TheRussianWhiteClergy——thatistosay，theparishpriests，as，distinguishedfromthemonks，whoarecalledtheBlackClergy——have，hadacurioushistory。Inprimitivetimestheyweredrawnfromall，classesofthepopulation，andfreelyelectedbytheparishioners。

Whenamanwaselectedbythepopularvote，hewaspresentedtothe，Bishop，andifhewasfoundtobeafitandproperpersonforthe，office，hewasatonceordained。Butthiscustomearlyfellinto，disuse。TheBishops，findingthatmanyofthecandidatespresented，wereilliteratepeasants，graduallyassumedtherightofappointing，thepriests，withorwithouttheconsentoftheparishioners;and，theirchoicegenerallyfellonthesonsoftheclergyasthemen，bestfittedtotakeorders。ThecreationofBishops’schools，afterwardscalledseminaries，inwhichthesonsoftheclergywere，educated，naturallyled，inthecourseoftime，tothetotal，exclusionoftheotherclasses。ThepolicyofthecivilGovernment，ledtothesameend。PetertheGreatlaiddowntheprinciplethat，everysubjectshouldinsomewayservetheState——thenoblesas，officersinthearmyornavy，orasofficialsinthecivilservice;

theclergyasministersofreligion;andthelowerclassesas，soldiers，sailors，ortax-payers。Ofthesethreeclassesthe，clergyhadbyfarthelightestburdens，andconsequentlymany，noblesandpeasantswouldwillinglyhaveentereditsranks。But，thisspeciesofdesertiontheGovernmentcouldnottolerate，and，accordinglythepriesthoodwassurroundedbyalegalbarrierwhich，preventedalloutsidersfromenteringit。Thusbythecombined，effortsoftheecclesiasticalandthecivilAdministrationthe，clergybecameaseparateclassorcaste，legallyandactually，incapableofminglingwiththeotherclassesofthepopulation。

Thesimplefactthattheclergybecameanexclusivecaste，witha，peculiarcharacter，peculiarhabits，andpeculiarideals，wouldin，itselfhavehadaprejudicialinfluenceonthepriesthood;butthis，wasnotall。Thecasteincreasedinnumbersbytheprocessof，naturalreproductionmuchmorerapidlythantheofficestobe，filled，sothatthesupplyofpriestsanddeaconssoonfarexceeded，thedemand;andthedisproportionbetweensupplyanddemandbecame，everyyeargreaterandgreater。Inthiswaywasformedanever-

increasingclericalProletariat，which——asisalwaysthecasewith，aProletariatofanykind——gravitatedtowardsthetowns。Invain，theGovernmentissuedukazesprohibitingthepriestsfromquitting，theirplacesofdomicile，andtreatedasvagrantsandrunaways，thosewhodisregardedtheprohibition;invainsuccessive，sovereignsendeavouredtodiminishthenumberofthese，supernumerariesbydraftingthemwholesaleintothearmy。In，Moscow，St。Petersburg，andallthelargertownsthecrywas，“Stilltheycome！”Everymorning，intheKremlinofMoscow，a，largecrowdofthemassembledforthepurposeofbeinghiredto，officiateintheprivatechapelsoftherichnobles，andagreat，dealofhardbargainingtookplacebetweenthepriestsandthe，lackeyssenttohirethem——conductedinthesamespirit，andin，nearlythesameforms，asthatwhichsimultaneouslytookplacein，thebazaarclosebybetweenextortionatetradersandthrifty，housewives。”Listentome，“apriestwouldsay，asanultimatum，toalackeywhowastryingtobeatdowntheprice：“ifyoudon’t，givemeseventy-fivekopekswithoutfurtherado，I’lltakeabite，ofthisroll，andthatwillbeanendtoit！”Andthatwouldhave，beenanendtothebargaining，for，accordingtotherulesofthe，Church，apriestcannotofficiateafterbreakinghisfast。The，ultimatum，however，couldbeusedwitheffectonlytocountry，servantswhohadrecentlycometotown。Asharplackey，experiencedinthiskindofdiplomacy，wouldhavelaughedatthe，threat，andrepliedcoolly，“Biteaway，Batushka;Icanfindplenty，moreofyoursort！”AmusingscenesofthiskindIhaveheard，describedbyoldpeoplewhoprofessedtohavebeeneye-witnesses。

Theconditionofthepriestswhoremainedinthevillageswasnot，muchbetter。Thoseofthemwhowerefortunateenoughtofind，placeswereraisedatleastabovethefearofabsolutedestitution，buttheirpositionwasbynomeansenviable。Theyreceivedlittle，considerationorrespectfromthepeasantry，andstilllessfrom，thenobles。WhenthechurchwassituatednotontheStateDomains，butonaprivateestate，theywerepracticallyunderthepowerof，theproprietor——almostascompletelyashisserfs;andsometimes，thatpowerwasexercisedinamosthumiliatingandshamefulway。I

haveheard，forinstance，ofonepriestwhowasduckedinapondon，acoldwinterdayfortheamusementoftheproprietorandhis，guests——choicespirits，ofrough，jovialtemperament;andof，anotherwho，havingneglectedtotakeoffhishatashepassedthe，proprietor’shouse，wasputintoabarrelandrolleddownahill，intotheriveratthebottom！

Incitingtheseincidents，Idonotatallmeantoimplythatthey，representtherelationswhichusuallyexistedbetweenproprietors，andvillagepriests，forIamquiteawarethatwantoncrueltywas，notamongtheordinaryvicesofRussianserf-owners。Myobjectin，mentioningtheincidentsistoshowhowabrutalproprietor——andit，mustbeadmittedthattheywerenotafewbrutalindividualsinthe，class——couldmaltreatapriestwithoutmuchdangerofbeingcalled，toaccountforhisconduct。Ofcoursesuchconductwasanoffence，intheeyesofthecriminallaw;butthecriminallawofthattime，wasveryshortsighted，andstronglydisposedtocloseitseyes，completelywhentheoffenderwasaninfluentialproprietor。Had，theincidentsreachedtheearsoftheEmperorNicholashewould，probablyhaveorderedtheculprittobesummarilyandseverely，punishedbut，astheRussianproverbhasit，“Heavenishigh，and，theTsarisfaroff。”，Avillagepriesttreatedinthisbarbarous，waycouldhavelittlehopeofredress，and，ifhewereaprudent，man，hewouldmakenoattempttoobtainit;foranyannoyancewhich，hemightgivetheproprietorbycomplainingtotheecclesiastical，authoritieswouldbesuretobepaidbacktohimwithinterestin，someindirectway。

Thesonsoftheclergywhodidnotsucceedinfindingregular，sacerdotalemploymentwereinastillworseposition。Manyofthem，servedasscribesorsubordinateofficialsinthepublicoffices，wheretheycommonlyekedouttheirscantysalariesbyunblushing，extortionandpilfering。Thosewhodidnotsucceedingainingeven，modestemploymentofthiskindhadtokeepoffstarvationbyless，lawfulmeans，andnotunfrequentlyfoundtheirwayintotheprisons，ortoSiberia。

InjudgingoftheRussianpriesthoodofthepresenttime，wemust，calltomindthissevereschoolthroughwhichithaspassed，andwe，mustalsotakeintoconsiderationthespiritwhichhasbeenfor，centuriespredominantintheEasternChurch——Imeanthestrong，tendencybothintheclergyandinthelaitytoattributean，inordinateimportancetotheceremonialelementofreligion。

Primitivemankindiseverywhereandalwaysdisposedtoregard，religionassimplyamassofmysteriousriteswhichhaveasecret，magicalpowerofavertingevilinthisworldandsecuringfelicity，inthenext。TothisgeneralruletheRussianpeasantryareno，exception，andtheRussianChurchhasnotdoneallitmighthave，donetoeradicatethisconceptionandtobringreligionintocloser，associationwithordinarymorality。Hencesuchincidentsasthe，followingarestillpossible：Arobberkillsandriflesa，traveller，butherefrainsfromeatingapieceofcookedmeatwhich，hefindsinthecart，becauseithappenstobeafast-day;a，peasantpreparestorobayoungattacheoftheAustrianEmbassyin，St。Petersburg，andultimatelykillshisvictim，butbeforegoing，tothehouseheentersachurchandcommendshisundertakingtothe，protectionofthesaints;ahousebreaker，whenintheactof，robbingachurch，findsitdifficulttoextractthejewelsfroman，Icon，andmakesavowthatifacertainsaintassistshimhewill，placearouble’s-worthoftapersbeforethesaint’simage！，These，factsarewithinthememoryofthepresentgeneration。Iknewthe，youngattache，andsawhimafewdaysbeforehisdeath。

Alltheseareofcourseextremecases，buttheyillustratea，tendencywhichinitsmilderformsisonlytoogeneralamongstthe，Russianpeople——thetendencytoregardreligionasamassof，ceremonieswhichhaveamagicalratherthanaspiritual，significance。Thepoorwomanwhokneelsatareligiousprocession，inorderthattheIconmayhecarriedoverherhead，andtherich，merchantwhoinvitestheprieststobringsomefamousIcontohis，house，illustratesthistendencyinamoreharmlessform。

Accordingtoapopularsaying，“Asisthepriest，soisthe，parish，“andtheconversepropositionisequallytrue——asisthe，parish，soisthepriest。Thegreatmajorityofpriests，likethe，greatmajorityofmeningeneral，contentthemselveswithsimply，strivingtoperformwhatisexpectedofthem，andtheircharacter，isconsequentlydeterminedtoacertainextentbytheideasand，conceptionsoftheirparishioners。Thiswillbecomemoreapparent，ifwecontrasttheRussianpriestwiththeProtestantpastor。

AccordingtoProtestantconceptions，thevillagepastorisamanof，gravedemeanourandexemplaryconduct，andpossessesacertain，amountofeducationandrefinement。Heoughttoexpoundweeklyto，hisflock，insimple，impressivewords，thegreattruthsof，Christianity，andexhorthishearerstowalkinthepathsof，righteousness。Besidesthis，heisexpectedtocomfortthe，afflicted，toassisttheneedy，tocounselthosewhoareharassed，withdoubts，andtoadmonishthosewhoopenlystrayfromthenarrow，path。Suchistheidealinthepopularmind，andpastorsgenerally，seektorealiseit，ifnotinverydeed，atleastinappearance。

TheRussianpriest，onthecontrary，hasnosuchidealsetbefore，himbyhisparishioners。Heisexpectedmerelytoconformto，certainobservances，andtoperformpunctiliouslytheritesand，ceremoniesprescribedbytheChurch。Ifhedoesthiswithout，practisingextortionhisparishionersarequitesatisfied。He，rarelypreachesorexhorts，andneitherhasnorseekstohavea，moralinfluenceoverhisflock。Ihaveoccasionallyheardof，RussianpriestswhoapproachtowhatIhavetermedtheProtestant，ideal，andIhaveevenseenoneortwoofthem，butIfeartheyare，notnumerous。

IntheabovecontrastIhaveaccidentallyomittedoneimportant，feature。TheProtestantclergyhaveinallcountriesrendered，valuableservicetothecauseofpopulareducation。Thereasonof，thisisnotdifficulttofind。InordertobeagoodProtestantit，isnecessaryto“searchtheScriptures，“andtodothis，onemust，beableatleasttoread。TobeagoodmemberoftheGreek，OrthodoxChurch，onthecontrary，accordingtopopularconceptions，thereadingoftheScripturesisnotnecessary，andtherefore，primaryeducationhasnotintheeyesoftheGreekOrthodoxpriest，thesameimportancewhichithasintheeyesoftheProtestant，pastor。

ItmustbeadmittedthattheRussianpeopleareinacertainsense，religions。TheygoregularlytochurchonSundaysandholy-days，crossthemselvesrepeatedlywhentheypassachurchorIcon，take，theHolyCommunionatstatedseasons，rigorouslyabstainfrom，animalfood——notonlyonWednesdaysandFridays，butalsoduring，Lentandtheotherlongfasts——makeoccasionalpilgrimagestoholy，shrines，and，inaword，fulfilpunctiliouslytheceremonial，observanceswhichtheysupposenecessaryforsalvation。Buthere，theirreligiousnessends。Theyaregenerallyprofoundlyignorant，ofreligiousdoctrine，andknowlittleornothingofHolyWrit。A

peasant，itissaid，wasonceaskedbyapriestifhecouldname，thethreePersonsoftheTrinity，andrepliedwithoutamoment’s，hesitation，“Howcanonenotknowthat，Batushka？，Ofcourseitis，theSaviour，theMotherofGod，andSaintNicholasthemiracle-

worker！

Thatanswerrepresentsfairlyenoughthetheologicalattainmentsof，averylargesectionofthepeasantry。Theanecdoteissooften，repeatedthatitisprobablyaninvention，butitisnotacalumny，oftheologyandofwhatProtestantstermthe“innerreligiouslife“

theorthodoxRussianpeasant——ofDissenters，towhomtheseremarks，donotapply，ifshallspeaklater——hasnoconception。Forhimthe，ceremonialpartofreligionsuffices，andhehasthemost，unbounded，childlikeconfidenceinthesavingefficacyoftherites，whichhepractises。Ifhehasbeenbaptisedininfancy，has，regularlyobservedthefasts，hasannuallypartakenoftheHoly，Communion，andhasjustconfessedandreceivedextremeunction，he，feelsdeathapproachwiththemostperfecttranquillity。Heis，tormentedwithnodoubtsastotheefficacyoffaithorworks，and，hasnofearsthathispastlifemaypossiblyhaverenderedhim，unfitforeternalfelicity。Likeamaninasinkingshipwhohas，buckledonhislife-preserver，hefeelsperfectlysecure。Withno，fearforthefutureandlittleregretforthepresentorthepast，heawaitscalmlythedreadsummons，anddieswitharesignation，whichaStoicphilosophermightenvy。

IntheaboveparagraphIhaveusedthewordIcon，andperhapsthe，readermaynotclearlyunderstandtheword。Letmeexplainthen，briefly，whatanIconis——averynecessaryexplanation，forthe，Iconsplayanimportantpartinthereligiousobservancesofthe，Russianpeople。

Iconsarepictorial，usuallyhalf-length，representationsofthe，Saviour，oftheMadonna，orofasaint，executedinarchaic，Byzantinestyle，onayelloworgoldground，andvaryinginsize，fromasquareinchtoseveralsquarefeet。Veryoftenthewhole，picture，withtheexceptionofthefaceandhandsofthefigure，is，coveredwithametalplaque，embossedsoastorepresenttheform，ofthefigureandthedrapery。Whenthisplaqueisnotused，the，crownandcostumeareoftenadornedwithpearlsandotherprecious，stones——sometimesofgreatprice。

Inrespectofreligionssignificance，Iconsareoftwokinds：

simple，andmiraculousormiracle-working(tchudotvorny)。The，formeraremanufacturedinenormousquantities——chieflyinthe，provinceofVladimir，wherewholevillagesareemployedinthis，kindofwork——andaretobefoundineveryRussianhouse，fromthe，hutofthepeasanttothepalaceoftheEmperor。Theyare，generallyplacedhighupinacornerfacingthedoor，andgood，orthodoxChristiansonenteringbowinthatdirection，makingat，thesametimethesignofthecross。Beforeandaftermealsthe，sameshortceremonyisalwaysperformed。Ontheeveoffete-daysa，smalllampiskeptburningbeforeatleastoneoftheIconsinthe，house。

Thewonder-workingIconsarecomparativelyfewinnumber，andare，alwayscarefullypreservedinachurchorchapel。Theyare，commonlybelievedtohavebeen“notmadewithhands，“andtohave，appearedinamiraculousway。Amonk，oritmaybeacommon，mortal，hasavision，inwhichheisinformedthathemayfinda，miraculousIconinsuchaplace，andongoingtothespotindicated，hefindsit，sometimesburied，sometimeshangingonatree。The，sacredtreasureisthenremovedtoachurch，andthenewsspreads，likewildfirethroughthedistrict。Thousandsflocktoprostrate，themselvesbeforetheheaven-sentpicture，andsomearehealedof，theirdiseases——afactthatplainlyindicatesitsmiracle-working，power。ThewholeaffairisthenofficiallyreportedtotheMost，HolySynod，thehighestecclesiasticalauthorityinRussia，in，orderthattheexistenceofthemiracle-workingpowermaybefully，andregularlyproved。Theofficialrecognitionofthefactisby，nomeansamerematterofform，fortheSynodiswellawarethat，wonder-workingIconsarealwaysarichsourceofrevenuetothe，monasterieswheretheyarekept，andthatzealousSuperiorsare，consequentlyaptinsuchcasestoleantothesideofcredulity，ratherthanthatofover-severecriticism。Aregularinvestigation，isthereforemade，andtheformalrecognitionisnotgrantedtill，thetestimonyofthefinderisthoroughlyexaminedandthealleged，miraclesdulyauthenticated。Iftherecognitionisgranted，the，Iconistreatedwiththegreatestveneration，andissuretobe，visitedbypilgrimsfromfarandnear。

SomeofthemostreveredIcons——as，forinstance，theKazan，Madonna——haveannualfete-daysinstitutedintheirhonour;or，more，correctlyspeaking，theanniversaryoftheirmiraculousappearance，isobservedasareligionsholiday。Afewofthemhavean，additionaltitletopopularrespectandveneration：thatofbeing，intimatelyassociatedwithgreateventsinthenationalhistory。

TheVladimirMadonna，forexample，oncesavedMoscowfromthe，Tartars;theSmolenskMadonnaaccompaniedthearmyintheglorious，campaignagainstNapoleonin1812;andwheninthatyearitwas，knowninMoscowthattheFrenchwereadvancingonthecity，the，peoplewishedtheMetropolitantotaketheIberianMadonna，which，maystillbeseennearoneofthegatesoftheKremlin，andtolead，themoutarmedwithhatchetsagainsttheenemy。

IftheRussianpriestshavedonelittletoadvancepopular，education，theyhaveatleastneverintentionallyopposedit。

UnliketheirRomanCatholicbrethren，theydonotholdthat“a，littlelearningisadangerousthing，“anddonotfearthatfaith，maybeendangeredbyknowledge。Indeed，itisaremarkablefact，thattheRussianChurchregardswithprofoundapathythosevarious，intellectualmovementswhichcauseseriousalarmtomanythoughtful，ChristiansinWesternEurope。Itconsidersreligionassomething，soentirelyapartthatitsvotariesdonotfeelthenecessityof，bringingtheirtheologicalbeliefsintologicalharmonywiththeir，scientificconceptions。AmanmayremainagoodorthodoxChristian，longafterhehasadoptedscientificopinionsirreconcilablewith，EasternOrthodoxy，or，indeed，withdogmaticChristianityofany，kind。Intheconfessionalthepriestneverseekstoferretout，hereticalopinions;andIcanrecallnoinstanceinRussianhistory，ofamanbeingburntatthestakeonthedemandofthe，ecclesiasticalauthorities，assooftenhappenedintheRoman，Catholicworld，forhisscientificviews。Thistoleranceproceeds，partly，nodoubt，fromthefactthattheEasternChurchingeneral，andtheRussianChurchinparticular，haveremainedforcenturies，inakindofintellectualtorpor。Evensuchaferventorthodox，ChristianasthelateIvanAksakofperceivedthisabsenceof，healthyvitality，andhedidnothesitatetodeclarehisconviction，thatneithertheRussiannortheSlavonicworldwillbe，resuscitated……solongastheChurchremainsinsuch，lifelessness(mertvennost’)，whichisnotamatterofchance，but，thelegitimatefruitofsomeorganicdefect。”*

*Solovyoff，“OtcherkiigistoriiRusskoiLiteraturiXIX。veka。”

St。Petersburg，1903，p。269。

Thoughtheunsatisfactoryconditionoftheparochialclergyis，generallyrecognisedbytheeducatedclasses，veryfewpeopletake，thetroubletoconsiderseriouslyhowitmightbeimproved。During，theReformenthusiasmwhichragedforsomeyearsaftertheCrimean，Warecclesiasticalaffairswereentirelyoverlooked。Manyofthe，reformersofthosedaysweresovery“advanced“thatreligionin，allitsformsseemedtothemanold-worldsuperstitionwhichtended，toretardratherthanacceleratesocialprogress，andwhich，consequentlyshouldbeallowedtodieastranquillyaspossible;

whilstthemenofmoremoderateviewsfoundtheyhadenoughtodo，inemancipatingtheserfsandreformingthecorruptciviland，judicialAdministration。Duringthesubsequentreactionaryperiod，whichculminatedinthereignofthelateEmperor，AlexanderIII。，muchmoreattentionwasdevotedtoChurchmatters，anditcameto，berecognisedinofficialcirclesthatsomethingoughttobedone，fortheparishclergyinthewayofimprovingtheirmaterial，conditionsoastoincreasetheirmoralinfluence。Withthis，objectinview，M。Pobedonostsef，theProcuratoroftheHolySynod，inducedtheGovernmentin1893tomakeaState-grantofabout，6，500，000roubles，whichshouldbeincreasedeveryyear，butthe，sumwasveryinadequate，andalargeportionofitwasdevotedto，purposesofpoliticalpropagandaintheformofmaintainingGreek，OrthodoxpriestsindistrictswherethepopulationwasProtestant，orRomanCatholic。Consequently，ofthe35，865parisheswhich，Russiacontains，only18，936，oralittlemorethanone-half，were，enabledtobenefitbythegrant。Inanoptimistic，semi-official，statementpublishedaslateas1896itisadmittedthat“themeans，forthesupportoftheparishclergymustevennowbeconsidered，insufficientandwantinginstability，makingthepriestsdependent，ontheparishioners，andtherebypreventingtheestablishmentof，thenecessarymoralauthorityofthespiritualfatheroverhis，flock。”

InsomeplacestheneedsoftheChurchareattendedtobyvoluntary，parish-curatorshipswhichannuallyraiseacertainsumofmoney，andthewayinwhichtheydistributeitisverycharacteristicof，theRussianpeople，whohaveaprofoundvenerationfortheChurch，anditsrites，butverylittleconsiderationforthehumanbeings，whoserveatthealtar。In14，564parishespossessingsuch，curatorshipsnolessthan2，500，000roubleswerecollected，butof，thissum2，000，000wereexpendedonthemaintenanceand，embellishmentofchurches，andonly174，000weredevotedtothe，personalwantsoftheclergy。Accordingtothesemi-official，documentfromwhichthesefiguresaretakenthewholebodyofthe，RussianWhiteClergyin1893numbered99，391，ofwhom42，513were，priests，12，953deacons，and43，925clerks。

InmorerecentobservationsamongtheparochialclergyIhave，noticedpremonitorysymptomsofimportantchanges。Thismaybe，illustratedbyanentryinmynote-book，writteninavillageof，oneoftheSouthernprovinces，underdateof30thSeptember，1903：

“Ihavemadeheretheacquaintanceoftwogoodspecimensofthe，parishclergy，bothexcellentmenintheirway，butverydifferent，fromeachother。Theelderone，FatherDmitri，isoftheold，school，aplain，practicalman，whofulfilshisduties，conscientiouslyaccordingtohislights，butwithoutenthusiasm。

Hisintellectualwantsareverylimited，andhedevoteshis，attentionchieflytothepracticalaffairsofeverydaylife，which，hemanagesverysuccessfully。Hedoesnotsqueezehisparishioners，unduly，butheconsidersthatthelabourerisworthyofhishire，andinsistsonhisflockprovidingforhiswantsaccordingtotheir，means。Atthesametimehefarmsonhisownaccountandattends，personallytoallthedetailsofhisfarmingoperations。Withthe，conditionanddoingsofeverymemberofhisflockheisintimately，acquainted，and，onthewhole，asheneveridealisedanythingor，anybody，hehasnotaveryhighopinionofthem。

“Theyoungerpriest，FatherAlexander，isofadifferenttype，and，thedifferencemayberemarkedeveninhisexternalappearance。

Thereisalookofdelicacyandrefinementabouthim，thoughhis，dressanddomesticsurroundingsareoftheplainest，andthereis，notatingeofaffectationinhismanner。Hislanguageisless，archaicandpicturesque。HeusesfewerBiblicalandsemi-Slavonic，expressions——Imeanexpressionswhichbelongtotheantiquated，languageoftheChurchServiceratherthantomodernparlance——and，hisarmouryoftersepopularproverbswhichconstitutesucha，characteristictraitofthepeasantry，islessfrequentlydrawnon。

WhenIaskhimaboutthepresentconditionofthepeasantry，his，accountdoesnotdiffersubstantiallyfromthatofhiselder，colleague，buthedoesnotcondemntheirsinsinthesameforcible，terms。Helamentstheirshortcomingsinanevangelicalspiritand，hasapparentlyaspirationsfortheirfutureimprovement。Admitting，franklythatthereisagreatdealoflukewarmnessamongthem，he，hopestorevivetheirinterestinecclesiasticalaffairsandhehas，anideaofconstitutingasortofchurchcommitteeforattendingto，thetemporalaffairsofthevillagechurchandforworksof，charity，buthelookstoinfluencingtheyoungerratherthanthe，oldergeneration。

“Hisinterestinhisparishionersisnotconfinedtotheir，spiritualwelfare，butextendstotheirmaterialwell-being。Of，lateanassociationformutualcredithasbeenfoundedinthe，village，andheuseshisinfluencetoinducethepeasantstotake，advantageofthebenefitsitoffers，bothtothosewhoareinneed，ofalittlereadymoneyandtothosewhomightinvesttheir，savings，insteadofkeepingthemhiddenawayinanoldstockingor，buriedinanearthenpot。Theproposaltocreatealocal，agriculturalsocietymeetsalsowithhissympathy。”

Ifthenumberofparishpriestsofthistypeincrease，theclergy，maycometoexercisegreatmoralinfluenceonthecommonpeople。

CHAPTERV

AMEDICALCONSULTATION

UnexpectedIllness——AVillageDoctor——SiberianPlague——MyStudies——

RussianHistorians——ARussianImitatorofDickens——Aci-devant，DomesticSerf——MedicineandWitchcraft——ARemnantofPaganism——

CredulityofthePeasantry——AbsurdRumours——AMysteriousVisitfrom，St。Barbara——CholeraonBoardaSteamer——Hospitals——Lunatic，Asylums——AmongstManiacs。

Inenumeratingtherequisitesfortravellinginthelessfrequented，partsofRussia，Iomittedtomentiononeimportantcondition：the，travellershouldbealwaysingoodhealth，andincaseofillness，bereadytodispensewithregularmedicalattendance。ThisI

learnedbyexperienceduringmystayatIvanofka。

Amanwhoisaccustomedtobealwayswell，andhasconsequently，causetobelievehimselfexemptfromtheordinaryillsthatflesh，isheirto，naturallyfeelsaggrieved——asifsomeonehadinflicted，uponhimanundeservedinjury——whenhesuddenlyfindshimselfill。

Atfirstherefusestobelievethefact，and，asfaraspossible，takesnonoticeofthedisagreeablesymptoms。

Suchwasmystateofmindonbeingawakenedearlyonemorningby，peculiarsymptomswhichIhadneverbeforeexperienced。Unwilling，toadmittomyselfthepossibilityofbeingill，Igotup，and，endeavouredtodressasusual，butverysoondiscoveredthatIwas，unabletostand。Therewasnodenyingthefact;notonlywasI

ill，butthemalady，whateveritwas，surpassedmypowersof，diagnosis;andwhenthesymptomsincreasedsteadilyallthatday，andthefollowingnight，Iwasconstrainedtotakethehumiliating，decisionofaskingformedicaladvice。Tomyinquirieswhether，therewasadoctorintheneighbourhood，theoldservantreplied，“Thereisnotexactlyadoctor，butthereisaFeldsherinthe，village。”

“AndwhatisaFeldsher？”

“AFeldsheris……isaFeldsher。”

“Iamquiteawareofthat，butIwouldliketoknowwhatyoumean，bytheword。WhatisthisFeldsher？”

“He’sanoldsoldierwhodresseswoundsandgivesphysic。”

Thedefinitiondidnotpredisposemeinfavourofthemysterious，personage，butastherewasnothingbettertobehadIorderedhim，tobesentfor，notwithstandingthestrenuousoppositionoftheold，servant，whoevidentlydidnotbelieveinfeldshers。

Inabouthalfanhouratall，broad-shoulderedmanentered，and，stoodboltuprightinthemiddleoftheroomintheattitudewhich，isdesignatedinmilitarylanguagebytheword“Attention。”，His，clean-shavenchin，longmoustache，andclosely-croppedhair，confirmedonepartoftheoldservant’sdefinition;hewas，unmistakablyanoldsoldier。

“YouareaFeldsher，“Isaid，makinguseofthewordwhichIhad，recentlyaddedtomyvocabulary。

“Exactlyso，yourNobility！”Thesewords，theordinaryformof，affirmationusedbysoldierstotheirofficers，werepronouncedin，aloud，metallic，monotonoustone，asifthespeakerhadbeenan，automatonconversingwithabrotherautomatonatadistanceof，twentyyards。Assoonasthewordswerepronouncedthemouthof，themachineclosedspasmodically，andthehead，whichhadbeen，momentarilyturnedtowardsme，revertedtoitsformerpositionwith，ajerkasifithadreceivedtheorder“Eyesfront！”

“Thenpleasetositdownhere，andI’lltellyouaboutmyailment。”

Uponthisthefiguretookthreepacestothefront，wheeledtothe，right-about，andsatdownontheedgeofthechair，retainingthe，positionof“Attention“asnearlyasthesittingposturewould，allow。Whenthesymptomshadbeencarefullydescribed，heknitted，hisbrows，andaftersomereflectionremarked，“Icangiveyoua，doseof……”，HerefollowedalongwordwhichIdidnot，understand。

“Idon’twishyoutogivemeadoseofanythingtillIknowwhatis，thematterwithme。Thoughabitofadoctormyself，Ihaveno，ideawhatitis，and，pardonme，Ithinkyouareinthesame，position。”，Noticingalookofruffledprofessionaldignityonhis，face，Iadded，asasedative，“Itisevidentlysomethingvery，peculiar，sothatifthefirstmedicalpractitionerinthecountry，werepresenthewouldprobablybeasmuchpuzzledasourselves。”

Thesedativehadthedesiredeffect。”Well，sir，totellyouthe，truth，“hesaid，inamorehumantoneofvoice，“Idonotclearly，understandwhatitis。”

“Exactly;andthereforeIthinkwehadbetterleavethecureto，Nature，andnotinterferewithhermodeoftreatment。”

“Perhapsitwouldbebetter。”

“Nodoubt。Andnow，sinceIhavetoliehereonmyback，andfeel，ratherlonely，Ishouldliketohaveatalkwithyou。Youarenot，inahurry，Ihope？”

“Notatall。MyassistantknowswhereIam，andwillsendforme，ifIamrequired。”

“Soyouhaveanassistant，haveyou？”

“Oh，yes;averysharpyoungfellow，whohasbeentwoyearsinthe，Feldsherschool，andhasnowcomeheretohelpmeandlearnmoreby，practice。Thatisanewway。Ineverwasataschoolofthekind，myself，andhadtopickupwhatIcouldwhenaservantinthe，hospital。Therewere，Ibelieve，nosuchschoolsinmytime。The，onewheremyassistantlearnedwasopenedbytheZemstvo。”

“TheZemstvoisthenewlocaladministration，isitnot？”

“Exactlyso。AndIcouldnotdowithouttheassistant，“continued，mynewacquaintance，graduallylosinghisrigidity，andshowing，himself，whathereallywas，akindly，talkativeman。”Ihave，oftentogotoothervillages，andalmosteverydayanumberof，peasantscomehere。AtfirstIhadverylittletodo，forthe，peoplethoughtIwasanofficial，andwouldmakethempaydearly，forwhatIshouldgivethem;butnowtheyknowthattheydon’t，requiretopay，andcomeingreatnumbers。AndeverythingIgive，them——thoughsometimesIdon’tclearlyunderstandwhatthematter，is——seemstodothemgood。Ibelievethatfaithdoesasmuchas，physic。”

“Inmycountry，“Iremarked，“thereisasectofdoctorswhoget，thebenefitofthatprinciple。Theygivetheirpatientstwoor，threelittleballsnobiggerthanapin’shead，orafewdropsof，tastelessliquid，andtheysometimesworkwonderfulcures。”

“Thatsystemwouldnotdoforus。TheRussianmuzhikwouldhaveno，faithifheswallowedmerelythingsofthatkind。Whathebelieves，inissomethingwithaverybadtaste，andlotsofit。Thatishis，ideaofamedicine;andhethinksthatthemorehetakesofa，medicinethebetterchancehehasofgettingwell。WhenIwishto，giveapeasantseveraldosesImakehimcomeforeachseparate，dose，forIknowthatifIdidnothewouldprobablyswallowthe，wholeassoonashewasoutofsight。Butthereisnotmuch，seriousdiseasehere——notlikewhatIusedtoseeontheSheksna。

YouhavebeenontheSheksna？”

“Notyet，butIintendgoingthere。”，TheSheksnaisariverwhich，fallsintotheVolga，andformspartofthegreatsystemofwater-

communicationconnectingtheVolgawiththeNeva。

“Whenyougothereyouwillseelotsofdiseases。Ifthereisa，hotsummer，andplentyofbargespassing，somethingissureto，breakout——typhus，orblacksmall-pox，orSiberianplague，or，somethingofthekind。ThatSiberianplagueisacuriousthing。

WhetheritreallycomesfromSiberia，Godonlyknows。Sosoonas，itbreaksoutthehorsesdiebydozens，andsometimesmenandwomen，areattacked，thoughitisnotproperlyahumandisease。Theysay，thatfliescarrythepoisonfromthedeadhorsestothepeople。

Thesignofitisathinglikeaboil，withadark-colouredrim。

Ifthisiscutopenintimethepersonmayrecover，butifitis，not，thepersondies。Thereischolera，too，sometimes。”

“Whatadelightfulcountry，“Isaidtomyself，“forayoungdoctor，whowishestomakediscoveriesinthescienceofdisease！”

Thecatalogueofdiseasesinhabitingthisfavouredregionwas，apparentlynotyetcomplete，butitwascutshortforthemomentby，thearrivaloftheassistant，withtheannouncementthathis，superiorwaswanted。

Thisfirstinterviewwiththefeldsherwas，onthewhole，satisfactory。Hehadnotrenderedmeanymedicalassistance，but，hehadhelpedmetopassanhourpleasantly，andhadgivenmea，littleinformationofthekindIdesired。Mylaterinterviewswith，himwereequallyagreeable。Hewasnaturallyanintelligent，observantman，whohadseenagreatdealoftheRussianworld，and，coulddescribegraphicallywhathehadseen。Unfortunatelythe，horizontalpositiontowhichIwascondemnedpreventedmefrom，notingdownatthetimetheinterestingthingswhichherelatedto，me。Hisvisits，togetherwiththoseofKarlKarl’itchandofthe，priest，whokindlyspentagreatpartofhistimewithme，helped，metowhileawaymanyanhourwhichwouldotherwisehavebeen，drearyenough。

DuringtheintervalswhenIwasaloneIdevotedmyselftoreading——

sometimesRussianhistoryandsometimesworksoffiction。The，historywasthatofKaramzin，whomayfairlybecalledtheRussian，Livy。Itinterestedmemuchbythefactswhichitcontained，but，irritatedmenotalittlebytherhetoricalstyleinwhichitis，written。Afterwards，whenIhadwadedthroughsometwentyvolumes，ofthegiganticworkofSolovyoff——orSolovief，asthenameis，sometimesunphoneticallywritten——whichissimplyavastcollection，ofvaluablebutundigestedmaterial，Iwasmuchlesssevereonthe，picturesquedescriptionsandornatestyleofhisillustrious，predecessor。ThefirstworkoffictionwhichIreadwasa，collectionoftalesbyGrigorovitch，whichhadbeengiventomeby，theauthoronmydeparturefromSt。Petersburg。Thesetales，descriptiveofrurallifeinRussia，hadbeenwritten，asthe，authorafterwardsadmittedtome，undertheinfluenceofDickens。

Manyofthelittletricksandaffectationswhichbecamepainfully，obtrusiveinDickens’slaterworksIhadnodifficultyin，recognisingundertheirRussiangarb。InspiteoftheseIfound，thebookverypleasantreading，andreceivedfromitsomenew，notions——tobeafterwardsverified，ofcourse——aboutRussian，peasantlife。

Oneofthesetalesmadeadeepimpressionuponme，andIstill，rememberthechiefincidents。Thestoryopenswiththedescription，ofavillageinlateautumn。Ithasbeenrainingforsometime，heavily，andtheroadhasbecomecoveredwithadeeplayerofblack，mud。Anoldwoman——asmallproprietor——issittingathomewitha，friend，drinkingteaandtryingtoreadthefuturebymeansofa，packofcards。Thisoccupationissuddenlyinterruptedbythe，entranceofafemaleservant，whoannouncesthatshehasdiscovered，anoldman，apparentlyveryill，lyinginoneoftheouthouses。

Theoldwomangoesouttoseeheruninvitedguest，and，beingofa，kindlynature，preparestohavehimremovedtoamorecomfortable，place，andproperlyattendedto;butherservantwhisperstoher，thatperhapsheisavagrant，andthegenerousimpulseisthereby，checked。Whenitisdiscoveredthatthesuspicionisonlytoowell，founded，andthatthemanhasnopassport，theoldwomanbecomes，thoroughlyalarmed。Herimaginationpicturestohertheterrible，consequencesthatwouldensueifthepoliceshoulddiscoverthat，shehadharbouredavagrant。Allherlittlefortunemightbe，extortedfromher。Andiftheoldmanshouldhappentodieinher，houseorfarmyard！，Theconsequencesinthatcasemightbevery，serious。Notonlymightsheloseeverything，butshemightevenbe，draggedtoprison。Atthesightofthesedangerstheoldwoman，forgetshertender-heartedness，andbecomesinexorable。Theold，man，sickuntodeaththoughhebe，mustleavethepremises，instantly。Knowingfullwellthathewillnowherefindarefuge，hewalksforthintothecold，dark，stormynight，andnextmorning，adeadbodyisfoundatashortdistancefromthevillage。

Whythisstory，whichwasnotstrikinglyremarkableforartistic，merit，impressedmesodeeplyIcannotsay。Perhapsitwasbecause，Iwasmyselfillatthetime，andimaginedhowterribleitwouldbe，tobeturnedoutonthemuddyroadonacold，wetOctobernight。

Besidesthis，thestoryinterestedmeasillustratingtheterror，whichthepoliceinspiredduringthereignofNicholasI。The，ingeniousdeviceswhichtheyemployedforextortingmoneyformed，thesubjectofanothersketch，whichIreadshortlyafterwards，and，whichhaslikewiseremainedinmymemory。Thefactswereas，follows：Anofficerofruralpolice，whendrivingonacountry，road，findsadeadbodybythewayside。Congratulatinghimselfon，thisbitofgoodluck，heproceedstothenearestvillage，andlets，theinhabitantsknowthatallmanneroflegalproceedingswillbe，takenagainstthem，sothatthesupposedmurderermaybe，discovered。Thepeasantsareofcoursefrightened，andgivehima，considerablesumofmoneyinorderthathemayhushuptheaffair。

Anordinaryofficerofpolicewouldhavebeenquitesatisfiedwith，thisransom，butthisofficerisnotanordinaryman，andisvery，muchinneedofmoney;heconceives，therefore，thebrilliantidea，ofrepeatingtheexperiment。Takingupthedeadbody，hetakesit，awayinhistarantass，andafewhourslaterdeclarestothe，inhabitantsofavillagesomemilesoffthatsomeofthemhavebeen，guiltyofmurder，andthatheintendstoinvestigatethematter，thoroughly。Thepeasantsofcoursepayliberallyinorderto，escapetheinvestigation，andtherascallyofficer，emboldenedby，success，repeatsthetrickindifferentvillagesuntilhehas，gatheredalargesum。

Talesandsketchesofthiskindwereverymuchinfashionduring，theyearswhichfollowedthedeathofthegreatautocrat，Nicholas，I。whenthelong-pent-upindignationagainsthissevere，repressiveregimewassuddenlyallowedfreeexpression，andthey，werestillmuchreadduringthefirstyearsofmystayinthe，country。Nowthepublictastehaschanged。Thereformenthusiast，hasevaporated，andtheexistingadministrativeabuses，more，refinedandlesscomicalthantheirpredecessors，receive，comparativelylittleattentionfromthesatirists。

WhenIdidnotfeeldisposedtoread，andhadnoneofmyregular，visitorswithme，Isometimesspentanhourortwointalkingwith，theoldman-servantwhoattendedme。Antonwasdecidedlyanold，man，butwhathisagepreciselywasInevercoulddiscover;either，hedidnotknowhimself，orhedidnotwishtotellme。In，appearanceheseemedaboutsixty，butfromcertainremarkswhichhe，madeIconcludedthathemustbenearerseventy，thoughhehad，scarcelyagreyhaironhishead。Astowhohisfatherwashe，seemed，likethefamousTopsy，tohavenoveryclearideas，buthe，hadanadvantageoverTopsywithregardtohismaternalancestry。

Hismotherhadbeenaserfwhohadfulfilledforsometimethe，functionsofalady’smaid，andafterthedeathofhermistresshad，beenpromotedtoanotveryclearlydefinedpositionof，responsibilityinthehousehold。Anton，too，hadbeenpromotedin，histime。Hisfirstfunctioninthehouseholdhadbeenthatof，assistant-keeperofthetobacco-pipes，fromwhichhumbleofficehe，hadgraduallyrisentoapositionwhichmayberoughlydesignated，asthatofbutler。Allthistimehehadbeen，ofcourse，aserf，ashismotherhadbeenbeforehim;butbeingnaturallyamanof，sluggishintellect，hehadneverthoroughlyrealisedthefact，and，hadcertainlyneverconceivedthepossibilityofbeinganything，differentfromwhathewas。Hismasterwasmaster，andhehimself，wasAnton，obligedtoobeyhismaster，oratleastconceal，disobedience——thesewerelongthemainfactsinhisconceptionof，theuniverse，and，asphilosophersgenerallydowithregardto，fundamentalfactsoraxioms，hehadacceptedthemwithout，examination。Bymeansofthesesimplepostulateshehadleda，tranquillife，untroubledbydoubts，untiltheyear1861，whenthe，so-calledfreedomwasbroughttoIvanofka。Hehimselfhadnotgone，tothechurchtohearBatushkareadtheTsar’smanifesto，buthis，master，onreturningfromtheceremony，hadcalledhimandsaid，“Anton，youarefreenow，buttheTsarsaysyouaretoserveasyou，havedonefortwoyearslonger。”

TothisstartlingannouncementAntonhadrepliedcoolly，“Slushayus，“or，aswewouldsay，“Yes，sir，“andwithoutfurther，commenthadgonetofetchhismaster’sbreakfast;butwhathesaw，andheardduringthenextfewweeksgreatlytroubledhisold，conceptionsofhumansocietyandthefitnessofthings。Fromthat，timemustbedated，Isuppose，theexpressionofmentalconfusion，whichhisfacehabituallywore。

Thefirstthingthatrousedhisindignationwastheconductofhis，fellow-servants。Nearlyalltheunmarriedonesseemedtobe，suddenlyattackedbyapeculiarmatrimonialmania。Thereasonof，thiswasthatthenewlawexpresslygavepermissiontothe，emancipatedserfstomarryastheychosewithouttheconsentof，theirmasters，andnearlyalltheunmarriedadultshastenedtotake，advantageoftheirnewly-acquiredprivilege，thoughmanyofthem，hadgreatdifficultyinraisingthecapitalnecessarytopaythe，priest’sfees。Thencamedisordersamongthepeasantry，thedeath，oftheoldmaster，andtheremovalofthefamilyfirsttoSt。

Petersburg，andafterwardstoGermany。Anton’smindhadneverbeen，ofaverypowerfulorder，andthesegreateventshadexerciseda，deleteriousinfluenceuponit。WhenKarlKarl’itch，attheexpiry，ofthetwoyears，informedhimthathemightnowgowherehechose，hereplied，withalookofblank，unfeignedastonishment，“Where，canIgoto？”Hehadneverconceivedthepossibilityofbeing，forcedtoearnhisbreadinsomenewway，andbeggedKarlKarl’itch，tolethimremainwherehewas。Thisrequestwasreadilygranted，forAntonwasanhonest，faithfulservant，andsincerelyattached，tothefamily，anditwasaccordinglyarrangedthatheshould，receiveasmallmonthlysalary，andoccupyanintermediateposition，betweenthoseofmajor-domoandheadwatch-dog。

HadAntonbeentransformedintoarealwatch-doghecouldscarcely，havesleptmorethanhedid。Hispowerofsleeping，andhis，somnolencewhenheimaginedhewasawake，werehistwomost，prominentcharacteristics。Outofconsiderationforhisyearsand，hisloveofrepose，Itroubledhimaslittleaspossible;buteven，thesmallamountofservicewhichIdemandedhecontrivedto，curtailinaningeniousway。Thetimeandexertionrequiredfor，traversingtheinterveningspacebetweenhisownroomandmine，might，hethought，bemoreprofitablyemployed;andaccordinglyhe，extemporisedabedinasmallante-chamber，closetomydoor，and，tookuptherehispermanentabode。Ifsonoroussnoringbe，sufficientproofthattheperformerisasleep，thenImustconclude，thatAntondevotedaboutthree-fourthsofhistimetosleepingand，alargepartoftheremainingfourthtoyawningandelongated，gutturalejaculations。Atfirstthislittlearrangement，considerablyannoyedme，butIboreitpatiently，andafterwards，receivedmyreward，forduringmyillnessIfounditvery，convenienttohaveanattendantwithincall。AndImustdoAnton，thejusticetosaythatheservedmewellinhisownsomnolent，fashion。Heseemedtohavethefacultyofhearingwhenasleep，and，generallyappearedinmyroombeforehehadsucceededingetting，hiseyescompletelyopen。

Antonhadneverfoundtime，duringhislonglife，toformmany，opinions，buthehadsomehowimbibedorinhaledafewconvictions，allofadecidedlyconservativekind，andoneofthesewasthat，feldsherswereuselessanddangerousmembersofsociety。Againand，againhehadadvisedmetohavenothingtodowiththeonewho，visitedme，andmorethanonceherecommendedtomeanoldwomanof，thenameofMasha，wholivedinavillageafewmilesoff。Masha，waswhatisknowninRussiaasaznakharka——thatistosay，awoman，whoishalfwitch，halfmedicalpractitioner——thewholepermeated，withastrongleavenofknavery。AccordingtoAnton，shecould，effectbymeansofherbsandcharmseverypossiblecureshortof，raisingfromthedead，andevenwithregardtothislastoperation，hecautiouslyrefrainedfromexpressinganopinion。

Theideaofbeingsubjectedtoacourseofherbsandcharmsbyan，oldwomanwhoprobablyknewverylittleaboutthehiddenproperties，ofeither，didnotseemtomeinviting，andmorethanonceIflatly，refusedtohaverecoursetosuchunhallowedmeans。Ondue，consideration，however，Ithoughtthataprofessionalinterview，withtheoldwitchwouldberatheramusing，andthenabrilliant，ideaoccurredtome！，Iwouldbringtogetherthefeldsherandthe，znakharka，whonodoubthatedeachotherwithaKilkenny-cat，hatred，andletthemfightouttheirdifferencesbeforemeforthe，benefitofscienceandmyowndelectation。

ThemoreIthoughtofmyproject，themoreIcongratulatedmyself，onhavingconceivedsuchascheme;but，alas！inthisvery，imperfectlyorganisedworldofoursbrilliantideasareseldom，realised，andinthiscaseIwasdestinedtobedisappointed。Did，theoldwoman’sblackartwarnherofapproachingdanger，orwas，shesimplyactuatedbyafeelingofprofessionaljealousyand，considerationsofprofessionaletiquette？，TothisquestionIcan，givenopositiveanswer，butcertainitisthatshecouldnotbe，inducedtopaymeavisit，andIwasthusbalkedofmyexpected，amusement。Isucceeded，however，inlearningindirectlysomething，abouttheoldwitch。Sheenjoyedamongherneighboursthatsolid，durablekindofrespectwhichisfoundedonvague，undefinable，fear，andwasbelievedtohaveeffectedmanyremarkablecures。In，thetreatmentofsyphiliticdiseases，whicharefearfullycommon，amongtheRussianpeasantry，shewassupposedtobespecially，successful，andIhavenodoubt，fromthevaguedescriptionswhich，Ireceived，thatthecharmwhichsheemployedinthesecaseswasof，amercurialkind。SometimeafterwardIsawoneofhervictims。

WhethershehadsucceededindestroyingthepoisonIknownot，but，shehadatleastsucceededindestroyingmostcompletelythe，patient’steeth。Howwomenofthiskindobtainmercury，andhow，theyhavediscovereditsmedicinalproperties，Icannotexplain。

NeithercanIexplainhowtheyhavecometoknowthepeculiar，propertiesofergotofrye，whichtheyfrequentlyemployfor，illicitpurposesfamiliartoallstudentsofmedicaljurisprudence。

Theznakharkaandthefeldsherrepresenttwoverydifferentperiods，inthehistoryofmedicalscience——themagicalandthescientific。

TheRussianpeasantryhavestillmanyconceptionswhichbelongto，theformer。Thegreatmajorityofthemarealreadyquitewilling，underordinarycircumstances，tousethescientificmeansof，healing;butassoonasaviolentepidemicbreaksout，andthe，scientificmeansproveunequaltotheoccasion，theoldfaith，revives，andrecourseishadtomagicalritesandincantations。Of，theseritesmanyareverycurious。Here，forinstance，isone，whichhadbeenperformedinavillagenearwhichIafterwardslived，forsometime。Cholerahadbeenraginginthedistrictforseveral，weeks。Inthevillageinquestionnocasehadyetoccurred，but，theinhabitantsfearedthatthedreadedvisitorwouldsoonarrive，andthefollowingingeniouscontrivancewasadoptedforwardingoff，thedanger。Atmidnight，whenthemalepopulationwassupposedto，beasleep，allthemaidensmetinnocturnalcostume，accordingtoa，preconcertedplan，andformedaprocession。Infrontmarcheda，girl，holdinganIcon。Behindhercamehercompanions，dragginga，sokha——theprimitiveploughcommonlyusedbythepeasantry——by，meansofalongrope。Inthisordertheprocessionmadethe，circuitoftheentirevillage，anditwasconfidentlybelievedthat，thecholerawouldnotbeabletooverstepthemagicalcirclethus，described。Manyofthemalesprobablyknew，oratleastsuspected，whatwasgoingon;buttheyprudentlyremainedwithindoors，knowingwellthatiftheyshouldbecaughtpeepingindiscreetlyat，themysticceremony，theywouldbeunmercifullybeatenbythosewho，weretakingpartinit。

Thiscustomisdoubtlessasurvivalofoldpagansuperstitions。

TheintroductionoftheIconisamoderninnovation，which，illustratesthatcuriousblendingofpaganismandChristianity，whichisoftentobemetwithinRussia，andofwhichIshallhave，moretosayinanotherchapter。

Sometimes，whenanepidemicbreaksout，thepanicproducedtakesa，moredangerousform。Thepeoplesuspectthatitistheworkofthe，doctors，orthatsomeill-disposedpersonshavepoisonedthewells，andnoamountofreasoningwillconvincethemthattheirown，habitualdisregardofthemostsimplesanitaryprecautionshas，somethingtodowiththephenomenon。Iknowofonecasewherean，itinerantphotographerwasseverelymaltreatedinconsequenceof，suchsuspicions;andonce，inSt。Petersburg，duringthereignof，NicholasI。aseriousriottookplace。Theexcitedpopulacehad，alreadythrownseveraldoctorsoutofthewindowsofthehospital，whentheEmperorarrived，unattended，inanopencarriage，and，quelledthedisturbancebyhissimplepresence，aidedbyhis，stentorianvoice。

OftheignorantcredulityoftheRussianpeasantryImightrelate，manycuriousillustrations。Themostabsurdrumourssometimes，awakenconsternationthroughoutawholedistrict。Oneofthemost，commonreportsofthiskindisthatafemaleconscriptionisabout，totakeplace。AboutthetimeoftheDukeofEdinburgh’smarriage，withthedaughterofAlexanderII。thisreportwasspecially，frequent。Alargenumberofyounggirlsweretobekidnappedand，senttoEnglandinaredship。WhytheshipwastoberedIcan，easilyexplain，becauseinthepeasants’languagetheconceptions，ofredandbeautifulareexpressedbythesameword(krasny)，and，inthepopularlegendstheepithetisindiscriminatelyappliedto，everythingconnectedwithprincesandgreatpersonages;butwhat，wastobedonewiththekidnappedmaidenswhentheyarrivedat，theirdestination，Ineversucceededindiscovering。

ThemostamusinginstanceofcredulitywhichIcanrecallwasthe，following，relatedtomebyapeasantwomanwhocamefromthe，villagewheretheincidenthadoccurred。Onedayinwinter，about，thetimeofsunset，apeasantfamilywasstartledbytheentrance，ofastrangevisitor，afemalefigure，dressedasSt。Barbarais，commonlyrepresentedinthereligiouspictures。Allpresentwere，verymuchastonishedbythisapparition;butthefiguretoldthem，inalow，softvoice，tobeofgoodcheer，forshewasSt。Barbara，andhadcometohonourthefamilywithavisitasarewardfor，theirpiety。Thepeasantthusfavouredwasnotremarkableforhis，piety，buthedidnotconsideritnecessarytocorrectthemistake，ofhissaintlyvisitor，andrequestedhertobeseated。With，perfectreadinesssheacceptedtheinvitation，andbeganatonceto，discourseinanedifyingway。

Meanwhilethenewsofthiswonderfulapparitionspreadlike，wildfire，andalltheinhabitantsofthevillage，aswellasthose，ofaneighbouringvillageaboutamiledistant，collectedinand，aroundthehouse。Whetherthepriestwasamongthosewhocamemy，informantdidnotknow。Manyofthosewhohadcomecouldnotget，withinhearing，butthoseattheoutskirtsofthecrowdhopedthat，thesaintmightcomeoutbeforedisappearing。Theirhopeswere，gratified。Aboutmidnightthemysteriousvisitorannouncedthat，shewouldgoandbringSt。Nicholas，themiracle-worker，and，requestedalltoremainperfectlystillduringherabsence。The，crowdrespectfullymadewayforher，andshepassedoutintothe，darkness。Withbreathlessexpectationallawaitedthearrivalof，St。Nicholas，whoisthefavouritesaintoftheRussianpeasantry;

buthourspassed，andhedidnotappear。Atlast，towardsunrise，someofthelesszealousspectatorsbegantoreturnhome，andthose，ofthemwhohadcomefromtheneighbouringvillagediscoveredto，theirhorrorthatduringtheirabsencetheirhorseshadbeen，stolen！，Atoncetheyraisedthehue-and-cry;andthepeasants，scouredthecountryinalldirectionsinsearchofthesoi-disant，St。Barbaraandheraccomplices，buttheyneverrecoveredthe，stolenproperty。”Andservethemright，theblockheads！”addedmy，informant，whohadherselfescapedfallingintothetrapbybeing，absentfromthevillageatthetime。

ItisbutfairtoaddthattheordinaryRussianpeasant，thoughin，somerespectsextremelycredulous，and，likeallotherpeople，subjecttooccasionalpanics，isbynomeanseasilyfrightenedby，realdangers。Thosewhohaveseenthemunderfirewillreadily，creditthisstatement。Formyownpart，Ihavehadopportunities，ofobservingthemmerelyindangersofanon-militarykind，and，haveoftenadmiredtheperfectcoolnessdisplayed。Evenan，epidemicalarmsthemonlywhenitattainsacertaindegreeof，intensity。OnceIhadagoodopportunityofobservingthison，boardalargesteamerontheVolga。Itwasaveryhotdayinthe，earlyautumn。Asitwaswellknownthattherewasagreatdealof，Asiaticcholeraalloverthecountry，prudentpeoplerefrainedfrom，eatingmuchrawfruit;butRussianpeasantsarenotgenerally，prudentmen，andInoticedthatthoseonboardwereconsuming，enormousquantitiesofrawcucumbersandwater-melons。This，imprudencewassoonfollowedbyitsnaturalpunishment。Irefrain，fromdescribingthescenethatensued，butImaysaythatthosewho，wereattackedreceivedfromtheotherseverypossibleassistance。

Hadnounforeseenaccidenthappened，weshouldhavearrivedat，Kazanonthefollowingmorning，andbeenabletosendthepatients，tothehospitalofthattown;butastherewaslittlewaterinthe，river，wehadtocastanchorforthenight，andnextmorningweran，agroundandstuckfast。Herewehadtoremainpatientlytilla，smallersteamerhoveinsight。Allthistimetherewasnotthe，slightestsymptomofpanic，andwhenthesmallsteamercame，alongsidetherewasnofranticrushtogetawayfromtheinfected，vessel，thoughitwasquiteevidentthatonlyafewofthe，passengerscouldbetakenoff。Thosewhowerenearestthegangway，wentquietlyonboardthesmallsteamer，andthosewhowereless，fortunateremainedpatientlytillanothersteamerhappenedtopass。

Theoldconceptionsofdisease，assomethingthatmaybemost，successfullycuredbycharmsandsimilarmeans，arerapidly，disappearing。TheZemstvo——thatistosay，thenewlocalself-

government——hasdonemuchtowardsthisendbyenablingthepeople，toprocurebettermedicalattendance。Inthetownsthereare，publichospitals，whichgenerallyare——oratleastseemtoan，unprofessionaleye——inaverysatisfactorycondition。Theresident，doctorsaredailybesiegedbyacrowdofpeasants，whocomefrom，farandneartoaskadviceandreceivemedicines。Besidesthis，in，someprovincesfeldshersareplacedintheprincipalvillages，and，thedoctormakesfrequenttoursofinspection。Thedoctorsare，generallywell-educatedmen，anddoalargeamountofworkfora，verysmallremuneration。

Ofthelunaticasylums，whicharegenerallyattachedtothelarger，hospitals，Icannotspeakveryfavourably。Someofthegreat，centralonesareallthatcouldbedesired，butothersarebadly，constructedandfearfullyovercrowded。OneortwoofthoseI

visitedappearedtometobeconductedonverypatriarchal，principles，asthefollowingincidentmayillustrate。

Ihadbeenvisitingalargehospital，andhadremainedthereso，longthatitwasalreadydarkbeforeIreachedtheadjacentlunatic，asylum。Seeingnolightsinthewindows，Iproposedtomy，companion，whowasoneoftheinspectors，thatweshoulddelayour，visittillthefollowingmorning，butheassuredmethatbythe，regulationsthelightsoughtnottobeextinguishedtill，considerablylater，andconsequentlytherewasnoobjectiontoour，goinginatonce。Iftherewasnolegalobjection，therewasat，leastaphysicalobstructionintheformofalargewoodendoor，andalloureffortstoattracttheattentionoftheporterorsome，otherinmatewereunavailing。Atlast，aftermuchringing，knocking，andshouting，avoicefromwithinaskeduswhowewere，andwhatwewanted。Abriefreplyfrommycompanion，notcouched，inthemostpoliteoramiableterms，madetheboltsrattleandthe，dooropenwithsurprisingrapidity，andwesawbeforeusanoldman，withlongdishevelledhair，who，asfarasappearancewent，might，havebeenoneofthelunatics，bowingobsequiouslyandmuttering，apologies。

Aftergropingourwayalongadarkcorridorweenteredastill，darkerroom，andthedoorwasclosedandlockedbehindus。Asthe，keyturnedintherustylockawildscreamrangthroughthe，darkness！，Thencameayell，thenahowl，andthenvarioussounds，whichthepovertyoftheEnglishlanguagepreventsmefrom，designating——thewholeblendingintoahideousdiscordthatwould，havebeenathomeinsomeoftheworstregionsofDante’sInferno。

AstothecauseofitIcouldnotevenformaconjecture。

Graduallymyeyesbecameaccustomedtothedarkness，andIcould，dimlyperceivewhitefiguresflittingabouttheroom。Atthesame，timeIfeltsomethingstandingnearme，andclosetomyshoulderI

sawapairofeyesandlongstreaminghair。Onmyotherside，equallyclose，wassomethingverylikeawoman’snight-cap。Though，bynomeansofanervoustemperament，Ifeltuncomfortable。Tobe，shutupinadarkroomwithanindefinitenumberofexcitedmaniacs，isnotacomfortableposition。HowlongtheimprisonmentlastedI

knownot——probablynotmorethantwoorthreeminutes，butit，seemedalongtime。Atlastalightwasprocured，andthewhole，affairwasexplained。Theguardians，notexpectingthevisitofan，inspectoratsolateanhour，hadretiredforthenightmuch，earlierthanusual，andtheoldporterhadputusintothenearest，warduntilhecouldfetchalight——lockingthedoorbehinduslest，anyofthelunaticsshouldescape。Thenoisehadawakenedoneof，theunfortunateinmatesoftheward，andherhystericalscreamhad，terrifiedtheothers。

Bytheinfluenceofasylums，hospitals，andsimilarinstitutions，theoldconceptionsofdisease，asIhavesaid，aregraduallydying，out，buttheznakharkastillfindspractice。Thefactthatthe，znakharkaistobefoundsidebysidenotonlywiththefeldsher，butalsowiththehighlytrainedbacteriologist，isvery，characteristicofRussiancivilisation，whichisastrange，conglomerationofproductsbelongingtoverydifferentperiods。

Theenquirerwhoundertakesthestudyofitwillsometimesbe，scarcelylesssurprisedthanwouldbethenaturalistwhoshould，unexpectedlystumbleuponantediluvianmegatheriagrazing，tranquillyinthesamefieldwithprizeSouthdowns。Hewill，discoverthemostprimitiveinstitutionssidebysidewiththe，latestproductsofFrenchdoctrinairism，andthemostchildish，superstitionsincloseproximitywiththemostadvancedfree-

thinking。

CHAPTERVI

APEASANTFAMILYOFTHEOLDTYPE

IvanPetroff——HisPastLife——Co-operativeAssociations——

ConstitutionofaPeasant’sHousehold——PredominanceofEconomic，ConceptionsoverthoseofBlood-relationship——PeasantMarriages——

AdvantagesofLivinginLargeFamilies——ItsDefects——Family，DisruptionsandtheirConsequences。

Myillnesshadatleastonegoodresult。Itbroughtmeinto，contactwiththefeldsher，andthroughhim，aftermyrecovery，I

madetheacquaintanceofseveralpeasantslivinginthevillage。

OfthesebyfarthemostinterestingwasanoldmancalledIvan，Petroff。

Ivanmusthavebeenaboutsixtyyearsofage，butwasstillrobust，andstrong，andhadthereputationofbeingabletomowmorehayin，agiventimethananyotherpeasantinthevillage。Hisheadwould，havemadealinestudyforaportrait-painter。LikeRussian，peasantsingenera]，heworehishairpartedinthemiddle——a，customwhichperhapsowesitsorigintothereligiouspictures。

Thereverendappearancegiventohisfacebyhislongfairbeard，slightlytingedwithgrey，wasinpartcounteractedbyhiseyes，whichhadastrangetwinkleinthem——whetherofhumourorof，roguery，itwasdifficulttosay。Underallcircumstances——whether，inhislight，nondescriptsummercostume，orinhiswarmsheep-

skin，orinthelong，glossy，dark-blue，double-breastedcoatwhich，heputonoccasionallyonSundaysandholidays——healwayslookeda，well-fed，respectable，prosperousmemberofsociety;whilsthis，imperturbablecomposure，andtheentireabsenceofobsequiousness，ortruculenceinhismanner，indicatedplainlythathepossessedno，smallamountofcalm，deep-rootedself-respect。Astranger，on，seeinghim，mightreadilyhaveleapedtotheconclusionthathe，mustbetheVillageElder，butinrealityhewasasimplememberof，theCommune，likehisneighbour，poorZakharLeshkof，whoneverlet，slipanopportunityofgettingdrunk，wasalwaysindebt，and，on，thewhole，possessedamorethandubiousreputation。

Ivanhad，itistrue，beenVillageEldersomeyearsbefore。When，electedbytheVillageAssembly，againsthisownwishes，hehad，saidquietly，“Verywell，children;Iwillservemythreeyears“;

andattheendofthatperiod，whentheAssemblywishedtore-elect，him，hehadansweredfirmly，“No，children;Ihaveservedmyterm。

Itisnowtheturnofsomeonewhoisyounger，andhasmoretime。

There’sPeterAlekseyef，agoodfellow，andanhonest;youmay，choosehim。”，AndtheAssemblychosethepeasantindicated;for，Ivan，thoughasimplememberoftheCommune，hadmoreinfluencein，Communalaffairsthananyotherhalf-dozenmembersputtogether。

Nogravematterwasdecidedwithouthisbeingconsulted，andthere，wasatleastoneinstanceonrecordoftheVillageAssembly，postponingdeliberationsforaweekbecausehehappenedtobe，absentinSt。Petersburg。

NostrangercasuallymeetingIvanwouldeverforamomenthave，suspectedthatthatbigman，ofcalm，commandingaspect，hadbeen，duringagreatpartofhislifeaserf。Andyetaserfhehadbeen，fromhisbirthtillhewasaboutthirtyyearsofage——notmerelya，serfoftheState，buttheserfofaproprietorwhohadlived，habituallyonhisproperty。Forthirtyyearsofhislifehehad，beendependentonthearbitrarywillofamasterwhohadthelegal，powertofloghimasoftenandasseverelyasheconsidered，desirable。Inrealityhehadneverbeensubjectedtocorporal，punishment，fortheproprietortowhomhehadbelongedhadbeen，thoughinsomerespectssevere，ajustandintelligentmaster。

Ivan’sbright，sympatheticfacehadearlyattractedthemaster’s，attention，anditwasdecidedthatheshouldlearnatrade。For，thispurposehewassenttoMoscow，andapprenticedtheretoa，carpenter。Afterfouryearsofapprenticeshiphewasablenotonly，toearnhisownbread，buttohelpthehouseholdinthepaymentof，theirtaxes，andtopayannuallytohismasterafixedyearlysum——

firstten，thentwenty，thenthirty，andultimately，forsomeyears，immediatelybeforetheEmancipation，seventyroubles。Inreturn，forthisannualsumhewasfreetoworkandwanderaboutashe，pleased，andforsomeyearshehadmadeampleuseofhis，conditionalliberty。Ineversucceededinextractingfromhima，chronologicalaccountofhistravels，butIcouldgatherfromhis，occasionalremarksthathehadwanderedoveragreatpartof，EuropeanRussia。Evidentlyhehadbeeninhisyouthwhatis，colloquiallytermed“arovingblade，“andhadbynomeansconfined，himselftothetradewhichhehadlearnedduringhisfouryearsof，apprenticeship。OncehehadhelpedtonavigatearaftfromVetluga，toAstrakhan，adistanceofabouttwothousandmiles。Atanother，timehehadbeenatArchangelandOnega，ontheshoresoftheWhite，Sea。St。PetersburgandMoscowwerebothwellknowntohim，andhe，hadvisitedOdessa。

TheprecisenatureofIvan’soccupationsduringthesewanderingsI

couldnotascertain;for，withallhisopennessofmanner，hewas，extremelyreticentregardinghiscommercialaffairs。Toallmy，inquiriesonthistopichewaswonttoreplyvaguely，“Lesnoe，dyelo“——thatistosay，“Timberbusiness“;andfromthisI

concludedthathischiefoccupationhadbeenthatofatimber，merchant。Indeed，whenIknewhim，thoughhewasnolongera，regulartrader，hewasalwaysreadytobuyanybitofforestthat，couldbeboughtinthevicinityforareasonableprice。

DuringallthisnomadicperiodofhislifeIvanhadneverentirely，severedhisconnectionwithhisnativevillageorwithagricultural，life。Whenabouttheageoftwentyhehadspentseveralmonthsat，home，takingpartinthefieldlabour，andhadmarriedawife——a，strong，healthyyoungwoman，whohadbeenselectedforhimbyhis，mother，andstronglyrecommendedtohimonaccountofhergood，characterandherphysicalstrength。IntheopinionofIvan’s，mother，beautywasakindofluxurywhichonlynoblesandrich，merchantscouldafford，andordinarycomelinesswasavery，secondaryconsideration——sosecondaryastobeleftalmostentirely，outofsight。ThiswaslikewisetheopinionofIvan’swife。She，hadneverbeencomelyherself，sheusedtosay，butshehadbeena，goodwifetoherhusband。Hehadnevercomplainedaboutherwant，ofgoodlooks，andhadnevergoneafterthosewhowereconsidered，good-looking。Inexpressingthisopinionshealwaysfirstbent，forward，thendrewherselfuptoherfulllength，andfinallygave，alittlejerkynodsideways，soastoclenchthestatement。Then，Ivan’sbrighteyewouldtwinklemorebrightlythanusual，andhe，wouldaskherhowsheknewthat——remindingherthathewasnot，alwaysathome。ThiswasIvan’sstereotypedmodeofteasinghis，wife，andeverytimeheemployedithewascalledan“old，scarecrow，“orsomethingofthekind。

Perhaps，however，Ivan’sjocularremarkhadmoresignificanceinit，thanhiswifecaredtoadmit，forduringthefirstyearsoftheir，marriedlifetheyhadseenverylittleofeachother。Afewdays，afterthemarriage，whenaccordingtoournotionsthehoneymoon，shouldbeatitsheight，IvanhadgonetoMoscowforseveral，months，leavinghisyoungbridetothecareofhisfatherand，mother。Theyoungbridedidnotconsiderthisanextraordinary，hardship，formanyofhercompanionshadbeentreatedinthesame，way，andaccordingtopublicopinioninthatpartofthecountry，therewasnothingabnormalintheproceeding。Indeed，itmaybe，saidingeneralthatthereisverylittleromanceorsentimentality，aboutRussianpeasantmarriages。Inthisasinotherrespectsthe，Russianpeasantryare，asaclass，extremelypracticalandmatter-

of-factintheirconceptionsandhabits，andarenotatallprone，toindulgeinsublime，etherealsentimentsofanykind。Theyhave，littleornothingofwhatmaybetermedtheHermannandDorothea，elementintheircomposition，andconsequentlyknowverylittle，aboutthosesentimental，romanticideaswhichwehabitually，associatewiththepreliminarystepstomatrimony。Eventhose，authorswhoendeavourtoidealisepeasantlifehaverarelyventured，tomaketheirstoryturnonasentimentalloveaffair。Certainly，inreallifethewifeistakenasahelpmate，orinplainlanguage，aworker，ratherthanasacompanion，andthemother-in-lawleaves，herverylittletimetoindulgeinfruitlessdreaming。

Astimeworeon，andhisfatherbecameolderandfrailer，Ivan’s，visitstohisnativeplacebecamelongerandmorefrequent，and，whentheoldmanwasatlastincapableofwork，Ivansettleddown，permanentlyandundertookthedirectionofthehousehold。Inthe，meantimehisownchildrenhadbeengrowingup。WhenIknewthe，familyitcomprised——besidestwodaughterswhohadmarriedearly，andgonetolivewiththeirparents-in-law——Ivanandhiswife，two，sons，threedaughters-in-law，andanindefiniteandfrequently，varyingnumberofgrandchildren。Thefactthattherewerethree，daughters-in-lawandonlytwosonswastheresultofthe，Conscription，whichhadtakenawaytheyoungestsonshortlyafter，hismarriage。Thetwowhoremainedspentonlyasmallpartofthe，yearathome。Theonewasacarpenterandtheotherabricklayer，andbothwanderedaboutthecountryinsearchofemployment，as，theirfatherhaddoneinhisyoungerdays。Therewas，however，one，difference。Thefatherhadalwaysshownaleaningtowards，commercialtransactions，ratherthanthesimplepracticeofhis，handicraft，andconsequentlyhehadusuallylivedandtravelled，alone。Thesons，onthecontrary，confinedthemselvestotheir，handicrafts，andwerealwaysduringtheworkingseasonmembersof，anartel。

Theartelinitsvariousformsisacuriousinstitution。Thoseto，whichIvan’ssonsbelongedweresimplytemporary，itinerant，associationsofworkmen，whoduringthesummerlivedtogether，fed，together，workedtogether，andperiodicallydividedamongst，themselvestheprofits。Thisistheprimitiveformofthe，institution，andisnownotveryoftenmetwith。Here，as，elsewhere，capitalhasmadeitselffelt，anddestroyedthat，equalitywhichexistsamongthemembersofanartelintheabove，senseoftheword。Insteadofformingthemselvesintoatemporary，association，theworkmennowgenerallymakeanengagementwitha，contractorwhohasalittlecapital，andreceivefromhimfixed，monthlywages。Theonlyassociationwhichexistsinthiscaseis，forthepurchaseandpreparationofprovisions，andeventhese，dutiesareveryoftenlefttothecontractor。

Insomeofthelargertownsthereareartelsofamuchmorecomplex，kind——permanentassociations，possessingalargecapital，and，pecuniarilyresponsiblefortheactsoftheindividualmembers。Of，these，byfarthemostcelebratedisthatoftheBankPorters。

Thesemenhaveunlimitedopportunitiesofstealing，andareoften，entrustedwiththeguardingortransportingofenormoussums;but，thebankerhasnocauseforanxiety，becauseheknowsthatifany，defalcationsoccurtheywillbemadegoodtohimbytheartel。

Suchaccidentsveryrarelyhappen，andthefactisbynomeansso，extraordinaryasmanypeoplesuppose。Theartel，beingresponsible，fortheindividualsofwhichitiscomposed，isverycarefulin，admittingnewmembers，andamanwhenadmittediscloselywatched，notonlybytheregularlyconstitutedoffice-bearers，butalsoby，allhisfellow-memberswhohaveanopportunityofobservinghim。

Ifhebeginstospendmoneytoofreelyortoneglecthisduties，thoughhisemployermayknownothingofthefact，suspicionsareat，oncearousedamonghisfellow-members，andaninvestigationensues——

endinginsummaryexpulsionifthesuspicionsprovetohavebeen，wellfounded。Mutualresponsibility，inshort，createsavery，effectivesystemofmutualsupervision。

OfIvan’ssons，theonewhowasacarpentervisitedhisfamilyonly，occasionally，andatirregularintervals;thebricklayer，onthe，contrary，asbuildingisimpossibleinRussiaduringthecold，weather，spentthegreaterpartofthewinterathome。Bothof，thempaidalargepartoftheirearningsintothefamilytreasury，overwhichtheirfatherexerciseduncontrolledauthority。Ifhe，wishedtomakeanyconsiderableoutlay，heconsultedhissonson，thesubject;butashewasaprudent，intelligentman，andenjoyed，therespectandconfidenceofthefamily，henevermetwithany，strongopposition。Allthefieldworkwasperformedbyhimwith，theassistanceofhisdaughters-in-law;onlyatharvesttimehe，hiredoneortwolabourerstohelphim。

【推荐阅读】幽幽深宫，醒来一梦似千年，重生于下堂妃身躯中的她，将如何手刃仇人? 点击阅读