Thelandoftheorang-utan，andthebirdorparadise。

Anarrativeoftravel，withsketchesofmanandnature。

ToCHARLESDARWIN，AUTHOROF"THEORIGINOFSPECIES，"

Idedicatethisbook，NotonlyasatokenofpersonalesteemandfriendshipButalsoToexpressmydeepadmirationForHisgeniusandhisworks。

PREFACE。

MyreaderswillnaturallyaskwhyIhavedelayedwritingthisbookforsixyearsaftermyreturn；andIfeelboundtogivethemfullsatisfactiononthispoint。

WhenIreachedEnglandinthespringof1862，IfoundmyselfsurroundedbyaroomfullofpackingcasescontainingthecollectionsthatIhad，fromtimetotime，senthomeformyprivateuse。Thesecomprisednearlythreethousandbirdskinsofaboutonethousandspecies，atleasttwentythousandbeetlesandbutterfliesofaboutseventhousandspecies，andsomequadrupedsandlandshellsbesides。AlargeproportionoftheseIhadnotseenforyears，andinmythenweakenedstateofhealth，theunpacking，sorting，andarrangingofsuchamassofspecimensoccupiedalongtime。

IverysoondecidedthatuntilIhaddonesomethingtowardsnaminganddescribingthemostimportantgroupsinmycollection，andhadworkedoutsomeofthemoreinterestingproblemsofvariationandgeographicaldistribution(ofwhichIhadhadglimpseswhilecollectingthem)，Iwouldnotattempttopublishmytravels。Indeed，Icouldhaveprintedmynotesandjournalsatonce，leavingallreferencetoquestionsofnaturalhistoryforafuturework；but，Ifeltthatthiswouldbeasunsatisfactorytomyselfasitwouldbedisappointingtomyfriends，anduninstructivetothepublic。

Sincemyreturn，uptothisdate，Ihavepublishedeighteenpapersinthe"Transactions"or"ProceedingsoftheLinneanZoologicalandEntomologicalSocieties"，describingorcataloguingportionsofmycollections，alongwithtwelveothersinvariousscientificperiodicalsonmoregeneralsubjectsconnectedwiththem。

NearlytwothousandofmyColeoptera，andmanyhundredsofmybutterflies，havebeenalreadydescribedbyvariouseminentnaturalists，Britishandforeign；butamuchlargernumberremainsundescribed。Amongthosetowhomscienceismostindebtedforthislaboriouswork，ImustnameMr。F。P。Pascoe，latePresidentoftheEntomologicalSocietyofLondon，whohadalmostcompletedtheclassificationanddescriptionofmylargecollectionofLongicornbeetles(nowinhispossession)，comprisingmorethanathousandspecies，ofwhichatleastninehundredwerepreviouslyundescribedandnewtoEuropeancabinets。

Theremainingordersofinsects，comprisingprobablymorethantwothousandspecies，areinthecollectionofMr。WilliamWilsonSaunders，whohascausedthelargerportionofthemtobedescribedbygoodentomologists。TheHymenopteraaloneamountedtomorethanninehundredspecies，amongwhichweretwohundredandeightydifferentkindsofants，ofwhichtwohundredwerenew。

Thesixyears'delayinpublishingmytravelsthusenablesmetogivewhatIhopemaybeaninterestingandinstructivesketchofthemainresultsyetarrivedatbythestudyofmycollections；

andasthecountriesIhavetodescribearenotmuchvisitedorwrittenabout，andtheirsocialandphysicalconditionsarenotliabletorapidchange，Ibelieveandhopethatmyreaderswillgainmuchmorethantheywilllosebynothavingreadmybooksixyearsago，andbythistimeperhapsforgottenallaboutit。

Imustnowsayafewwordsontheplanofmywork。

Myjourneystothevariousislandswereregulatedbytheseasonsandthemeansofconveyance。Ivisitedsomeislandstwoorthreetimesatdistantintervals，andinsomecaseshadtomakethesamevoyagefourtimesover。Achronologicalarrangementwouldhavepuzzledmyreaders。Theywouldneverhaveknownwheretheywere，andmyfrequentreferencestothegroupsofislands，classedinaccordancewiththepeculiaritiesoftheiranimalproductionsandoftheirhumaninhabitants，wouldhavebeenhardlyintelligible。Ihaveadopted，therefore，ageographical，zoological，andethnologicalarrangement，passingfromislandtoislandinwhatseemsthemostnaturalsuccession，whileI

transgresstheorderinwhichImyselfvisitedthem，aslittleaspossible。

IdividetheArchipelagointofivegroupsofislands，asfollows：

I。THEINDO-MALAYISLANDS：comprisingtheMalayPeninsulaandSingapore，Borneo，Java，andSumatra。

II。THETIMORGROUP：comprisingtheislandsofTimor，Flores，Sumbawa，andLombock，withseveralsmallerones。

III。CELEBES：comprisingalsotheSulaIslandsandBouton。

IV。THEMOLUCCANGROUP：comprisingBouru，Ceram，Batchian，Gilolo，andMorty；withthesmallerislandsofTernate，Tidore，Makian，Kaióa，Amboyna，Banda，Goram，andMatabello。

V。THEPAPUANGROUP：comprisingthegreatislandofNewGuinea，withtheAruIslands，Mysol，Salwatty，Waigiou，andseveralothers。TheKeIslandsaredescribedwiththisgrouponaccountoftheirethnology，thoughzoologicallyandgeographicallytheybelongtotheMoluccas。

ThechaptersrelatingtotheseparateislandsofeachofthesegroupsarefollowedbyoneontheNaturalHistoryofthatgroup；

andtheworkmaythusbedividedintofiveparts，eachtreatingoneofthenaturaldivisionsoftheArchipelago。

Thefirstchapterisanintroductoryone，onthePhysicalGeographyofthewholeregion；andthelastisageneralsketchofthepacesofmanintheArchipelagoandthesurroundingcountries。Withthisexplanation，andareferencetothemapswhichillustratethework，Itrustthatmyreaderswillalwaysknowwheretheyare，andinwhatdirectiontheyaregoing。

Iamwellawarethatmybookisfartoosmallfortheextentofthesubjectsittouchesupon。Itisameresketch；butsofarasitgoes，Ihaveendeavouredtomakeitanaccurateone。Almostthewholeofthenarrativeanddescriptiveportionswerewrittenonthespot，andhavehadlittlemorethanverbalalterations。

ThechaptersonNaturalHistory，aswellasmanypassagesinotherpartsofthework，havebeenwritteninthehopeofexcitinganinterestinthevariousquestionsconnectedwiththeoriginofspeciesandtheirgeographicaldistribution。InsomecasesIhavebeenabletoexplainmyviewsindetail；whileinothers，owingtothegreatercomplexityofthesubject，Ihavethoughtitbettertoconfinemyselftoastatementofthemoreinterestingfactsoftheproblem，whosesolutionistobefoundintheprinciplesdevelopedbyMr。Darwininhisvariousworks。

Thenumerousillustrationswill，itisbelieved，addmuchtotheinterestandvalueofthebook。Theyhavebeenmadefrommyownsketches，fromphotographs，orfromspecimens——andsuch，onlysubjectsthatwouldreallyillustratethenarrativeorthedescriptions，havebeenchosen。

IhavetothankMessrs。WalterandHenryWoodbury，whoseacquaintanceIhadthepleasureofmakinginJava，foranumberofphotographsofsceneryandofnatives，whichhavebeenofthegreatestassistancetome。Mr。WilliamWilsonSaundershaskindlyallowedmetofigurethecurioushornedflies；andtoMr。PascoeIamindebtedforaloanoftwooftheveryrareLongicornswhichappearintheplateofBorneanbeetles。Alltheotherspecimensfiguredareinmyowncollection。

Asthemainobjectofallmyjourneyswastoobtainspecimensofnaturalhistory，bothformyprivatecollectionandtosupplyduplicatestomuseumsandamateurs，IwillgiveageneralstatementofthenumberofspecimensIcollected，andwhichreachedhomeingoodcondition。ImustpremisethatIgenerallyemployedoneortwo，andsometimesthreeMalayservantstoassistme；andfornearlyhalfthetimehadtheservicesofanEnglishlad，CharlesAllen。IwasjusteightyearsawayfromEngland，butasItravelledaboutfourteenthousandmileswithintheArchipelago，andmadesixtyorseventyseparatejourneys，eachinvolvingsomepreparationandlossoftime，Idonotthinkthatmorethansixyearswerereallyoccupiedincollecting。

IfindthatmyEasterncollectionsamountedto：

310specimensofMammalia。

100specimensofReptiles。

8，050specimensofBirds。

7，500specimensofShells。

13，100specimensofLepidoptera。

83，200specimensofColeoptera。

13，400specimensofotherInsects。

125，660specimensofnaturalhistoryinall。

ItnowonlyremainsformetothankallthosefriendstowhomI

amindebtedforassistanceorinformation。MythanksaremoreespeciallyduetotheCounciloftheRoyalGeographicalSociety，throughwhosevaluablerecommendationsIobtainedimportantaidfromourownGovernmentandfromthatofHolland；andtoMr。

WilliamWilsonSaunders，whosekindandliberalencouragementintheearlyportionofmyjourneywasofgreatservicetome。IamalsogreatlyindebtedtoMr。SamuelStevens(whoactedasmyagent)，bothforthecarehetookofmycollections，andfortheuntiringassiduitywithwhichhekeptmesupplied，bothwithusefulinformationandwithwhatevernecessariesIrequired。

Itrustthatthese，andallotherfriendswhohavebeeninanywayinterestedinmytravelsandcollections，mayderivefromtheperusalofmybook，somefaintreflexionofthepleasuresI

myselfenjoyedamidthescenesandobjectsitdescribes。

THEMALAYARCHIPELAGO。

CHAPTERI。

PHYSICALGEOGRAPHY。

FromalookataglobeoramapoftheEasternhemisphere，weshallperceivebetweenAsiaandAustraliaanumberoflargeandsmallislandsformingaconnectedgroupdistinctfromthosegreatmassesofland，andhavinglittleconnectionwitheitherofthem。

SituatedupontheEquator，andbathedbythetepidwaterofthegreattropicaloceans，thisregionenjoysaclimatemoreuniformlyhotandmoistthanalmostanyotherpartoftheglobe，andteemswithnaturalproductionswhichareelsewhereunknown。

TherichestoffruitsandthemostpreciousofspicesareIndigenoushere。ItproducesthegiantflowersoftheRafflesia，thegreatgreen-wingedOrnithoptera(princesamongthebutterflytribes)，theman-likeOrangutan，andthegorgeousBirdsofParadise。Itisinhabitedbyapeculiarandinterestingraceofmankind——theMalay，foundnowherebeyondthelimitsofthisinsulartract，whichhashencebeennamedtheMalayArchipelago。

TotheordinaryEnglishmanthisisperhapstheleastknownpartoftheglobe。Ourpossessionsinitarefewandscanty；scarcelyanyofourtravellersgotoexploreit；andinmanycollectionsofmapsitisalmostignored，beingdividedbetweenAsiaandthePacificIslands。Itthushappensthatfewpersonsrealizethat，asawhole，itiscomparablewiththeprimarydivisionsoftheglobe，andthatsomeofitsseparateislandsarelargerthanFranceortheAustrianEmpire。Thetraveller，however，soonacquiresdifferentideas。Hesailsfordaysorevenweeksalongtheshoresofoneofthesegreatislands，oftensogreatthatitsinhabitantsbelieveittobeavastcontinent。Hefindsthatvoyagesamongtheseislandsarecommonlyreckonedbyweeksandmonths，andthattheirseveralinhabitantsareoftenaslittleknowntoeachotherasarethenativeracesofthenortherntothoseofthesoutherncontinentofAmerica。Hesooncomestolookuponthisregionasoneapartfromtherestoftheworld，withitsownracesofmenanditsownaspectsofnature；withitsownideas，feelings，customs，andmodesofspeech，andwithaclimate，vegetation，andanimatedlifealtogetherpeculiartoitself。

Frommanypointsofviewtheseislandsformonecompactgeographicalwhole，andassuchtheyhavealwaysbeentreatedbytravellersandmenofscience；but，amorecarefulanddetailedstudyofthemundervariousaspectsrevealstheunexpectedfactthattheyaredivisibleintotwoportionsnearlyequalinextentwhichdifferwidelyintheirnaturalproducts，andreallyformtwopartsoftheprimarydivisionsoftheearth。IhavebeenabletoprovethisinconsiderabledetailbymyobservationsonthenaturalhistoryofthevariouspartsoftheArchipelago；and，asinthedescriptionofmytravelsandresidenceintheseveralislandsIshallhavetorefercontinuallytothisview，andadducefactsinsupportofit，IhavethoughtitadvisabletocommencewithageneralsketchofthemainfeaturesoftheMalayanregionaswillrenderthefactshereafterbroughtforwardmoreinteresting，andtheirbearinguponthegeneralquestionmoreeasilyunderstood。Iproceed，therefore，tosketchthelimitsandextentoftheArchipelago，andtopointoutthemorestrikingfeaturesofitsgeology，physicalgeography，vegetation，andanimallife。

DefinitionandBoundaries——Forreasonswhichdependmainlyonthedistributionofanimallife，IconsidertheMalayArchipelagotoincludetheMalayPeninsulaasfarasTenasserimandtheNicobarIslandsonthewest，thePhilippinesonthenorth，andtheSolomonIslands，beyondNewGuinea，ontheeast。Allthegreatislandsincludedwithintheselimitsareconnectedtogetherbyinnumerablesmallerones，sothatnooneofthemseemstobedistinctlyseparatedfromtherest。Withbutfewexceptionsallenjoyanuniformandverysimilarclimate，andarecoveredwithaluxuriantforestvegetation。Whetherwestudytheirformanddistributiononmaps，oractuallytravelfromislandtoisland，ourfirstimpressionwillbethattheyformaconnectedwhole，allthepartsofwhichareintimatelyrelatedtoeachother。

ExtentoftheArchipelagoandIslands——TheMalayArchipelagoextendsformorethan4，000milesinlengthfromeasttowest，andisabout1，300inbreadthfromnorthtosouth。ItwouldstretchoveranexpanseequaltothatofallEuropefromtheextremewestfarintoCentralAsia，orwouldcoverthewidestpartsofSouthAmerica，andextendfarbeyondthelandintothePacificandAtlanticoceans。ItincludesthreeislandslargerthanGreatBritain；andinoneofthem，Borneo，thewholeoftheBritishIslesmightbesetdown，andwouldbesurroundedbyaseaofforests。NewGuinea，thoughlesscompactinshape，isprobablylargerthanBorneo。SumatraisaboutequalinextenttoGreatBritain；Java，Luzon，andCelebesareeachaboutthesizeofIreland。Eighteenmoreislandsare，ontheaverage，aslargeasJamaica；morethanahundredareaslargeastheIsleofWight；

whiletheislesandisletsofsmallersizeareinnumerable。

TheabsoluteextentoflandintheArchipelagoisnotgreaterthanthatcontainedbyWesternEuropefromHungarytoSpain；but，owingtothemannerinwhichthelandisbrokenupanddivided，thevarietyofitsproductionsisratherinproportiontotheimmensesurfaceoverwhichtheislandsarespread，thantothequantityoflandwhichtheycontain。

GeologicalContrasts——OneofthechiefvolcanicbeltsupontheglobepassesthroughtheArchipelago，andproducesastrikingcontrastinthesceneryofthevolcanicandnon-volcanicislands。

Acurvingline，markedoutbyscoresofactive，andhundredsofextinct，volcanoesmaybetracedthroughthewholelengthofSumatraandJava，andthencebytheislandsofBali，Lombock，Sumbawa，Flores，theSerwattyIslands，Banda，Amboyna，Batchian，Makian，Tidore，Ternate，andGilolo，toMortyIsland。Herethereisaslightbutwell-markedbreak，orshift，ofabout200milestothewestward，wherethevolcanicbeltbeginsagaininNorthCelebes，andpassesbySianandSanguirtothePhilippineIslandsalongtheeasternsideofwhichitcontinues，inacurvingline，totheirnorthernextremity。FromtheextremeeasternbendofthisbeltatBanda，wepassonwardsfor1，000milesoveranon-

volcanicdistricttothevolcanoesobservedbyDampier，in1699，onthenorth-easterncoastofNewGuinea，andcantheretraceanothervolcanicbeltthroughNewBritain，NewIreland，andtheSolomonIslands，totheeasternlimitsoftheArchipelago。

Inthewholeregionoccupiedbythisvastlineofvolcanoes，andforaconsiderablebreadthoneachsideofit，earthquakesareofcontinualrecurrence，slightshocksbeingfeltatintervalsofeveryfewweeksormonths，whilemoresevereones，shakingdownwholevillages，anddoingmoreorlessinjurytolifeandproperty，aresuretohappen，inonepartoranotherofthisdistrict，almosteveryyear。Onmanyoftheislandstheyearsofthegreatearthquakesformthechronologicalepochsofthenativeinhabitants，bytheaidofwhichtheagesoftheirchildrenareremembered，andthedatesofmanyimportanteventsaredetermined。

Icanonlybrieflyalludetothemanyfearfuleruptionsthathavetakenplaceinthisregion。Intheamountofinjurytolifeandproperty，andinthemagnitudeoftheireffects，theyhavenotbeensurpassedbyanyuponrecord。FortyvillagesweredestroyedbytheeruptionofPapandayanginJava，in1772，whenthewholemountainwasblownupbyrepeatedexplosions，andalargelakeleftinitsplace。BythegreateruptionofTomboroinSumbawa，in1815，12，000peopleweredestroyed，andtheashesdarkenedtheairandfellthicklyupontheearthandseafor300milesaround。

Evenquiterecently，sinceIleftthecountry，amountainwhichhadbeenquiescentformorethan200yearssuddenlyburstintoactivity。TheislandofMakian，oneoftheMoluccas，wasrentopenin1646byaviolenteruptionwhichleftahugechasmononeside，extendingintotheheartofthemountain。Itwas，whenI

lastvisiteditin1860，clothedwithvegetationtothesummit，andcontainedtwelvepopulousMalayvillages。Onthe29thofDecember，1862，after215yearsofperfectinaction，itagainsuddenlyburstforth，blowingupandcompletelyalteringtheappearanceofthemountain，destroyingthegreaterpartoftheinhabitants，andsendingforthsuchvolumesofashesastodarkentheairatTernate，fortymilesoff，andtoalmostentirelydestroythegrowingcropsonthatandthesurroundingislands。

TheislandofJavacontainsmorevolcanoes，activeandextinct，thananyotherknowndistrictofequalextent。Theyareaboutforty-fiveinnumber，andmanyofthemexhibitmostbeautifulexamplesofthevolcanicconeonalargescale，singleordouble，withentireortruncatedsummits，andaveraging10，000feethigh。

Itisnowwellascertainedthatalmostallvolcanoeshavebeenslowlybuiltupbytheaccumulationofmatter——mud，ashes，andlava——ejectedbythemselves。Theopeningsorcraters，however，frequentlyshifttheirposition，sothatacountrymaybecoveredwithamoreorlessirregularseriesofhillsinchainsandmasses，onlyhereandthererisingintoloftycones，andyetthewholemaybeproducedbytruevolcanicaction。InthismannerthegreaterpartofJavahasbeenformed。Therehasbeensomeelevation，especiallyonthesouthcoast，whereextensivecliffsofcorallimestonearefound；andtheremaybeasubstratumofolderstratifiedrocks；butstillessentiallyJavaisvolcanic，andthatnobleandfertileisland——theverygardenoftheEast，andperhapsuponthewholetherichest，thebestcultivated，andthebestgovernedtropicalislandintheworld——owesitsveryexistencetothesameintensevolcanicactivitywhichstilloccasionallydevastatesitssurface。

ThegreatislandofSumatraexhibits，inproportiontoitsextent，amuchsmallernumberofvolcanoes，andaconsiderableportionofithasprobablyanon-volcanicorigin。

Totheeastward，thelongstringofislandsfromJava，passingbythenorthofTimorandawaytoPanda，areprobablyallduetovolcanicaction。Timoritselfconsistsofancientstratifiedrocks，butissaidtohaveonevolcanonearitscentre。

Goingnorthward，Amboyna，apartofBouru，andthewestendofCeram，thenorthpartofGilolo，andallthesmallislandsaroundit，thenorthernextremityofCelebes，andtheislandsofSianandSang-air，arewhollyvolcanic。ThePhilippineArchipelagocontainsmanyactiveandextinctvolcanoes，andhasprobablybeenreducedtoitspresentfragmentaryconditionbysubsidencesattendingonvolcanicaction。

Allalongthisgreatlineofvolcanoesaretobefoundmoreorlesspalpablesignsofupheavalanddepressionofland。TherangeofislandssouthofSumatra，apartofthesouthcoastofJavaandoftheislandseastofit，thewestandeastendofTimor，portionsofalltheMoluccas，theKeandAruIslands，Waigiou，andthewholesouthandeastofGilolo，consistinagreatmeasureofupraisedcoral-rock，exactlycorrespondingtothatnowformingintheadjacentseas。InmanyplacesIhaveobservedtheunalteredsurfacesoftheelevatedreefs，withgreatmassesofcoralstandingupintheirnaturalposition，andhundredsofshellssofresh-lookingthatitwashardtobelievethattheyhadbeenmorethanafewyearsoutofthewater；and，infact，itisveryprobablethatsuchchangeshaveoccurredwithinafewcenturies。

Theunitedlengthsofthesevolcanicbeltsisaboutninetydegrees，orone-fourthoftheentirecircumferenceoftheglobe。

Theirwidthisaboutfiftymiles；but，foraspaceoftwohundredmilesoneachsideofthem，evidencesofsubterraneanactionaretobefoundinrecentlyelevatedcoral-rock，orinbarriercoral-

reefs，indicatingrecentsubmergence。IntheverycentreorfocusofthegreatcurveofvolcanoesisplacedthelargeislandofBorneo，inwhichnosignofrecentvolcanicactionhasyetbeenobserved，andwhereearthquakes，socharacteristicofthesurroundingregions，areentirelyunknown。TheequallylargeislandofNewGuineaoccupiesanotherquiescentarea，onwhichnosignofvolcanicactionhasyetbeendiscovered。Withtheexceptionoftheeasternendofitsnorthernpeninsula，thelargeandcuriously-shapedislandofCelebesisalsoentirelyfreefromvolcanoes；andthereissomereasontobelievethatthevolcanicportionhasonceformedaseparateisland。TheMalayPeninsulaisalsonon-volcanic。

ThefirstandmostobviousdivisionoftheArchipelagowouldthereforebeintoquiescentandvolcanicregions，anditmight，perhaps，beexpectedthatsuchadivisionwouldcorrespondtosomedifferencesinthecharacterofthevegetationandtheformsoflife。Thisisthecase，however，toaverylimitedextent；andweshallpresentlyseethat，althoughthisdevelopmentofsubterraneanfiresisonsovastascale——haspiledupchainsofmountainstenortwelvethousandfeethigh——hasbrokenupcontinentsandraisedupislandsfromtheocean——yetithasallthecharacterofarecentactionwhichhasnotyetsucceededinobliteratingthetracesofamoreancientdistributionoflandandwater。

ContrastsofVegetation——PlacedimmediatelyupontheEquatorandsurroundedbyextensiveoceans，itisnotsurprisingthatthevariousislandsoftheArchipelagoshouldbealmostalwaysclothedwithaforestvegetationfromtheleveloftheseatothesummitsoftheloftiestmountains。Thisisthegeneralrule。

Sumatra，NewGuinea，Borneo，thePhilippinesandtheMoluccas，andtheuncultivatedpartsofJavaandCelebes，areallforestcountries，exceptafewsmallandunimportanttracts，dueperhaps，insomecases，toancientcultivationoraccidentalfires。Tothis，however，thereisoneimportantexceptionintheislandofTimorandallthesmallerislandsaroundit，inwhichthereisabsolutelynoforestsuchasexistsintheotherislands，andthischaracterextendsinalesserdegreetoFlores，Sumbawa，Lombock，andBali。

InTimorthemostcommontreesareEucalyptiofseveralspecies，alsocharacteristicofAustralia，withsandalwood，acacia，andothersortsinlessabundance。Thesearescatteredoverthecountrymoreorlessthickly，but，neversoastodeservethenameofaforest。Coarseandscantygrassesgrowbeneaththemonthemorebarrenhills，andaluxuriantherbageinthemoisterlocalities。IntheislandsbetweenTimorandJavathereisoftenamorethicklywoodedcountryaboundinginthornyandpricklytrees。Theseseldomreachanygreatheight，andduringtheforceofthedryseasontheyalmostcompletelylosetheirleaves，allowingthegroundbeneaththemtobeparchedup，andcontrastingstronglywiththedamp，gloomy，ever-verdantforestsoftheotherislands。Thispeculiarcharacter，whichextendsinalessdegreetothesouthernpeninsulaofCelebesandtheeastendofJava，ismostprobablyowingtotheproximityofAustralia。

Thesouth-eastmonsoon，whichlastsforabouttwo-thirdsoftheyear(fromMarchtoNovember)，blowingoverthenorthernpartsofthatcountry，producesadegreeofheatanddrynesswhichassimilatesthevegetationandphysicalaspectoftheadjacentislandstoitsown。AlittlefurthereastwardinTimorandtheKeIslands，amoisterclimateprevails；thesoutheastwindsblowingfromthePacificthroughTorresStraitsandoverthedampforestsofNewGuinea，andasaconsequence，everyrockyisletisclothedwithverduretoitsverysummit。Furtherwestagain，asthesamedrywindsblowoverawiderandwiderextentofocean，theyhavetimetoabsorbfreshmoisture，andweaccordinglyfindtheislandofJavapossessingalessandlessaridclimate，untilintheextremewestnearBatavia，rainoccursmoreorlessalltheyearround，andthemountainsareeverywhereclothedwithforestsofunexampledluxuriance。

ContrastsinDepthofSea——ItwasfirstpointedoutbyMr。

GeorgeWindsorEarl，inapaperreadbeforetheRoyalGeographicalSocietyin1845，andsubsequentlyinapamphlet"OnthePhysicalGeographyofSouth-EasternAsiaandAustralia"，dated1855，thatashallowseaconnectedthegreatislandsofSumatra，Java，andBorneowiththeAsiaticcontinent，withwhichtheirnaturalproductionsgenerallyagreed；whileasimilarshallowseaconnectedNewGuineaandsomeoftheadjacentislandstoAustralia，allbeingcharacterisedbythepresenceofmarsupials。

WehavehereacluetothemostradicalcontrastintheArchipelago，andbyfollowingitoutindetailIhavearrivedattheconclusionthatwecandrawalineamongtheislands，whichshallsodividethemthatone-halfshalltrulybelongtoAsia，whiletheothershallnolesscertainlybealliedtoAustralia。I

termtheserespectivelytheIndo-MalayanandtheAustro-MalayandivisionsoftheArchipelago。

Onreferringtopages12，13，and36ofMr。Earl'spamphlet，itwillbeseenthathemaintainstheformerconnectionofAsiaandAustraliaasanimportantpartofhisview；whereas，Idwellmainlyontheirlongcontinuedseparation。Notwithstandingthisandotherimportantdifferencesbetweenus，tohimundoubtedlybelongsthemeritoffirstindicatingthedivisionoftheArchipelagointoanAustralianandanAsiaticregion，whichithasbeenmygoodfortunetoestablishbymoredetailedobservations。

ContrastsinNaturalProductions——Tounderstandtheimportanceofthisclassoffacts，anditsbearingupontheformerdistributionoflandandsea，itisnecessarytoconsidertheresultsarrivedatbygeologistsandnaturalistsinotherpartsoftheworld。

Itisnowgenerallyadmittedthatthepresentdistributionoflivingthingsonthesurfaceoftheearthismainlytheresultofthelastseriesofchangesthatithasundergone。Geologyteachesusthatthesurfaceoftheland，andthedistributionoflandandwater，iseverywhereslowlychanging。Itfurtherteachesusthattheformsoflifewhichinhabitthatsurfacehave，duringeveryperiodofwhichwepossessanyrecord，beenalsoslowlychanging。

Itisnotnownecessarytosayanythingabouthoweitherofthosechangestookplace；astothat，opinionsmaydiffer；butastothefactthatthechangesthemselveshaveoccurred，fromtheearliestgeologicalagesdowntothepresentday，andarestillgoingon，thereisnodifferenceofopinion。Everysuccessivestratumofsedimentaryrock，sand，orgravel，isaproofthatchangesoflevelhavetakenplace；andthedifferentspeciesofanimalsandplants，whoseremainsarefoundinthesedeposits，provethatcorrespondingchangesdidoccurintheorganicworld。

Taking，therefore，thesetwoseriesofchangesforgranted，mostofthepresentpeculiaritiesandanomaliesinthedistributionofspeciesmaybedirectlytracedtothem。Inourownislands，withaveryfewtriflingexceptions，everyquadruped，bird，reptile，insect，andplant，isfoundalsoontheadjacentcontinent。InthesmallislandsofSardiniaandCorsica，therearesomequadrupedsandinsects，andmanyplants，quitepeculiar。InCeylon，morecloselyconnectedtoIndiathanBritainistoEurope，manyanimalsandplantsaredifferentfromthosefoundinIndia，andpeculiartotheisland。IntheGalapagosIslands，almosteveryindigenouslivingthingispeculiartothem，thoughcloselyresemblingotherkindsfoundinthenearestpartsoftheAmericancontinent。

Mostnaturalistsnowadmitthatthesefactscanonlybeexplainedbythegreaterorlesslapseoftimesincetheislandswereupraisedfrombeneaththeocean，orwereseparatedfromthenearestland；andthiswillbegenerally(thoughnotalways)

indicatedbythedepthoftheinterveningsea。Theenormousthicknessofmanymarinedepositsthroughwideareasshowsthatsubsidencehasoftencontinued(withintermittingperiodsofrepose)duringepochsofimmenseduration。Thedepthofseaproducedbysuchsubsidencewillthereforegenerallybeameasureoftime；andinlikemanner，thechangewhichorganicformshaveundergoneisameasureoftime。WhenwemakeproperallowanceforthecontinuedintroductionofnewanimalsandplantsfromsurroundingcountriesbythosenaturalmeansofdispersalwhichhavebeensowellexplainedbySirCharlesLyellandMr。Darwin，itisremarkablehowcloselythesetwomeasurescorrespond。

Britainisseparatedfromthecontinentbyaveryshallowsea，andonlyinaveryfewcaseshaveouranimalsorplantsbeguntoshowadifferencefromthecorrespondingcontinentalspecies。

CorsicaandSardinia，dividedfromItalybyamuchdeepersea，presentamuchgreaterdifferenceintheirorganicforms。Cuba，separatedfromYucatanbyawideranddeeperstrait，differsmoremarkedly，sothatmostofitsproductionsareofdistinctandpeculiarspecies；whileMadagascar，dividedfromAfricabyadeepchannelthreehundredmileswide，possessessomanypeculiarfeaturesastoindicateseparationataveryremoteantiquity，oreventorenderitdoubtfulwhetherthetwocountrieshaveeverbeenabsolutelyunited。

ReturningnowtotheMalayArchipelago，wefindthatallthewideexpanseofseawhichdividesJava，Sumatra，andBorneofromeachother，andfromMalaccaandSiam，issoshallowthatshipscananchorinanypartofit，sinceitrarelyexceedsfortyfathomsindepth；andifwegoasfarasthelineofahundredfathoms，weshallincludethePhilippineIslandsandBali，eastofJava。

If，therefore，theseislandshavebeenseparatedfromeachotherandthecontinentbysubsidenceoftheinterveningtractsofland，weshouldconcludethattheseparationhasbeencomparativelyrecent，sincethedepthtowhichthelandhassubsidedissosmall。ItisalsotoberemarkedthatthegreatchainofactivevolcanoesinSumatraandJavafurnishesuswithasufficientcauseforsuchsubsidence，sincetheenormousmassesofmattertheyhavethrownoutwouldtakeawaythefoundationsofthesurroundingdistrict；andthismaybethetrueexplanationoftheoften-noticedfactthatvolcanoesandvolcanicchainsarealwaysnearthesea。Thesubsidencetheyproducearoundthemwill，intime，makeasea，ifonedoesnotalreadyexist。

But，itiswhenweexaminethezoologyofthesecountriesthatwefindwhatwemostrequire——evidenceofaverystrikingcharacterthatthesegreatislandsmusthaveonceformedapartofthecontinent，andcouldonlyhavebeenseparatedataveryrecentgeologicalepoch。TheelephantandtapirofSumatraandBorneo，therhinocerosofSumatraandthealliedspeciesofJava，thewildcattleofBorneoandthekindlongsupposedtobepeculiartoJava，arenowallknowntoinhabitsomepartorotherofSouthernAsia。Noneoftheselargeanimalscouldpossiblyhavepassedoverthearmsoftheseawhichnowseparatethesecountries，andtheirpresenceplainlyindicatesthatalandcommunicationmusthaveexistedsincetheoriginofthespecies。

Amongthesmallermammals，aconsiderableportionarecommontoeachislandandthecontinent；butthevastphysicalchangesthatmusthaveoccurredduringthebreakingupandsubsidenceofsuchextensiveregionshaveledtotheextinctionofsomeinoneormoreoftheislands，andinsomecasesthereseemsalsotohavebeentimeforachangeofspeciestohavetakenplace。Birdsandinsectsillustratethesameview，foreveryfamilyandalmosteverygenusofthesegroupsfoundinanyoftheislandsoccursalsoontheAsiaticcontinent，andinagreatnumberofcasesthespeciesareexactlyidentical。Birdsofferusoneofthebestmeansofdeterminingthelawofdistribution；forthoughatfirstsightitwouldappearthatthewateryboundarieswhichkeepoutthelandquadrupedscouldbeeasilypassedoverbybirds，yetpracticallyitisnotso；forifweleaveouttheaquatictribeswhicharepreeminentlywanderers，itisfoundthattheothers(andespeciallythePasseres，ortrueperching-birds，whichformthevastmajority)aregenerallyasstrictlylimitedbystraitsandarmsoftheseaasarequadrupedsthemselves。Asaninstance，amongtheislandsofwhichIamnowspeaking，itisaremarkablefactthatJavapossessesnumerousbirdswhichneverpassovertoSumatra，thoughtheyareseparatedbyastraitonlyfifteenmileswide，andwithislandsinmid-channel。Java，infact，possessesmorebirdsandinsectspeculiartoitselfthaneitherSumatraorBorneo，andthiswouldindicatethatitwasearliestseparatedfromthecontinent；nextinorganicindividualityisBorneo，whileSumatraissonearlyidenticalinallitsanimalformswiththepeninsulaofMalacca，thatwemaysafelyconcludeittohavebeenthemostrecentlydismemberedisland。

Thegeneralresulttherefore，atwhichwearrive，isthatthegreatislandsofJava，Sumatra，andBorneoresembleintheirnaturalproductionstheadjacentpartsofthecontinent，almostasmuchassuchwidely-separateddistrictscouldbeexpectedtodoeveniftheystillformedapartofAsia；andthiscloseresemblance，joinedwiththefactofthewideextentofseawhichseparatesthembeingsouniformlyandremarkablyshallow，andlastly，theexistenceoftheextensiverangeofvolcanoesinSumatraandJava，whichhavepouredoutvastquantitiesofsubterraneanmatterandhavebuiltupextensiveplateauxandloftymountainranges，thusfurnishingaveracausaforaparallellineofsubsidence——allleadirresistiblytotheconclusionthatataveryrecentgeologicalepoch，thecontinentofAsiaextendedfarbeyonditspresentlimitsinasouth-

easterlydirection，includingtheislandsofJava，Sumatra，andBorneo，andprobablyreachingasfarasthepresent100-fathomlineofsoundings。

ThePhilippineIslandsagreeinmanyrespectswithAsiaandtheotherislands，butpresentsomeanomalies，whichseemtoindicatethattheywereseparatedatanearlierperiod，andhavesincebeensubjecttomanyrevolutionsintheirphysicalgeography。

TurningourattentionnowtotheremainingportionoftheArchipelago，weshallfindthatalltheislandsfromCelebesandLombockeastwardexhibitalmostasclosearesemblancetoAustraliaandNewGuineaastheWesternIslandsdotoAsia。ItiswellknownthatthenaturalproductionsofAustraliadifferfromthoseofAsiamorethanthoseofanyofthefourancientquartersoftheworlddifferfromeachother。Australia，infact，standsalone：itpossessesnoapesormonkeys，nocatsortigers，wolves，bears，orhyenas；nodeerorantelopes，sheeporoxen；noelephant，horse，squirrel，orrabbit；none，inshort，ofthosefamiliartypesofquadrupedwhicharemetwithineveryotherpartoftheworld。Insteadofthese，ithasMarsupialsonly：

kangaroosandopossums；wombatsandtheduckbilledPlatypus。Inbirdsitisalmostaspeculiar。Ithasnowoodpeckersandnopheasants——familieswhichexistineveryotherpartoftheworld；butinsteadofthemithasthemound-makingbrush-turkeys，thehoneysuckers，thecockatoos，andthebrush-tonguedlories，whicharefoundnowhereelseupontheglobe。AllthesestrikingpeculiaritiesarefoundalsointhoseislandswhichformtheAustro-MalayandivisionoftheArchipelago。

ThegreatcontrastbetweenthetwodivisionsoftheArchipelagoisnowheresoabruptlyexhibitedasonpassingfromtheislandofBalitothatofLombock，wherethetworegionsareinclosestproximity。InBaliwehavebarbets，fruit-thrushes，andwoodpeckers；onpassingovertoLombocktheseareseennomore，butwehaveabundanceofcockatoos，honeysuckers，andbrush-

turkeys，whichareequallyunknowninBali，oranyislandfurtherwest。[Iwasinformed，however，thattherewereafewcockatoosatonespotonthewestofBali，showingthattheinterminglingoftheproductionsoftheseislandsisnowgoingon。]Thestraitisherefifteenmileswide，sothatwemaypassintwohoursfromonegreatdivisionoftheearthtoanother，differingasessentiallyintheiranimallifeasEuropedoesfromAmerica。IfwetravelfromJavaorBorneotoCelebesortheMoluccas，thedifferenceisstillmorestriking。Inthefirst，theforestsaboundinmonkeysofmanykinds，wildcats，deer，civets，andotters，andnumerousvarietiesofsquirrelsareconstantlymetwith。Inthelatternoneoftheseoccur；buttheprehensile-

tailedCuscusisalmosttheonlyterrestrialmammalseen，exceptwildpigs，whicharefoundinalltheislands，anddeer(whichhaveprobablybeenrecentlyintroduced)inCelebesandtheMoluccas。ThebirdswhicharemostabundantintheWesternIslandsarewoodpeckers，barbets，trogons，fruit-thrushes，andleaf-thrushes；theyareseendaily，andformthegreatornithologicalfeaturesofthecountry。IntheEasternIslandstheseareabsolutelyunknown，honeysuckersandsmallloriesbeingthemostcommonbirds，sothatthenaturalistfeelshimselfinanewworld，andcanhardlyrealizethathehaspassedfromtheoneregiontotheotherinafewdays，withouteverbeingoutofsightofland。

Theinferencethatwemustdrawfromthesefactsis，undoubtedly，thatthewholeoftheislandseastwardsbeyondJavaandBorneodoessentiallyformapartofaformerAustralianorPacificcontinent，althoughsomeofthemmayneverhavebeenactuallyjoinedtoit。ThiscontinentmusthavebeenbrokenupnotonlybeforetheWesternIslandswereseparatedfromAsia，butprobablybeforetheextremesoutheasternportionofAsiawasraisedabovethewatersoftheocean；foragreatpartofthelandofBorneoandJavaisknowntobegeologicallyofquiterecentformation，whiletheverygreatdifferenceofspecies，andinmanycasesofgeneraalso，betweentheproductionsoftheEasternMalayIslandsandAustralia，aswellasthegreatdepthoftheseanowseparatingthem，allpointtoacomparativelylongperiodofisolation。

Itisinterestingtoobserveamongtheislandsthemselveshowashallowseaalwaysintimatesarecentlandconnexion。TheAruIslands，Mysol，andWaigiou，aswellasJobie，agreewithNewGuineaintheirspeciesofmammaliaandbirdsmuchmorecloselythantheydowiththeMoluccas，andwefindthattheyareallunitedtoNewGuineabyashallowsea。Infact，the100-fathomlineroundNewGuineamarksoutaccuratelytherangeofthetrueParadisebirds。

Itisfurthertobenoted——andthisisaveryinterestingpointinconnectionwiththeoriesofthedependenceofspecialformsoflifeonexternalconditions——thatthisdivisionoftheArchipelagointotworegionscharacterisedbyastrikingdiversityintheirnaturalproductionsdoesnotinanywaycorrespondtothemainphysicalorclimataldivisionsofthesurface。Thegreatvolcanicchainrunsthroughbothparts，andappearstoproducenoeffectinassimilatingtheirproductions。

BorneocloselyresemblesNewGuineanotonlyinitsvastsizeanditsfreedomfromvolcanoes，butinitsvarietyofgeologicalstructure，itsuniformityofclimate，andthegeneralaspectoftheforestvegetationthatclothesitssurface。TheMoluccasarethecounterpartofthePhilippinesintheirvolcanicstructure，theirextremefertility，theirluxuriantforests，andtheirfrequentearthquakes；andBaliwiththeeastendofJavahasaclimatealmostasdryandasoilalmostasaridasthatofTimor。

Yetbetweenthesecorrespondinggroupsofislands，constructedasitwereafterthesamepattern，subjectedtothesameclimate，andbathedbythesameoceans，thereexiststhegreatestpossiblecontrastwhenwecomparetheiranimalproductions。Nowheredoestheancientdoctrine——thatdifferencesorsimilaritiesinthevariousformsoflifethatinhabitdifferentcountriesareduetocorrespondingphysicaldifferencesorsimilaritiesinthecountriesthemselves——meetwithsodirectandpalpableacontradiction。BorneoandNewGuinea，asalikephysicallyastwodistinctcountriescanbe，arezoologicallywideasthepolesasunder；whileAustralia，withitsdrywinds，itsopenplains，itsstonydeserts，anditstemperateclimate，yetproducesbirdsandquadrupedswhicharecloselyrelatedtothoseinhabitingthehotdampluxuriantforests，whicheverywhereclothetheplainsandmountainsofNewGuinea。

InordertoillustratemoreclearlythemeansbywhichIsupposethisgreatcontrasthasbeenbroughtabout，letusconsiderwhatwouldoccuriftwostronglycontrasteddivisionsoftheearthwere，bynaturalmeans，broughtintoproximity。NotwopartsoftheworlddiffersoradicallyintheirproductionsasAsiaandAustralia，butthedifferencebetweenAfricaandSouthAmericaisalsoverygreat，andthesetworegionswillwellservetoillustratethequestionweareconsidering。Ontheonesidewehavebaboons，lions，elephants，buffaloes，andgiraffes；ontheotherspider-monkeys，pumas，tapirs，anteaters，andsloths；whileamongbirds，thehornbills，turacos，orioles，andhoneysuckersofAfricacontraststronglywiththetoucans，macaws，chatterers，andhummingbirdsofAmerica。

Nowletusendeavourtoimagine(whatitisveryprobablemayoccurinfutureages)thataslowupheavalofthebedoftheAtlanticshouldtakeplace，whileatthesametimeearthquake-

shocksandvolcanicactiononthelandshouldcauseincreasedvolumesofsedimenttobepoureddownbytherivers，sothatthetwocontinentsshouldgraduallyspreadoutbytheadditionofnewly-formedlands，andthusreducetheAtlanticwhichnowseparatesthem，toanarmoftheseaafewhundredmileswide。Atthesametimewemaysupposeislandstobeupheavedinmid-

channel；and，asthesubterraneanforcesvariedinintensity，andshiftedtheirpointsofgreatestaction，theseislandswouldsometimesbecomeconnectedwiththelandononesideorotherofthestrait，andatothertimesagainbeseparatedfromit。

Severalislandswouldatonetimebejoinedtogether，atanotherwouldbebrokenupagain，untilatlast，aftermanylongagesofsuchintermittentaction，wemighthaveanirregulararchipelagoofislandsfillinguptheoceanchanneloftheAtlantic，inwhoseappearanceandarrangementwecoulddiscovernothingtotelluswhichhadbeenconnectedwithAfricaandwhichwithAmerica。Theanimalsandplantsinhabitingtheseislandswould，however，certainlyrevealthisportionoftheirformerhistory。OnthoseislandswhichhadeverformedapartoftheSouthAmericancontinent，weshouldbesuretofindsuchcommonbirdsaschatterersandtoucansandhummingbirds，andsomeofthepeculiarAmericanquadrupeds；whileonthosewhichhadbeenseparatedfromAfrica，hornbills，orioles，andhoneysuckerswouldascertainlybefound。Someportionoftheupraisedlandmightatdifferenttimeshavehadatemporaryconnectionwithbothcontinents，andwouldthencontainacertainamountofmixtureinitslivinginhabitants。SuchseemstohavebeenthecasewiththeislandsofCelebesandthePhilippines。Otherislands，again，thoughinsuchcloseproximityasBaliandLombock，mighteachexhibitanalmostunmixedsampleoftheproductionsofthecontinentsofwhichtheyhaddirectlyorindirectlyonceformedapart。

IntheMalayArchipelagowehave，Ibelieve，acaseexactlyparalleltothatwhichIhaveheresupposed。Wehaveindicationsofavastcontinent，withapeculiarfaunaandflorahavingbeengraduallyandirregularlybrokenup；theislandofCelebesprobablymarkingitsfurthestwestwardextension，beyondwhichwasawideocean。AtthesametimeAsiaappearstohavebeenextendingitslimitsinasoutheastdirection，firstinanunbrokenmass，thenseparatedintoislandsaswenowseeit，andalmostcomingintoactualcontactwiththescatteredfragmentsofthegreatsouthernland。

Fromthisoutlineofthesubject，itwillbeevidenthowimportantanadjunctNaturalHistoryistoGeology；notonlyininterpretingthefragmentsofextinctanimalsfoundintheearth'scrust，butindeterminingpastchangesinthesurfacewhichhaveleftnogeologicalrecord。Itiscertainlyawonderfulandunexpectedfactthatanaccurateknowledgeofthedistributionofbirdsandinsectsshouldenableustomapoutlandsandcontinentswhichdisappearedbeneaththeoceanlongbeforetheearliesttraditionsofthehumanrace。Whereverthegeologistcanexploretheearth'ssurface，hecanreadmuchofitspasthistory，andcandetermineapproximatelyitslatestmovementsaboveandbelowthesea-level；butwhereveroceansandseasnowextend，hecandonothingbutspeculateontheverylimiteddataaffordedbythedepthofthewaters。Herethenaturaliststepsin，andenableshimtofillupthisgreatgapinthepasthistoryoftheearth。

Oneofthechiefobjectsofmytravelswastoobtainevidenceofthisnature；andmysearchaftersuchevidencehasbeenrewardedbygreatsuccess，sothatIhavebeenabletotraceoutwithsomeprobabilitythepastchangeswhichoneofthemostinterestingpartsoftheearthhasundergone。Itmaybethoughtthatthefactsandgeneralizationsheregivenwouldhavebeenmoreappropriatelyplacedattheendratherthanatthebeginningofanarrativeofthetravelswhichsuppliedthefacts。Insomecasesthismightbeso，butIhavefounditimpossibletogivesuchanaccountasIdesireofthenaturalhistoryofthenumerousislandsandgroupsofislandsintheArchipelago，withoutconstantreferencetothesegeneralizationswhichaddsomuchtotheirinterest。Havinggiventhisgeneralsketchofthesubject，Ishallbeabletoshowhowthesameprinciplescanbeappliedtotheindividualislandsofagroup，astothewholeArchipelago；

andtherebymakemyaccountofthemanynewandcuriousanimalswhichinhabitthemboth，moreinterestingandmoreinstructivethaniftreatedasmereisolatedfacts。

ContrastsofRaces——BeforeIhadarrivedattheconvictionthattheeasternandwesternhalvesoftheArchipelagobelongedtodistinctprimaryregionsoftheearth，IhadbeenledtogroupthenativesoftheArchipelagoundertworadicallydistinctraces。InthisIdifferedfrommostethnologistswhohadbeforewrittenonthesubject；forithadbeenthealmostuniversalcustomtofollowWilliamvonHumboldtandPritchard，inclassingalltheOceanicracesasmodificationsofonetype。Observationsoonshowedme，however，thatMalaysandPapuansdifferedradicallyineveryphysical，mental，andmoralcharacter；andmoredetailedresearch，continuedforeightyears，satisfiedmethatunderthesetwoforms，astypes，thewholeofthepeoplesoftheMalayArchipelagoandPolynesiacouldbeclassified。Ondrawingthelinewhichseparatestheseraces，itisfoundtocomeneartothatwhichdividesthezoologicalregions，butsomewhateastwardofit；acircumstancewhichappearstomeverysignificantofthesamecauseshavinginfluencedthedistributionofmankindthathavedeterminedtherangeofotheranimalforms。

Thereasonwhyexactlythesamelinedoesnotlimitbothissufficientlyintelligible。Manhasmeansoftraversingtheseawhichanimalsdonotpossess；andasuperiorracehaspowertopressoutorassimilateaninferiorone。ThemaritimeenterpriseandhighercivilizationoftheMalayraceshaveenabledthemtooverrunaportionoftheadjacentregion，inwhichtheyhaveentirelysupplantedtheindigenousinhabitantsifiteverpossessedany；andtospreadmuchoftheirlanguage，theirdomesticanimals，andtheircustomsfaroverthePacific，intoislandswheretheyhavebutslightly，ornotatall，modifiedthephysicalormoralcharacteristicsofthepeople。

Ibelieve，therefore，thatallthepeoplesofthevariousislandscanbegroupedeitherwiththeMalaysorthePapuans；andthatthesetwohavenotraceableaffinitytoeachother。Ibelieve，further，thatalltheraceseastofthelineIhavedrawnhavemoreaffinityforeachotherthantheyhaveforanyoftheraceswestofthatline；that，infact，theAsiaticracesincludetheMalays，andallhaveacontinentalorigin，whilethePacificraces，includingalltotheeastoftheformer(exceptperhapssomeintheNorthernPacific)，arederived，notfromanyexistingcontinent，butfromlandswhichnowexistorhaverecentlyexistedinthePacificOcean。ThesepreliminaryobservationswillenablethereaderbettertoapprehendtheimportanceIattachtothedetailsofphysicalformormoralcharacter，whichIshallgiveindescribingtheinhabitantsofmanyoftheislands。

CHAPTERII。

SINGAPORE。

(ASKETCHOFTHETOWNANDISLANDASSEENDURINGSEVERALVISITS

FROM1854TO1862。)

FEWplacesaremoreinterestingtoatravellerfromEuropethanthetownandislandofSingapore，furnishing，asitdoes，examplesofavarietyofEasternraces，andofmanydifferentreligionsandmodesoflife。Thegovernment，thegarrison，andthechiefmerchantsareEnglish；butthegreatmassofthepopulationisChinese，includingsomeofthewealthiestmerchants，theagriculturistsoftheinterior，andmostofthemechanicsandlabourers。ThenativeMalaysareusuallyfishermenandboatmen，andtheyformthemainbodyofthepolice。ThePortugueseofMalaccasupplyalargenumberoftheclerksandsmallermerchants。TheKlingsofWesternIndiaareanumerousbodyofMahometans，and，withmanyArabs，arepettymerchantsandshopkeepers。ThegroomsandwashermenareallBengalees，andthereisasmallbuthighlyrespectableclassofParseemerchants。Besidesthese，therearenumbersofJavanesesailorsanddomesticservants，aswellastradersfromCelebes，Bali，andmanyotherislandsoftheArchipelago。Theharbouriscrowdedwithmen-of-warandtradingvesselsofmanyEuropeannations，andhundredsofMalayprausandChinesejunks，fromvesselsofseveralhundredtonsburthendowntolittlefishingboatsandpassengersampans；andthetowncompriseshandsomepublicbuildingsandchurches，Mahometanmosques，Hindutemples，Chinesejoss-houses，goodEuropeanhouses，massivewarehouses，queeroldKlingandChinabazaars，andlongsuburbsofChineseandMalaycottages。

ByfarthemostconspicuousofthevariouskindsofpeopleinSingapore，andthosewhichmostattractthestranger'sattention，aretheChinese，whosenumbersandincessantactivitygivetheplaceverymuchtheappearanceofatowninChina。TheChinesemerchantisgenerallyafatround-facedmanwithanimportantandbusiness-likelook。Hewearsthesamestyleofclothing(loosewhitesmock，andblueorblacktrousers)asthemeanestcoolie，butoffinermaterials，andisalwayscleanandneat；andhislongtailtippedwithredsilkhangsdowntohisheels。Hehasahandsomewarehouseorshopintownandagoodhouseinthecountry。Hekeepsafinehorseandgig，andeveryeveningmaybeseentakingadrivebareheadedtoenjoythecoolbreeze。Heisrich——heownsseveralretailshopsandtradingschooners，helendsmoneyathighinterestandongoodsecurity，hemakeshardbargains，andgetsfatterandrichereveryyear。

IntheChinesebazaararehundredsofsmallshopsinwhichamiscellaneouscollectionofhardwareanddrygoodsaretobefound，andwheremanythingsaresoldwonderfullycheap。Youmaybuygimletsatapennyeach，whitecottonthreadatfourballsforahalfpenny，andpenknives，corkscrews，gunpowder，writing-

paper，andmanyotherarticlesascheaporcheaperthanyoucanpurchasetheminEngland。Theshopkeeperisverygood-natured；hewillshowyoueverythinghehas，anddoesnotseemtomindifyoubuynothing。Hebatesalittle，butnotsomuchastheKlings，whoalmostalwaysasktwicewhattheyarewillingtotake。Ifyoubuyafewthingsfromhim，hewillspeaktoyouafterwardseverytimeyoupasshisshop，askingyoutowalkinandsitdown，ortakeacupoftea；andyouwonderhowhecangetalivingwheresomanysellthesametriflingarticles。

Thetailorssitatatable，notonone；andboththeyandtheshoemakersworkwellandcheaply。Thebarbershaveplentytodo，shavingheadsandcleaningears；forwhichlatteroperationtheyhaveagreatarrayoflittletweezers，picks，andbrushes。Intheoutskirtsofthetownarescoresofcarpentersandblacksmiths。

Theformerseemchieflytomakecoffinsandhighlypaintedanddecoratedclothes-boxes。Thelatteraremostlygun-makers，andborethebarrelsofgunsbyhandoutofsolidbarsofiron。Atthistediousoperationtheymaybeseeneveryday，andtheymanagetofinishoffagunwithaflintlockveryhandsomely。Allaboutthestreetsaresellersofwater，vegetables，fruit，soup，andagar-agar(ajellymadeofseaweed)，whohavemanycriesasunintelligibleasthoseofLondon。Otherscarryaportablecooking-apparatusonapolebalancedbyatableattheotherend，andserveupamealofshellfish，rice，andvegetablesfortwoorthreehalfpence——whilecooliesandboatmenwaitingtobehiredareeverywheretobemetwith。

IntheinterioroftheislandtheChinesecutdownforesttreesinthejungle，andsawthemupintoplanks；theycultivatevegetables，whichtheybringtomarket；andtheygrowpepperandgambir，whichformimportantarticlesofexport。TheFrenchJesuitshaveestablishedmissionsamongtheseinlandChinese，whichseemverysuccessful。IlivedforseveralweeksatatimewiththemissionaryatBukit-tima，aboutthecentreoftheisland，whereaprettychurchhasbeenbuiltandthereareabout300converts。Whilethere，ImetamissionarywhohadjustarrivedfromTonquin，wherehehadbeenlivingformanyyears。

TheJesuitsstilldotheirworkthoroughlyasofold。InCochinChina，Tonquin，andChina，whereallChristianteachersareobligedtoliveinsecret，andareliabletopersecution，expulsion，andsometimesdeath，everyprovince——eventhosefarthestintheinterior——hasapermanentJesuitmissionestablishmentconstantlykeptupbyfreshaspirants，whoaretaughtthelanguagesofthecountriestheyaregoingtoatPenangorSingapore。InChinatherearesaidtobenearamillionconverts；inTonquinandCochinChina，morethanhalfamillion。

Onesecretofthesuccessofthesemissionsistherigideconomypractisedintheexpenditureofthefunds。Amissionaryisallowedabout￡30。ayear，onwhichhelivesinwhatevercountryhemaybe。Thisrendersitpossibletosupportalargenumberofmissionarieswithverylimitedmeans；andthenatives，seeingtheirteacherslivinginpovertyandwithnoneoftheluxuriesoflife，areconvincedthattheyaresincereinwhattheyteach，andhavereallygivenuphomeandfriendsandeaseandsafety，forthegoodofothers。Nowondertheymakeconverts，foritmustbeagreatblessingtothepoorpeopleamongwhomtheylabourtohaveamanamongthemtowhomtheycangoinanytroubleordistress，whowillcomfortandadvisethem，whovisitstheminsickness，whorelievestheminwant，andwhotheyseelivingfromday-to-dayindangerofpersecutionanddeath——entirelyfortheirsakes。

MyfriendatBukit-timawastrulyafathertohisflock。HepreachedtotheminChineseeverySunday，andhadeveningsfordiscussionandconversationonreligionduringtheweek。Hehadaschooltoteachtheirchildren。Hishousewasopentothemdayandnight。Ifamancametohimandsaid，"Ihavenoriceformyfamilytoeattoday，"hewouldgivehimhalfofwhathehadinthehouse，howeverlittlethatmightbe。Ifanothersaid，"Ihavenomoneytopaymydebt，"hewouldgivehimhalfthecontentsofhispurse，wereithislastdollar。So，whenhewashimselfinwant，hewouldsendtosomeofthewealthiestamonghisflock，andsay，"Ihavenoriceinthehouse，"or"Ihavegivenawaymymoney，andaminwantofsuchandsucharticles。"Theresultwasthathisflocktrustedandlovedhim，fortheyfeltsurethathewastheirtruefriend，andhadnoulteriordesignsinlivingamongthem。

TheislandofSingaporeconsistsofamultitudeofsmallhills，threeorfourhundredfeethigh，thesummitsofmanyofwhicharestillcoveredwithvirginforest。Themission-houseatBukit-timawassurroundedbyseveralofthesewood-toppedhills，whichweremuchfrequentedbywoodcuttersandsawyers，andofferedmeanexcellentcollectinggroundforinsects。Hereandthere，too，weretigerpits，carefullycoveredoverwithsticksandleaves，andsowellconcealed，thatinseveralcasesIhadanarrowescapefromfallingintothem。Theyareshapedlikeanironfurnace，wideratthebottomthanthetop，andareperhapsfifteenortwentyfeetdeepsothatitwouldbealmostimpossibleforapersonunassistedtogetoutofone。Formerlyasharpstakewasstuckerectinthebottom；butafteranunfortunatetravellerhadbeenkilledbyfallingonone，itsusewasforbidden。TherearealwaysafewtigersroamingaboutSingapore，andtheykillonanaverageaChinamaneveryday，principallythosewhoworkinthegambirplantations，whicharealwaysmadeinnewly-clearedjungle。Weheardatigerroaronceortwiceintheevening，anditwasrathernervousworkhuntingforinsectsamongthefallentrunksandoldsawpitswhenoneofthesesavageanimalsmightbelurkingcloseby，awaitinganopportunitytospringuponus。

Severalhoursinthemiddleofeveryfinedaywerespentinthesepatchesofforest，whichweredelightfullycoolandshadybycontrastwiththebareopencountrywehadtowalkovertoreachthem。Thevegetationwasmostluxuriant，comprisingenormousforesttrees，aswellasavarietyofferns，caladiums，andotherundergrowth，andabundanceofclimbingrattanpalms。Insectswereexceedinglyabundantandveryinteresting，andeverydayfurnishedscoresofnewandcuriousforms。

InabouttwomonthsIobtainednolessthan700speciesofbeetles，alargeproportionofwhichwerequitenew，andamongthemwere130distinctkindsoftheelegantLongicorns(Cerambycidae)，somuchesteemedbycollectors。Almostallthesewerecollectedinonepatchofjungle，notmorethanasquaremileinextent，andinallmysubsequenttravelsintheEastI

rarelyifevermetwithsoproductiveaspot。Thisexceedingproductivenesswasdueinpartnodoubttosomefavourableconditionsinthesoil，climate，andvegetation，andtotheseasonbeingverybrightandsunny，withsufficientshowerstokeepeverythingfresh。Butitwasalsoinagreatmeasuredependent，Ifeelsure，onthelaboursoftheChinesewood-

cutters。Theyhadbeenatworkhereforseveralyears，andduringallthattimehadfurnishedacontinualsupplyofdryanddeadanddecayingleavesandbark，togetherwithabundanceofwoodandsawdust，forthenourishmentofinsectsandtheirlarvae。Thishadledtotheassemblageofagreatvarietyofspeciesinalimitedspace，andIwasthefirstnaturalistwhohadcometoreaptheharvesttheyhadprepared。Inthesameplace，andduringmywalksinotherdirections，Iobtainedafaircollectionofbutterfliesandofotherordersofinsects，sothatonthewholeIwasquitesatisfiedwiththese——myfirstattemptstogainaknowledgeoftheNaturalHistoryoftheMalayArchipelago。

CHAPTERIII。

MALACCAANDMOUNTOPHIR。

(JULYTOSEPTEMBER，1854。)

BIRDSandmostotherkindsofanimalsbeingscarceatSingapore，IleftitinJulyforMalacca，whereIspentmorethantwomonthsintheinterior，andmadeanexcursiontoMountOphir。TheoldandpicturesquetownofMalaccaiscrowdedalongthebanksofthesmallriver，andconsistsofnarrowstreetsofshopsanddwellinghouses，occupiedbythedescendantsofthePortuguese，andbyChinamen。InthesuburbsarethehousesoftheEnglishofficialsandofafewPortuguesemerchants，embeddedingrovesofpalmsandfruit-trees，whosevariedandbeautifulfoliagefurnishesapleasingrelieftotheeye，aswellasmostgratefulshade。

Theoldfort，thelargeGovernmentHouse，andtheruinsofacathedralattesttheformerwealthandimportanceofthisplace，whichwasonceasmuchthecentreofEasterntradeasSingaporeisnow。ThefollowingdescriptionofitbyLinschott，whowrotetwohundredandseventyyearsago，strikinglyexhibitsthechangeithasundergone：

"MalaccaisinhabitedbythePortugueseandbynativesofthecountry，calledMalays。ThePortuguesehavehereafortress，asatMozambique，andthereisnofortressinalltheIndies，afterthoseofMozambiqueandOrmuz，wherethecaptainsperformtheirdutybetterthaninthisone。ThisplaceisthemarketofallIndia，ofChina，oftheMoluccas，andofotherislandsaroundabout——fromallwhichplaces，aswellasfromBanda，Java，Sumatra，Siam，Pegu，Bengal，Coromandel，andIndia——arriveshipswhichcomeandgoincessantly，chargedwithaninfinityofmerchandises。TherewouldbeinthisplaceamuchgreaternumberofPortugueseifitwerenotfortheinconvenience，andunhealthinessoftheair，whichishurtfulnotonlytostrangers，butalsotonativesofthecountry。Thenceitisthatallwholiveinthecountrypaytributeoftheirhealth，sufferingfromacertaindisease，whichmakesthemloseeithertheirskinortheirhair。Andthosewhoescapeconsideritamiracle，whichoccasionsmanytoleavethecountry，whiletheardentdesireofgaininducesotherstorisktheirhealth，andendeavourtoenduresuchanatmosphere。Theoriginofthistown，asthenativessay，wasverysmall，onlyhavingatthebeginning，byreasonoftheunhealthinessoftheair，butsixorsevenfishermenwhoinhabitedit。ButthenumberwasincreasedbythemeetingoffishermenfromSiam，Pegu，andBengal，whocameandbuiltacity，andestablishedapeculiarlanguage，drawnfromthemostelegantnodesofspeakingofothernations，sothatinfactthe，languageoftheMalaysisatpresentthemostrefined，exact，andcelebratedofalltheEast。ThenameofMalaccawasgiventothistown，which，bytheconvenienceofitssituation，inashorttimegrewtosuchwealth，thatitdoesnotyieldtothemostpowerfultownsandregionsaroundabout。Thenatives，bothmenandwomen，areverycourteousandarereckonedthemostskillfulintheworldincompliments，andstudymuchtocomposeandrepeatversesandlove-songs。TheirlanguageisinvoguethroughtheIndies，astheFrenchishere。

Atpresent，avesseloverahundredtonshardlyeverentersitsport，andthetradeisentirelyconfinedtoafewpettyproductsoftheforests，andtothefruit，whichthetrees，plantedbytheoldPortuguese，nowproducefortheenjoymentoftheinhabitantsofSingapore。Althoughrathersubjecttofevers，itisnotatpresentconsideredveryunhealthy。

ThepopulationofMalaccaconsistsofseveralraces。TheubiquitousChineseareperhapsthemostnumerous，keepinguptheirmanners，customs，andlanguage；theindigenousMalaysarenextinpointofnumbers，andtheirlanguageistheLingua-francaoftheplace。NextcomethedescendantsofthePortuguese——amixed，degraded，anddegeneraterace，butwhostillkeepuptheuseoftheirmothertongue，thoughruefullymutilatedingrammar；

andthentherearetheEnglishrulers，andthedescendantsoftheDutch，whoallspeakEnglish。ThePortuguesespokenatMalaccaisausefulphilologicalphenomenon。Theverbshavemostlylosttheirinflections，andoneformdoesforallmoods，tenses，numbers，andpersons。Euvai，servesfor"Igo，""Iwent，"or，"I

willgo。"Adjectives，too，havebeendeprivedoftheirfeminineandpluralterminations，sothatthelanguageisreducedtoamarvelloussimplicity，and，withtheadmixtureofafewMalaywords，becomesratherpuzzlingtoonewhohasheardonlythepureLusitanian。

Incostumetheseseveralpeoplesareasvariedasintheirspeech。TheEnglishpreservethetight-fittingcoat，waistcoat，andtrousers，andtheabominablehatandcravat；thePortuguesepatronisealightjacket，or，morefrequently，shirtandtrousersonly；theMalaysweartheirnationaljacketandsarong(akindofkilt)，withloosedrawers；whiletheChineseneverdepartintheleastfromtheirnationaldress，which，indeed，itisimpossibletoimproveforatropicalclimate，whetherasregardscomfortorappearance。Theloosely-hangingtrousers，andneatwhitehalf-

shirthalfjacket，areexactlywhatadressshouldbeinthislowlatitude。

IengagedtwoPortuguesetoaccompanymeintotheinterior；oneasacook，theothertoshootandskinbirds，whichisquiteatradeinMalacca。IfirststayedafortnightatavillagecalledGading，whereIwasaccommodatedinthehouseofsomeChineseconverts，towhomIwasrecommendedbytheJesuitmissionaries。

Thehousewasamereshed，butitwaskeptclean，andImademyselfsufficientlycomfortable。Myhostswereformingapepperandgambirplantation，andintheimmediateneighbourhoodwereextensivetin-washings，employingoverathousandChinese。Thetinisobtainedintheformofblackgrainsfrombedsofquartzosesand，andismeltedintoingotsinrudeclayfurnaces。

Thesoilseemedpoor，andtheforestwasverydensewithundergrowth，andnotatallproductiveofinsects；but，ontheotherhand，birdswereabundant，andIwasatonceintroducedtotherichornithologicaltreasuresoftheMalayanregion。

TheveryfirsttimeIfiredmygunIbroughtdownoneofthemostcuriousandbeautifuloftheMalaccabirds，theblue-billedgaper(Cymbirhynchusmacrorhynchus)，calledbytheMalaysthe"Rainbird。"Itisaboutthesizeofastarling，blackandrichclaretcolourwithwhiteshoulderstripes，andaverylargeandbroadbillofthemostpurecobaltblueaboveandorangebelow，whiletheirisisemeraldgreen。Astheskinsdrythebillturnsdullblack，buteventhenthebirdishandsome。Whenfreshkilled，thecontrastofthevividbluewiththerichcoloursoftheplumageisremarkablystrikingandbeautiful。ThelovelyEasterntrogons，withtheirrich-brownbacks，beautifullypencilledwings，andcrimsonbreasts，werealsosoonobtained，aswellasthelargegreenbarbets(Megalaemaversicolor)——fruit-

eatingbirds，somethinglikesmalltoucans，withashort，straightbristlybill，andwhoseheadandneckarevariegatedwithpatchesofthemostvividblueandcrimson。Adayortwoafter，myhunterbroughtmeaspecimenofthegreengaper(Calyptomenaviridis)，whichislikeasmallcock-of-the-rock，butentirelyofthemostvividgreen，delicatelymarkedonthewingswithblackbars。Handsomewoodpeckersandgaykingfishers，greenandbrowncuckooswithvelvetyredfacesandgreenbeaks，red-breasteddovesandmetallichoneysuckers，werebroughtindayafterday，andkeptmeinacontinualstateofpleasurableexcitement。Afterafortnightoneofmyservantswasseizedwithfever，andonreturningtoMalacca，thesamedisease，attackedtheotheraswellasmyself。Byaliberaluseofquinine，Isoonrecovered，andobtainingothermen，wenttostayattheGovernmentbungalowofAyer-panas，accompaniedbyayounggentleman，anativeoftheplace，whohadatastefornaturalhistory。

AtAyer-panaswehadacomfortablehousetostayin，andplentyofroomtodryandpreserveourspecimens；but，owingtotherebeingnoindustriousChinesetocutdowntimber，insectswerecomparativelyscarce，withtheexceptionofbutterflies，ofwhichIformedaveryfinecollection。ThemannerinwhichIobtainedonefineinsectwascurious，andindicatesbowfragmentaryandimperfectatraveller'scollectionmustnecessarilybe。Iwasoneafternoonwalkingalongafavouriteroadthroughtheforest，withmygun，whenIsawabutterflyontheground。Itwaslarge，handsome，andquitenewtome，andIgotclosetoitbeforeitflewaway。Ithenobservedthatithadbeensettlingonthedungofsomecarnivorousanimal。Thinkingitmightreturntothesamespot，Inextdayafterbreakfasttookmynet，andasIapproachedtheplacewasdelightedtoseethesamebutterflysittingonthesamepieceofdung，andsucceededincapturingit。Itwasanentirelynewspeciesofgreatbeauty，andhasbeennamedbyMr。

Hewitson——Nymphaliscalydona。Ineversawanotherspecimenofit，anditwasonlyaftertwelveyearshadelapsedthatasecondindividualreachedthiscountryfromthenorthwesternpartofBorneo。

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