivethedoctortwoshekelsofsilver。

218。Ifaphysicianhastreatedafree-bornmanforaseverewoundwithalancetofbronzeandhascausedthemantodie，orhasopenedatumorofthemanwithalancetofbronzeandhasdestroyedhiseye，hishandsoneshallcutoff。

219。Ifthedoctorhastreatedtheslaveofafreedmanforaseverewoundwithabronzelancetandhascausedhimtodie，heshallgivebackslaveforslave。

220。Ifhehasopenedhistumorwithabronzelancetandhasruinedhiseye，heshallpaythehalfofhispriceinmoney。

221。Ifadoctorhascuredthebrokenlimbofaman，orhashealedhissickbody，thepatientshallpaythedoctorfiveshekelsofsilver。

222。Ifitwasafreedman，heshallgivethreeshekelsofsilver。

223。Ifitwasaman’sslave，theowneroftheslaveshallgivetwoshekelsofsilvertothedoctor。

224。Ifthedoctorofoxenandasseshastreatedanoxoranassforagravewoundandhascuredit，theowneroftheoxortheassshallgivetothedoctorashispayone-sixthofashekelofsilver。

225。Ifhehastreatedanoxoranassforaseverewoundandhascauseditsdeath，heshallpayone-fourthofitspricetotheowneroftheoxortheass。

226。Ifabarber-surgeon，withoutconsentoftheownerofaslave，hasbrandedtheslavewithanindeliblemark，oneshallcutoffthehandsofthatbarber。

227。Ifanyonedeceivethesurgeon-barberandmakehimbrandaslavewithanindeliblemark，oneshallkillthatmanandburyhiminhishouse。Thebarbershallswear，"Ididnotmarkhimwittingly，"andheshallbeguiltless。

BeforeturningfromtheOrientalworlditisperhapsworthwhiletoattempttoestimatesomewhatspecificallytheworld-influenceofthename，Babylonianscience。Perhapswecannotbettergainanideaastotheestimateputuponthatsciencebytheclassicalworldthanthroughasomewhatextendedquotationfromaclassicalauthor。DiodorusSiculus，who，asalreadynoted，livedataboutthetimeofAugustus，andwho，therefore，scannedinperspectivetheentiresweepofclassicalGreekhistory，hasleftusastrikingsummarywhichisdoublyvaluablebecauseofitscomparisonsofBabylonianwithGreekinfluence。HavingviewedthescienceofBabyloniainthelightoftheinterpretationsmadepossiblebytherecentstudyoforiginaldocuments，wearepreparedtodrawourownconclusionsfromthestatementsoftheGreekhistorian。HereishisestimateinthewordsofthequainttranslationmadebyPhilemonHollandintheyear1700:[23]

"TheybeingthemostancientBabylonians，holdthesamestationanddignityintheCommon-wealthastheEgyptianPriestsdoinEgypt:ForbeingdeputedtoDivineOffices，theyspendalltheirTimeinthestudyofPhilosophy，andareespeciallyfamousfortheArtofAstrology。TheyaremightilygiventoDivination，andforetelfutureEvents，andimploythemselveseitherbyPurifications，Sacrifices，orotherInchantmentstoavertEvils，orprocuregoodFortuneandSuccess。TheyareskilfullikewiseintheArtofDivination，bytheflyingofBirds，andinterpretingofDreamsandProdigies:AndarereputedastrueOracles(indeclaringwhatwillcometopass)bytheirexactanddiligentviewingtheIntralsoftheSacrifices。ButtheyattainnottothisKnowledgeinthesamemannerastheGreciansdo；fortheChaldeanslearnitbyTraditionfromtheirAncestors，theSonfromtheFather，whoareallinthemeantimefreefromallotherpublickOfficesandAttendances；andbecausetheirParentsaretheirTutors，theybothlearneverythingwithoutEnvy，andrelywithmoreconfidenceuponthetruthofwhatistaughtthem；andbeingtrain’dupinthisLearning，fromtheirveryChildhood，theybecomemostfamousPhilosophers，(thatAgebeingmostcapableofLearning，whereintheyspendmuchoftheirtime)。ButtheGreciansforthemostpartcomerawtothisstudy，unfittedandunprepar’d，andarelongbeforetheyattaintotheKnowledgeofthisPhilosophy:AndaftertheyhavespentsomesmalltimeinthisStudy，theyaremanytimescall’doffandforc’dtoleaveit，inordertogetaLivelihoodandSubsistence。Andalthoughsome，fewdoindustriouslyapplythemselvestoPhilosophy，yetforthesakeofGain，theseveryMenareopinionative，andeverandanonstartingnewandhighPoints，andneverfixinthestepsoftheirAncestors。ButtheBarbarianskeepingconstantlyclosetothesamething，attaintoaperfectanddistinctKnowledgeineveryparticular。

"ButtheGrecians，cunninglycatchingatallOpportunitiesofGain，makenewSectsandParties，andbytheircontraryOpinionswranglingandquarellingconcerningthechiefestPoints，leadtheirScholarsintoaMaze；andbeinguncertainanddoubtfulwhattopitchuponforcertaintruth，theirMindsarefluctuatingandinsuspenceallthedaysoftheirLives，andunabletogiveacertainassentuntoanything。ForifanyManwillbutexaminethemosteminentSectsofthePhilosophers，heshallfindthemmuchdifferingamongthemselves，andevenopposingoneanotherinthemostweightypartsoftheirPhilosophy。ButtoreturntotheChaldeans，theyholdthattheWorldiseternal，whichhadneitheranycertainBeginning，norshallhaveanyEnd；butallagree，thatallthingsareorder’d，andthisbeautifulFabrickissupportedbyaDivineProvidence，andthattheMotionsoftheHeavensarenotperform’dbychanceandoftheirownaccord，butbyacertainanddeterminateWillandAppointmentoftheGods。

"ThereforefromalongobservationoftheStars，andanexactKnowledgeofthemotionsandinfluencesofeveryoneofthem，whereintheyexcelallothers，theyfortelmanythingsthataretocometopass。

"TheysaythattheFiveStarswhichsomecallPlanets，buttheyInterpreters，aremostworthyofConsideration，bothfortheirmotionsandtheirremarkableinfluences，especiallythatwhichtheGrecianscallSaturn。Thebrightestofthemall，andwhichoftenportendsmanyandgreatEvents，theycallSol，theotherFourtheynameMars，Venus，Mercury，andJupiter，withourownCountryAstrologers。TheygivetheNameofInterpreterstotheseStars，becausetheseonlybyapeculiarMotiondoportendthingstocome，andinsteadofJupiters，dodeclaretoMenbefore-handthegood-willoftheGods；whereastheotherStars(notbeingofthenumberofthePlanets)haveaconstantordinarymotion。

FutureEvents(theysay)arepointedatsometimesbytheirRising，andsometimesbytheirSetting，andatothertimesbytheirColour，asmaybeexperienc’dbythosethatwilldiligentlyobserveit；sometimesforeshewingHurricanes，atothertimesTempestuousRains，andthenagainexceedingDroughts。Bythese，theysay，areoftenportendedtheappearanceofComets，EclipsesoftheSunandMoon，EarthquakesandallotherthevariousChangesandremarkableeffectsintheAir，bodinggoodandbad，notonlytoNationsingeneral，buttoKingsandPrivatePersonsinparticular。UnderthecourseofthesePlanets，theysayareThirtyStars，whichtheycallCounsellingGods，halfofwhomobservewhatisdoneundertheEarth，andtheotherhalftakenoticeoftheactionsofMenupontheEarth，andwhatistransactedintheHeavens。OnceeveryTenDaysspace(theysay)

oneofthehighestOrderoftheseStarsdescendstothemthatareofthelowest，likeaMessengersentfromthemabove；andthenagainanotherascendsfromthosebelowtothemabove，andthatthisistheirconstantnaturalmotiontocontinueforever。ThechiefoftheseGods，theysay，areTwelveinnumber，toeachofwhichtheyattributeaMonth，andoneSignoftheTwelveintheZodiack。

"ThroughtheseTwelveSignstheSun，Moon，andtheotherFivePlanetsruntheirCourse。TheSuninaYearstime，andtheMooninthespaceofaMonth。ToeveryoneofthePlanetstheyassigntheirownproperCourses，whichareperform’dvariouslyinlesserorshortertimeaccordingastheirseveralmotionsarequickerorslower。TheseStars，theysay，haveagreatinfluencebothastogoodandbadinMensNativities；andfromtheconsiderationoftheirseveralNatures，maybeforeknownwhatwillbefalMenafterwards。AstheyforetoldthingstocometootherKingsformerly，sotheydidtoAlexanderwhoconquer’dDarius，andtohisSuccessorsAntigonusandSeleucusNicator；andaccordinglythingsfelloutastheydeclar’d；whichweshallrelateparticularlyhereafterinamoreconvenienttime。TheytelllikewiseprivateMentheirFortunessocertainly，thatthosewhohavefoundthethingtruebyExperience，haveesteem’ditaMiracle，andabovethereachofmantoperform。OutoftheCircleoftheZodiacktheydescribeFourandTwentyStars，TwelvetowardstheNorthPole，andasmanytotheSouth。

"Thosewhichwesee，theyassigntotheliving；andtheotherthatdonotappear，theyconceiveareConstellationsfortheDead；andtheytermthemJudgesofallthings。TheMoon，theysay，isinthelowestOrb；andbeingthereforenexttotheEarth(becausesheissosmall)，shefinishesherCourseinalittletime，notthroughtheswiftnessofherMotion，buttheshortnessofherSphear。Inthatwhichtheyaffirm(thatshehasbutaborrow’dlight，andthatwhensheiseclips’d，it’scaus’dbytheinterpositionoftheshadowoftheEarth)theyagreewiththeGrecians。

"TheirRulesandNotionsconcerningtheEclipsesoftheSunarebutweakandmean，whichtheydarenotpositivelyforetel，norfixacertaintimeforthem。TheyhavelikewiseOpinionsconcerningtheEarthpeculiartothemselves，affirmingittoresembleaBoat，andtobehollow，toprovewhich，andotherthingsrelatingtotheframeoftheWorld，theyaboundinArguments；buttogiveaparticularAccountof’em，weconceivewouldbeathingforeigntoourHistory。ButthisanyManmayjustlyandtrulysay，ThattheChaldeansfarexceedallotherMenintheKnowledgeofAstrology，andhavestudy’ditmostofanyotherArtorScience:ButthenumberofyearsduringwhichtheChaldeanssay，thoseoftheirProfessionhavegiventhemselvestothestudyofthisnaturalPhilosophy，isincredible；forwhenAlexanderwasinAsia，theyreckon’dupFourHundredandSeventyThousandYearssincetheyfirstbegantoobservetheMotionsoftheStars。"

LetusnowsupplementthisestimateofBabylonianinfluencewithanotherestimatewritteninourownday，andquotedbyoneofthemostrecenthistoriansofBabyloniaandAssyria。[24]TheestimateinquestionisthatofCanonRawlinsoninhisGreatOrientalMonarchies。[25]OfBabyloniahesays:

"Herswasapparentlythegeniuswhichexcogitatedanalphabet；

workedoutthesimplerproblemsofarithmetic；inventedimplementsformeasuringthelapseoftime；conceivedtheideaofraisingenormousstructureswiththepoorestofallmaterials，clay；discoveredtheartofpolishing，boring，andengravinggems；reproducedwithtruthfulnesstheoutlinesofhumanandanimalforms；attainedtohighperfectionintextilefabrics；

studiedwithsuccessthemotionsoftheheavenlybodies；

conceivedofgrammarasascience；elaboratedasystemoflaw；

sawthevalueofanexactchronology——inalmosteverybranchofsciencemadeabeginning，thusrenderingitcomparativelyeasyforothernationstoproceedwiththesuperstructure……ItwasfromtheEast，notfromEgypt，thatGreecederivedherarchitecture，hersculpture，herscience，herphilosophy，hermathematicalknowledge——inaword，herintellectuallife。AndBabylonwasthesourcetowhichtheentirestreamofEasterncivilizationmaybetraced。Itisscarcelytoomuchtosaythat，butforBabylon，realcivilizationmightnotyethavedawnedupontheearth。"

Consideringthataperiodofalmosttwothousandyearsseparatesthetimesofwritingofthesetwoestimates，theestimatesthemselvesaresingularlyinunison。TheyshowthatthegreatestofOrientalnationshasnotsufferedinreputationatthehandsofposterity。ItisindeedalmostimpossibletocontemplatethemonumentsofBabylonianandAssyriancivilizationthatarenowpreservedintheEuropeanandAmericanmuseumswithoutbecomingenthusiastic。ThatcertainlywasawonderfulcivilizationwhichhasleftusthetabletsonwhichareinscribedthelawsofaKhamurabiontheonehand，andthearttreasuresofthepalaceofanAsshurbanipalontheother。YetacandidconsiderationofthescientificattainmentsoftheBabyloniansandAssyrianscanscarcelyarouseustoalikeenthusiasm。Inconsideringthesubjectwehaveseenthat，sofaraspurescienceisconcerned，theeffortsoftheBabyloniansandAssyrianschieflycentredaboutthesubjectsofastrologyandmagic。Withtherecordsoftheirghost-hauntedsciencefreshinmind，onemightbeforgivenforamomentarydesiretotakeissuewithCanonRawlinson’swords。WeareassuredthatthescientificattainmentsofEuropearealmostsolelytobecreditedtoBabyloniaandnottoEgypt，butweshouldnotforgetthatPlato，thegreatestoftheGreekthinkers，wenttoEgyptandnottoBabyloniatopursuehisstudieswhenhewishedtopenetratethesecretsofOrientalscienceandphilosophy。Clearly，then，classicalGreecedidnotconsiderBabyloniaashavingamonopolyofscientificknowledge，andweofto-day，whenweattempttoweighthenewevidencethathascometousinrecentgenerationswiththeBabylonianrecordsthemselves，findthatsome，atleast，oftheheritagesforwhichBabyloniahasbeenpraisedareofmorethandoubtfulvalue。

Babylonia，forexample，gaveusourseven-dayweekandoursystemofcomputingbytwelves。Butsurelytheworldcouldhavegotonaswellwithoutthatmagicnumberseven；andaftersomehundredsofgenerationswearecomingtofeelthatthedecimalsystemoftheEgyptianshasadvantagesovertheduodecimalsystemoftheBabylonians。Again，theBabyloniansdidnotinventthealphabet；

theydidnotevenacceptitwhenalltherestoftheworldhadrecognizeditsvalue。Ingrammarandarithmetic，aswithastronomy，theyseemednottohaveadvancedgreatly，ifatall，upontheEgyptians。Onefieldinwhichtheystandoutinstartlingpre-eminenceisthefieldofastrology；butthis，intheestimateofmodernthought，istheverynegationofscience。

BabyloniaimpressedhersuperstitionsontheWesternworld，andwhenweconsiderthebalefulinfluenceofthesesuperstitions，wemayalmostquestionwhetherwemightnotreverseCanonRawlinson’sestimateandsaythatperhapsbutforBabyloniarealcivilization，basedontheapplicationoftruescience，mighthavedawnedupontheearthascoreofcenturiesbeforeitdid。

Yet，afterall，perhapsthisestimateisunjust。Society，likeanindividualorganism，mustcreepbeforeitcanwalk，andperhapstheBabylonianexperimentsinastrologyandmagic，whichEuropeancivilizationwasdestinedtocopyforsomethreeorfourthousandyears，musthavebeenmadeapartofthenecessaryevolutionofourraceinoneplaceorinanother。Thatthought，however，neednotblindustotheessentialfact，whichthehistorianofsciencemustneedsadmit，thatfortheBabylonian，despitehisboastedculture，sciencespelledsuperstition。

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