Inthemiddleages，onthecontrary，resistancewasanordinaryremedyforpoliticaldistempers，aremedywhichwasalwaysathand，andwhich，thoughdoubtlesssharpatthemoment，producednodeeporlastingilleffects。Ifapopularchiefraisedhisstandardinapopularcause，anirregulararmycouldbeassembledinaday。Regulararmytherewasnone。Everymanhadaslighttinctureofsoldiership，andscarcelyanymanmorethanaslighttincture。Thenationalwealthconsistedchieflyinflocksandherds，intheharvestoftheyear，andinthesimplebuildingsinhabitedbythepeople。Allthefurniture，thestockofshops，themachinerywhichcouldbefoundintherealmwasoflessvaluethanthepropertywhichsomesingleparishesnowcontain。Manufactureswererude；creditwasalmostunknown。Society，therefore，recoveredfromtheshockassoonastheactualconflictwasover。Thecalamitiesofcivilwarwereconfinedtotheslaughteronthefieldofbattle，andtoafewsubsequentexecutionsandconfiscations。InaweekthepeasantwasdrivinghisteamandtheesquireflyinghishawksoverthefieldofTowtonorofBosworth，asifnoextraordinaryeventhadinterruptedtheregularcourseofhumanlife。

MorethanahundredandsixtyyearshavenowelapsedsincetheEnglishpeoplehavebyforcesubvertedagovernment。DuringthehundredandsixtyyearswhichprecededtheunionoftheRoses，nineKingsreignedinEngland。SixofthesenineKingsweredeposed。Fivelosttheirlivesaswellastheircrowns。Itisevident，therefore，thatanycomparisonbetweenourancientandourmodernpolitymustleadtomosterroneousconclusions，unlesslargeallowancebemadefortheeffectofthatrestraintwhichresistanceandthefearofresistanceconstantlyimposedonthePlantagenets。Asourancestorshadagainsttyrannyamostimportantsecuritywhichwewant，theymightsafelydispensewithsomesecuritiestowhichwejustlyattachthehighestimportance。

Aswecannot，withouttheriskofevilsfromwhichtheimaginationrecoils，employphysicalforceasacheckonmisgovernment，itisevidentlyourwisdomtokeepalltheconstitutionalchecksonmisgovernmentinthehigheststateofefficiency，towatchwithjealousythefirstbeginningsofencroachment，andnevertosufferirregularities，evenwhenharmlessinthemselves，topassunchallenged，lesttheyacquiretheforceofprecedents。Fourhundredyearsagosuchminutevigilancemightwellseemunnecessary。Anationofhardyarchersandspearmenmight，withsmallrisktoitsliberties，conniveatsomeillegalactsonthepartofaprincewhosegeneraladministrationwasgood，andwhosethronewasnotdefendedbyasinglecompanyofregularsoldiers。

Underthissystem，rudeasitmayappearwhencomparedwiththoseelaborateconstitutionsofwhichthelastseventyyearshavebeenfruitful，theEnglishlongenjoyedalargemeasureoffreedomandhappiness。Though，duringthefeeblereignofHenrytheSixth，thestatewastorn，firstbyfactions，andatlengthbycivilwar；thoughEdwardtheFourthwasaprinceofdissoluteandimperiouscharacter；thoughRichardtheThirdhasgenerallybeenrepresentedasamonsterofdepravity；thoughtheexactionsofHenrytheSeventhcausedgreatrepining；itiscertainthatourancestors，underthoseKings，werefarbettergovernedthantheBelgiansunderPhilip，surnamedtheGood，ortheFrenchunderthatLewiswhowasstyledtheFatherofhispeople。EvenwhilethewarsoftheRoseswereactuallyraging，ourcountryappearstohavebeeninahappierconditionthantheneighbouringrealmsduringyearsofprofoundpeace。Comineswasoneofthemostenlightenedstatesmenofhistime。HehadseenalltherichestandmosthighlycivilisedpartsoftheContinent。HehadlivedintheopulenttownsofFlanders，theManchestersandLiverpoolsofthefifteenthcentury。HehadvisitedFlorence，recentlyadornedbythemagnificenceofLorenzo，andVenice，notyetbumbledbytheConfederatesofCambray。ThiseminentmandeliberatelypronouncedEnglandtobethebestgovernedcountryofwhichhehadanyknowledge。Herconstitutionheemphaticallydesignatedasajustandholything，which，whileitprotectedthepeople，reallystrengthenedthehandsofaprincewhorespectedit。Innoothercountryweremensoeffectuallysecuredfromwrong。Thecalamitiesproducedbyourintestinewarsseemedtohimtobeconfinedtothenoblesandthefightingmen，andtoleavenotracessuchashehadbeenaccustomedtoseeelsewhere，noruineddwellings，nodepopulatedcities。

ItwasnotonlybytheefficiencyoftherestraintsimposedontheroyalprerogativethatEnglandwasadvantageouslydistinguishedfrommostoftheneighbouringcountries。A:

peculiarityequallyimportant，thoughlessnoticed，wastherelationinwhichthenobilitystoodheretothecommonalty。

Therewasastronghereditaryaristocracy:butitwasofallhereditaryaristocraciestheleastinsolentandexclusive。Ithadnoneoftheinvidiouscharacterofacaste。Itwasconstantlyreceivingmembersfromthepeople，andconstantlysendingdownmemberstominglewiththepeople。Anygentlemanmightbecomeapeer。Theyoungersonofapeerwasbutagentleman。Grandsonsofpeersyieldedprecedencetonewlymadeknights。Thedignityofknighthoodwasnotbeyondthereachofanymanwhocouldbydiligenceandthriftrealiseagoodestate，orwhocouldattractnoticebyhisvalourinabattleorasiege。ItwasregardedasnodisparagementforthedaughterofaDuke，nayofaroyalDuke，toespouseadistinguishedcommoner。Thus，SirJohnHowardmarriedthedaughterofThomasMowbrayDukeofNorfolk。SirRichardPolemarriedtheCountessofSalisbury，daughterofGeorge，DukeofClarence。Goodbloodwasindeedheldinhighrespect:butbetweengoodbloodandtheprivilegesofpeeragetherewas，mostfortunatelyforourcountry，nonecessaryconnection。Pedigreesaslong，andscutcheonsasold，weretobefoundoutoftheHouseofLordsasinit。Therewerenewmenwhoborethehighesttitles。TherewereuntitledmenwellknowntobedescendedfromknightswhohadbrokentheSaxonranksatHastings，andscaledthewallsofJerusalem。TherewereBohuns，Mowbrays，DeVeres，nay，kinsmenoftheHouseofPlantagenet，withnohigheradditionthanthatofEsquire，andwithnocivilprivilegesbeyondthoseenjoyedbyeveryfarmerandshopkeeper。

Therewasthereforeherenolinelikethatwhichinsomeothercountriesdividedthepatricianfromtheplebeian。Theyeomanwasnotinclinedtomurmuratdignitiestowhichhisownchildrenmightrise。Thegrandeewasnotinclinedtoinsultaclassintowhichhisownchildrenmustdescend。

AfterthewarsofYorkandLancaster，thelinkswhichconnectedthenobilityandcommonaltybecamecloserandmorenumerousthanever。Theextentofdestructionwhichhadfallenontheoldaristocracymaybeinferredfromasinglecircumstance。Intheyear1451HenrytheSixthsummonedfifty—threetemporalLordstoparliament。ThetemporalLordssummonedbyHenrytheSeventhtotheparliamentof1485wereonlytwenty—nine，andoftheseseveralhadrecentlybeenelevatedtothepeerage。Duringthefollowingcenturytheranksofthenobilitywerelargelyrecruitedfromamongthegentry。TheconstitutionoftheHouseofCommonstendedgreatlytopromotethesalutaryintermixtureofclasses。Theknightoftheshirewastheconnectinglinkbetweenthebaronandtheshopkeeper。Onthesamebenchesonwhichsatethegoldsmiths，drapers，andgrocers，whohadbeenreturnedtoparliamentbythecommercialtowns，satealsomemberswho，inanyothercountry，wouldhavebeencallednoblemen，hereditarylordsofmanors，entitledtoholdcourtsandtobearcoatarmour，andabletotracebackanhonourabledescentthroughmanygenerations。Someofthemwereyoungersonsandbrothersoflords。Otherscouldboastofevenroyalblood。AtlengththeeldestsonofanEarlofBedford，calledincourtesybythesecondtitleofhisfather，offeredhimselfascandidateforaseatintheHouseofCommons，andhisexamplewasfollowedbyothers。Seatedinthathouse，theheirsofthegreatpeersnaturallybecameaszealousforitsprivilegesasanyofthehumbleburgesseswithwhomtheyweremingled。Thusourdemocracywas，fromanearlyperiod，themostaristocratic，andouraristocracythemostdemocraticintheworld；apeculiaritywhichhaslasteddowntothepresentday，andwhichhasproducedmanyimportantmoralandpoliticaleffects。

ThegovernmentofHenrytheSeventh，ofhisson，andofhisgrandchildrenwas，onthewhole，morearbitrarythanthatofthePlantagenets。Personalcharactermayinsomedegreeexplainthedifference；forcourageandforceofwillwerecommontoallthemenandwomenoftheHouseofTudor。Theyexercisedtheirpowerduringaperiodofahundredandtwentyyears，alwayswithvigour，oftenwithviolence，sometimeswithcruelty。They，inimitationofthedynastywhichhadprecededthem，occasionallyinvadedtherightsofthesubject，occasionallyexactedtaxesunderthenameofloansandgifts，andoccasionallydispensedwithpenalstatutes:nay，thoughtheyneverpresumedtoenactanypermanentlawbytheirownauthority，theyoccasionallytookuponthemselves，whenParliamentwasnotsitting，tomeettemporaryexigenciesbytemporaryedicts。Itwas，however，impossiblefortheTudorstocarryoppressionbeyondacertainpoint:fortheyhadnoarmedforce，andtheyweresurroundedbyanarmedpeople。

Theirpalacewasguardedbyafewdomestics，whomthearrayofasingleshire，orofasinglewardofLondon，couldwitheasehaveoverpowered。Thesehaughtyprinceswerethereforeunderarestraintstrongerthananythatmerelawcanimpose，underarestraintwhichdidnot，indeed，preventthemfromsometimestreatinganindividualinanarbitraryandeveninabarbarousmanner，butwhicheffectuallysecuredthenationagainstgeneralandlongcontinuedoppression。Theymightsafelybetyrants，withintheprecinctofthecourt:butitwasnecessaryforthemtowatchwithconstantanxietythetemperofthecountry。HenrytheEighth，forexample，encounterednooppositionwhenhewishedtosendBuckinghamandSurrey，AnneBoleynandLadySalisbury，tothescaffold。Butwhen，withouttheconsentofParliament，hedemandedofhissubjectsacontributionamountingtoonesixthoftheirgoods，hesoonfounditnecessarytoretract。ThecryofhundredsofthousandswasthattheywereEnglishandnotFrench，freemenandnotslaves。InKenttheroyalcommissionersfledfortheirlives。InSuffolkfourthousandmenappearedinarms。TheKing’slieutenantsinthatcountyvainlyexertedthemselvestoraiseanarmy。Thosewhodidnotjoinintheinsurrectiondeclaredthattheywouldnotfightagainsttheirbrethreninsuchaquarrel。Henry，proudandselfwilledashewas，shrank，notwithoutreasonfromaconflictwiththerousedspiritofthenation。HehadbeforehiseyesthefateofhispredecessorswhohadperishedatBerkeleyandPomfret。Henotonlycancelledhisillegalcommissions；henotonlygrantedageneralpardontoallthemalecontents；buthepubliclyandsolemnlyapologisedforhisinfractionofthelaws。

Hisconduct，onthisoccasion，wellillustratesthewholepolicyofhishouse。Thetemperoftheprincesofthatlinewashot，andtheirspiritshigh，buttheyunderstoodthecharacterofthenationthattheygoverned，andneveronce，likesomeoftheirpredecessors，andsomeoftheirsuccessors，carriedobstinacytoafatalpoint。ThediscretionoftheTudorswassuch，thattheirpower，thoughitwasoftenresisted，wasneversubverted。Thereignofeveryoneofthemwasdisturbedbyformidablediscontents:butthegovernmentwasalwaysableeithertosoothethemutineersortoconquerandpunishthem。Sometimes，bytimelyconcessions，itsucceededinavertingcivilhostilities；butingeneralitstoodfirm，andcalledforhelponthenation。Thenationobeyedthecall，ralliedroundthesovereign，andenabledhimtoquellthedisaffectedminority。

Thus，fromtheageofHenrytheThirdtotheageofElizabeth，Englandgrewandflourishedunderapolitywhichcontainedthegermofourpresentinstitutions，andwhich，thoughnotveryexactlydefined，orveryexactlyobserved，wasyeteffectuallypreventedfromdegeneratingintodespotism，bytheaweinwhichthegovernorsstoodofthespiritandstrengthofthegoverned。

Butsuchapolityissuitedonlytoaparticularstageintheprogressofsociety。Thesamecauseswhichproduceadivisionoflabourinthepeacefulartsmustatlengthmakewaradistinctscienceandadistincttrade。Atimearriveswhentheuseofarmsbeginstooccupytheentireattentionofaseparateclass。Itsoonappearsthatpeasantsandburghers，howeverbrave，areunabletostandtheirgroundagainstveteransoldiers，whosewholelifeisapreparationforthedayofbattle，whosenerveshavebeenbracedbylongfamiliaritywithdanger，andwhosemovementshavealltheprecisionofclockwork。Itisfoundthatthedefenceofnationscannolongerbesafelyentrustedtowarriorstakenfromtheploughortheloomforacampaignoffortydays。Ifanystateformsagreatregulararmy，theborderingstatesmustimitatetheexample，ormustsubmittoaforeignyoke。But，whereagreatregulararmyexists，limitedmonarchy，suchasitwasinthemiddleages，canexistnolonger。

Thesovereignisatonceemancipatedfromwhathadbeenthechiefrestraintonhispower；andheinevitablybecomesabsolute，unlessheissubjectedtocheckssuchaswouldbesuperfluousinasocietywhereallaresoldiersoccasionally，andnonepermanently。

Withthedangercamealsothemeansofescape。Inthemonarchiesofthemiddleagesthepoweroftheswordbelongedtotheprince；

butthepowerofthepursebelongedtothenation；andtheprogressofcivilisation，asitmadetheswordoftheprincemoreandmoreformidabletothenation，madethepurseofthenationmoreandmorenecessarytotheprince。Hishereditaryrevenueswouldnolongersuffice，evenfortheexpensesofcivilgovernment。Itwasutterlyimpossiblethat，withoutaregularandextensivesystemoftaxation，hecouldkeepinconstantefficiencyagreatbodyofdisciplinedtroops。ThepolicywhichtheparliamentaryassembliesofEuropeoughttohaveadoptedwastotaketheirstandfirmlyontheirconstitutionalrighttogiveorwithholdmoney，andresolutelytorefusefundsforthesupportofarmies，tillamplesecuritieshadbeenprovidedagainstdespotism。

Thiswisepolicywasfollowedinourcountryalone。Intheneighbouringkingdomsgreatmilitaryestablishmentswereformed；

nonewsafeguardsforpubliclibertyweredevised；andtheconsequencewas，thattheoldparliamentaryinstitutionseverywhereceasedtoexist。InFrance，wheretheyhadalwaysbeenfeeble，theylanguished，andatlengthdiedofmereweakness。InSpain，wheretheyhadbeenasstrongasinanypartofEurope，theystruggledfiercelyforlife，butstruggledtoolate。ThemechanicsofToledoandValladolidvainlydefendedtheprivilegesoftheCastilianCortesagainsttheveteranbattalionsofCharlestheFifth。Asvainly，inthenextgeneration，didthecitizensofSaragossastandupagainstPhiliptheSecond，fortheoldconstitutionofAragon。Oneafteranother，thegreatnationalcouncilsofthecontinentalmonarchies，councilsoncescarcelylessproudandpowerfulthanthosewhichsateatWestminster，sankintoutterinsignificance。Iftheymet，theymetmerelyasourConvocationnowmeets，togothroughsomevenerableforms。

InEnglandeventstookadifferentcourse。Thissingularfelicitysheowedchieflytoherinsularsituation。Beforetheendofthefifteenthcenturygreatmilitaryestablishmentswereindispensabletothedignity，andeventothesafety，oftheFrenchandCastilianmonarchies。Ifeitherofthosetwopowershaddisarmed，itwouldsoonhavebeencompelledtosubmittothedictationoftheother。ButEngland，protectedbytheseaagainstinvasion，andrarelyengagedinwarlikeoperationsontheContinent，wasnot，asyet，underthenecessityofemployingregulartroops。Thesixteenthcentury，theseventeenthcentury，foundherstillwithoutastandingarmy。Atthecommencementoftheseventeenthcenturypoliticalsciencehadmadeconsiderableprogress。ThefateoftheSpanishCortesandoftheFrenchStatesGeneralhadgivensolemnwarningtoourParliaments；andourParliaments，fullyawareofthenatureandmagnitudeofthedanger，adopted，ingoodtime，asystemoftacticswhich，afteracontestprotractedthroughthreegenerations，wasatlengthsuccessfulAlmosteverywriterwhohastreatedofthatcontesthasbeendesiroustoshowthathisownpartywasthepartywhichwasstrugglingtopreservetheoldconstitutionunaltered。Thetruthhoweveristhattheoldconstitutioncouldnotbepreservedunaltered。Alaw，beyondthecontrolofhumanwisdom，haddecreedthatthereshouldnolongerbegovernmentsofthatpeculiarclasswhich，inthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies，hadbeencommonthroughoutEurope。Thequestion，therefore，wasnotwhetherourpolityshouldundergoachange，butwhatthenatureofthechangeshouldbe。Theintroductionofanewandmightyforcehaddisturbedtheoldequilibrium，andhadturnedonelimitedmonarchyafteranotherintoanabsolutemonarchy。Whathadhappenedelsewherewouldassuredlyhavehappenedhere，unlessthebalancehadbeenredressedbyagreattransferofpowerfromthecrowntotheparliament。OurprinceswereabouttohaveattheircommandmeansofcoercionsuchasnoPlantagenetorTudorhadeverpossessed。Theymustinevitablyhavebecomedespots，unlesstheyhadbeen，atthesametime，placedunderrestraintstowhichnoPlantagenetorTudorhadeverbeensubject。

Itseemscertain，therefore，that，hadnonebutpoliticalcausesbeenatwork，theseventeenthcenturywouldnothavepassedawaywithoutafierceconflictbetweenourKingsandtheirParliaments。Butothercausesofperhapsgreaterpotencycontributedtoproducethesameeffect。WhilethegovernmentoftheTudorswasinitshighestvigouraneventtookplacewhichhascolouredthedestiniesofallChristiannations，andinanespecialmannerthedestiniesofEngland。TwiceduringthemiddleagesthemindofEuropehadrisenupagainstthedominationofRome。ThefirstinsurrectionbrokeoutinthesouthofFrance。

TheenergyofInnocenttheThird，thezealoftheyoungordersofFrancisandDominic，andtheferocityoftheCrusaderswhomthepriesthoodletlooseonanunwarlikepopulation，crushedtheAlbigensianchurches。ThesecondreformationhaditsorigininEngland，andspreadtoBohemia。TheCouncilofConstance，byremovingsomeecclesiasticaldisorderswhichhadgivenscandaltoChristendom，andtheprincesofEurope，byunsparinglyusingfireandswordagainsttheheretics，succeededinarrestingandturningbackthemovement。Noristhismuchtobelamented。ThesympathiesofaProtestant，itistrue，willnaturallybeonthesideoftheAlbigensiansandoftheLollards。YetanenlightenedandtemperateProtestantwillperhapsbedisposedtodoubtwhetherthesuccess，eitheroftheAlbigensiansoroftheLollards，would，onthewhole，havepromotedthehappinessandvirtueofmankind。CorruptastheChurchofRomewas，thereisreasontobelievethat，ifthatChurchhadbeenoverthrowninthetwelfthoreveninthefourteenthcentury，thevacantspacewouldhavebeenoccupiedbysomesystemmorecorruptstill。Therewasthen，throughthegreaterpartofEurope，verylittleknowledge；

andthatlittlewasconfinedtotheclergy。Notonemaninfivehundredcouldhavespelledhiswaythroughapsalm。Bookswerefewandcostly。Theartofprintingwasunknown。CopiesoftheBible，inferiorinbeautyandclearnesstothosewhicheverycottagermaynowcommand，soldforpriceswhichmanypriestscouldnotaffordtogive。ItwasobviouslyimpossiblethatthelaityshouldsearchtheScripturesforthemselves。Itisprobabletherefore，that，assoonastheyhadputoffonespiritualyoke，theywouldhaveputonanother，andthatthepowerlatelyexercisedbytheclergyoftheChurchofRomewouldhavepassedtoafarworseclassofteachers。Thesixteenthcenturywascomparativelyatimeoflight。Yeteveninthesixteenthcenturyaconsiderablenumberofthosewhoquittedtheoldreligionfollowedthefirstconfidentandplausibleguidewhoofferedhimself，andweresoonledintoerrorsfarmoreseriousthanthosewhichtheyhadrenounced。ThusMatthiasandKniperdoling，apostlesoflust，robbery，andmurder，wereableforatimetorulegreatcities。Inadarkeragesuchfalseprophetsmighthavefoundedempires；andChristianitymighthavebeendistortedintoacruelandlicentioussuperstition，morenoxious，notonlythanPopery，buteventhanIslamism。

AboutahundredyearsaftertherisingoftheCouncilofConstance，thatgreatchangeemphaticallycalledtheReformationbegan。Thefulnessoftimewasnowcome。TheclergywerenolongerthesoleorthechiefdepositoriesofknowledgeTheinventionofprintinghadfurnishedtheassailantsoftheChurchwithamightyweaponwhichhadbeenwantingtotheirpredecessors。Thestudyoftheancientwriters，therapiddevelopmentofthepowersofthemodernlanguages，theunprecedentedactivitywhichwasdisplayedineverydepartmentofliterature，thepoliticalstateofEurope，thevicesoftheRomancourt，theexactionsoftheRomanchancery，thejealousywithwhichthewealthandprivilegesoftheclergywerenaturallyregardedbylaymen，thejealousywithwhichtheItalianascendencywasnaturallyregardedbymenbornonoursideoftheAlps，allthesethingsgavetotheteachersofthenewtheologyanadvantagewhichtheyperfectlyunderstoodhowtouse。

ThosewhoholdthattheinfluenceoftheChurchofRomeinthedarkageswas，onthewhole，beneficialtomankind，mayyetwithperfectconsistencyregardtheReformationasaninestimableblessing。Theleadingstrings，whichpreserveandupholdtheinfant，wouldimpedethefullgrownman。Andsotheverymeansbywhichthehumanmindis，inonestageofitsprogress，supportedandpropelled，may，inanotherstage，bemerehindrances。Thereisaseasoninthelifebothofanindividualandofasociety，atwhichsubmissionandfaith，suchasatalaterperiodwouldbejustlycalledservilityandcredulity，areusefulqualities。Thechildwhoteachablyandundoubtinglylistenstotheinstructionsofhiseldersislikelytoimproverapidly。Butthemanwhoshouldreceivewithchildlikedocilityeveryassertionanddogmautteredbyanothermannowiserthanhimselfwouldbecomecontemptible。Itisthesamewithcommunities。ThechildhoodoftheEuropeannationswaspassedunderthetutelageoftheclergy。

Theascendancyofthesacerdotalorderwaslongtheascendancywhichnaturallyandproperlybelongstointellectualsuperiority。

Thepriests，withalltheirfaults，werebyfarthewisestportionofsociety。Itwas，therefore，onthewhole，goodthattheyshouldberespectedandobeyed。Theencroachmentsoftheecclesiasticalpowerontheprovinceofthecivilpowerproducedmuchmorehappinessthanmisery，whiletheecclesiasticalpowerwasinthehandsoftheonlyclassthathadstudiedhistory，philosophy，andpubliclaw，andwhilethecivilpowerwasinthehandsofsavagechiefs，whocouldnotreadtheirowngrantsandedicts。Butachangetookplace。Knowledgegraduallyspreadamonglaymen。Atthecommencementofthesixteenthcenturymanyofthemwereineveryintellectualattainmentfullyequaltothemostenlightenedoftheirspiritualpastors。Thenceforwardthatdominion，which，duringthedarkages，hadbeen，inspiteofmanyabuses，alegitimateandsalutaryguardianship，becameanunjustandnoxioustyranny。

FromthetimewhenthebarbariansoverrantheWesternEmpiretothetimeoftherevivalofletters，theinfluenceoftheChurchofRomehadbeengenerallyfavourabletosciencetocivilisation，andtogoodgovernment。But，duringthelastthreecenturies，tostuntthegrowthofthehumanmindhasbeenherchiefobject。

ThroughoutChristendom，whateveradvancehasbeenmadeinknowledge，infreedom，inwealth，andintheartsoflife，hasbeenmadeinspiteofher，andhaseverywherebeenininverseproportiontoherpower。TheloveliestandmostfertileprovincesofEuropehave，underherrule，beensunkinpoverty，inpoliticalservitude，andinintellectualtorpor，whileProtestantcountries，onceproverbialforsterilityandbarbarism，havebeenturnedbyskillandindustryintogardens，andcanboastofalonglistofheroesandstatesmen，philosophersandpoets。

Whoever，knowingwhatItalyandScotlandnaturallyare，andwhat，fourhundredyearsago，theyactuallywere，shallnowcomparethecountryroundRomewiththecountryroundEdinburgh，willbeabletoformsomejudgmentastothetendencyofPapaldomination。ThedescentofSpain，oncethefirstamongmonarchies，tothelowestdepthsofdegradation，theelevationofHolland，inspiteofmanynaturaldisadvantages，toapositionsuchasnocommonwealthsosmallhaseverreached，teachthesamelesson。WhoeverpassesinGermanyfromaRomanCatholictoaProtestantprincipality，inSwitzerlandfromaRomanCatholictoaProtestantcanton，inIrelandfromaRomanCatholictoaProtestantcounty，findsthathehaspassedfromalowertoahighergradeofcivilisation。OntheothersideoftheAtlanticthesamelawprevails。TheProtestantsoftheUnitedStateshaveleftfarbehindthemtheRomanCatholicsofMexico，Peru，andBrazil。TheRomanCatholicsofLowerCanadaremaininert，whilethewholecontinentroundthemisinafermentwithProtestantactivityandenterprise。TheFrenchhavedoubtlessshownanenergyandanintelligencewhich，evenwhenmisdirected，havejustlyentitledthemtobecalledagreatpeople。Butthisapparentexception，whenexamined，willbefoundtoconfirm。therule；forinnocountrythatiscalledRomanCatholic，hastheRomanCatholicChurch，duringseveralgenerations，possessedsolittleauthorityasinFrance。TheliteratureofFranceisjustlyheldinhighesteemthroughouttheworld。Butifwedeductfromthatliteratureallthatbelongstofourpartieswhichhavebeen，ondifferentgrounds，inrebellionagainstthePapaldomination，allthatbelongstotheProtestants，allthatbelongstotheassertorsoftheGallicanliberties，allthatbelongstotheJansenists，andallthatbelongstothephilosophers，howmuchwillbeleft？

ItisdifficulttosaywhetherEnglandowesmoretotheRomanCatholicreligionortotheReformation。Fortheamalgamationofracesandfortheabolitionofvillenage，sheischieflyindebtedtotheinfluencewhichthepriesthoodinthemiddleagesexercisedoverthelaity。Forpoliticalandintellectualfreedom，andforalltheblessingswhichpoliticalandintellectualfreedomhavebroughtintheirtrain，sheischieflyindebtedtothegreatrebellionofthelaityagainstthepriesthood。

Thestrugglebetweentheoldandthenewtheologyinourcountrywaslong，andtheeventsometimesseemeddoubtful。Thereweretwoextremeparties，preparedtoactwithviolenceortosufferwithstubbornresolution。Betweenthemlay，duringaconsiderabletime，amiddleparty，whichblended，veryillogically，butbynomeansunnaturally，lessonslearnedinthenurserywiththesermonsofthemodernevangelists，and，whileclingingwithfondnesstoallobservances，yetdetestedabuseswithwhichthoseobservanceswerecloselyconnected。Meninsuchaframeofmindwerewillingtoobey，almostwiththankfulness，thedictationofanablerulerwhosparedthemthetroubleofjudgingforthemselves，and，raisingafirmandcommandingvoiceabovetheuproarofcontroversy，toldthemhowtoworshipandwhattobelieve。Itisnotstrange，therefore，thattheTudorsshouldhavebeenabletoexerciseagreatinfluenceonecclesiasticalaffairs；norisitstrangethattheirinfluenceshould，forthemostpart，havebeenexercisedwithaviewtotheirowninterest。

HenrytheEighthattemptedtoconstituteanAnglicanChurchdifferingfromtheRomanCatholicChurchonthepointofthesupremacy，andonthatpointalone。Hissuccessinthisattemptwasextraordinary。Theforceofhischaracter，thesingularlyfavourablesituationinwhichhestoodwithrespecttoforeignpowers，theimmensewealthwhichthespoliationoftheabbeysplacedathisdisposal，andthesupportofthatclasswhichstillhaltedbetweentwoOpinions，enabledhimtobiddefiancetoboththeextremeparties，toburnashereticsthosewhoavowedthetenetsoftheReformers，andtohangastraitorsthosewhoownedtheauthorityofthePope。ButHenry’ssystemdiedwithhim。Hadhislifebeenprolonged，hewouldhavefounditdifficulttomaintainapositionassailedwithequalfurybyallwhowerezealouseitherfortheneworfortheoldopinions。Theministerswhoheldtheroyalprerogativesintrustforhisinfantsoncouldnotventuretopersistinsohazardousapolicy；norcouldElizabethventuretoreturntoit。Itwasnecessarytomakeachoice。ThegovernmentmusteithersubmittoRome，ormustobtaintheaidoftheProtestants。ThegovernmentandtheProtestantshadonlyonethingincommon，hatredofthePapalpower。TheEnglishReformerswereeagertogoasfarastheirbrethrenontheContinent。TheyunanimouslycondemnedasAntichristiannumerousdogmasandpracticestowhichHenryhadstubbornlyadhered，andwhichElizabethreluctantlyabandoned。ManyfeltastrongrepugnanceeventothingsindifferentwhichhadformedpartofthepolityorritualofthemysticalBabylon。ThusBishopHooper，whodiedmanfullyatGloucesterforhisreligion，longrefusedtoweartheepiscopalvestments。BishopRidley，amartyrofstillgreaterrenown，pulleddowntheancientaltarsofhisdiocese，andorderedtheEucharisttobeadministeredinthemiddleofchurches，attableswhichthePapistsirreverentlytermedoysterboards。BishopJewelpronouncedtheclericalgarbtobeastagedress，afool’scoat，areliqueoftheAmorites，andpromisedthathewouldsparenolabourtoextirpatesuchdegradingabsurdities。ArchbishopGrindallonghesitatedaboutacceptingamitrefromdislikeofwhatheregardedasthemummeryofconsecration。BishopParkhurstutteredaferventprayerthattheChurchofEnglandwouldproposetoherselftheChurchofZurichastheabsolutepatternofaChristiancommunity。BishopPonetwasofopinionthatthewordBishopshouldbeabandonedtothePapists，andthatthechiefofficersofthepurifiedchurchshouldbecalledSuperintendents。WhenitisconsideredthatnoneoftheseprelatesbelongedtotheextremesectionoftheProtestantparty，itcannotbedoubtedthat，ifthegeneralsenseofthatpartyhadbeenfollowed。theworkofreformwouldhavebeencarriedonasunsparinglyinEnglandasinScotland。

But，asthegovernmentneededthesupportoftheprotestants，sotheProtestantsneededtheprotectionofthegovernment。Muchwasthereforegivenuponbothsides:anunionwaseffected；andthefruitofthatunionwastheChurchofEngland。

Tothepeculiaritiesofthisgreatinstitution，andtothestrongpassionswhichithascalledforthinthemindsbothoffriendsandofenemies，aretobeattributedmanyofthemostimportanteventswhichhave，sincetheReformation，takenplaceinourcountry；norcanthesecularhistoryofEnglandbeatallunderstoodbyus，unlesswestudyitinconstantconnectionwiththehistoryofherecclesiasticalpolity。

Themanwhotookthechiefpartinsettlingthecondition，ofthealliancewhichproducedtheAnglicanChurchwasArchbishopCranmer。Hewastherepresentativeofboththepartieswhich，atthattime，neededeachother’sassistance。Hewasatonceadivineandacourtier。InhischaracterofdivinehewasperfectlyreadytogoasfarinthewayofchangeasanySwissorScottishReformer。Inhischaracterofcourtierhewasdesiroustopreservethatorganisationwhichhad，duringmanyages，admirablyservedthepurposesoftheBishopsofRome，andmightbeexpectednowtoserveequallywellthepurposesoftheEnglishKingsandoftheirministers。Histemperandhisunderstanding，eminentlyfittedhimtoactasmediator。Saintlyinhisprofessions，unscrupulousinhisdealings，zealousfornothing，boldinspeculation，acowardandatimeserverinaction，aplacableenemyandalukewarmfriend，hewasineverywayqualifiedtoarrangethetermsofthecoalitionbetweenthereligiousandtheworldlyenemiesofPopery。

Tothisdaytheconstitution，thedoctrines，andtheservicesoftheChurch，retainthevisiblemarksofthecompromisefromwhichshesprang。SheoccupiesamiddlepositionbetweentheChurchesofRomeandGeneva。Herdoctrinalconfessionsanddiscourses，composedbyProtestants，setforthprinciplesoftheologyinwhichCalvinorKnoxwouldhavefoundscarcelyawordtodisapprove。Herprayersandthanksgivings，derivedfromtheancientBreviaries，areverygenerallysuchthatCardinalFisherorCardinalPolemighthaveheartilyjoinedinthem。A

controversialistwhoputsanArminiansenseonherArticlesandHomilieswillbepronouncedbycandidmentobeasunreasonableasacontroversialistwhodeniesthatthedoctrineofbaptismalregenerationcanbediscoveredinherLiturgy。

TheChurchofRomeheldthatepiscopacywasofdivineinstitution，andthatcertainsupernaturalgracesofahighorderhadbeentransmittedbytheimpositionofhandsthroughfiftygenerations，fromtheElevenwhoreceivedtheircommissionontheGalileanmount，tothebishopswhometatTrent。AlargebodyofProtestants，ontheotherhand，regardedprelacyaspositivelyunlawful，andpersuadedthemselvesthattheyfoundaverydifferentformofecclesiasticalgovernmentprescribedinScripture。ThefoundersoftheAnglicanChurchtookamiddlecourse。Theyretainedepiscopacy；buttheydidnotdeclareittobeaninstitutionessentialtothewelfareofaChristiansociety，ortotheefficacyofthesacraments。Cranmer，indeed，ononeimportantoccasion，plainlyavowedhisconvictionthat，intheprimitivetimes，therewasnodistinctionbetweenbishopsandpriests，andthatthelayingonofhandswasaltogethersuperfluous。

AmongthePresbyterianstheconductofpublicworshipis，toagreatextent，lefttotheminister。Theirprayers，therefore，arenotexactlythesameinanytwoassembliesonthesameday，oronanytwodaysinthesameassembly。Inoneparishtheyarefervent，eloquent，andfullofmeaning。Inthenextparishtheymaybelanguidorabsurd。ThepriestsoftheRomanCatholicChurch，ontheotherhand，have，duringmanygenerations，dailychantedthesameancientconfessions，supplications，andthanksgivings，inIndiaandLithuania，inIrelandandPeru。Theservice，beinginadeadlanguage，isintelligibleonlytothelearned；andthegreatmajorityofthecongregationmaybesaidtoassistasspectatorsratherthanasauditors。Here，again，theChurchofEnglandtookamiddlecourse。ShecopiedtheRomanCatholicformsofprayer，buttranslatedthemintothevulgartongue，andinvitedtheilliteratemultitudetojoinitsvoicetothatoftheminister。

Ineverypartofhersystemthesamepolicymaybetraced。

Utterlyrejectingthedoctrineoftransubstantiation，andcondemningasidolatrousalladorationpaidtothesacramentalbreadandwine，sheyet，tothedisgustofthePuritan，requiredherchildrentoreceivethememorialsofdivinelove，meeklykneelingupontheirknees。Discardingmanyrichvestmentswhichsurroundedthealtarsoftheancientfaith，sheyetretained，tothehorrorofweakminds，arobeofwhitelinen，typicalofthepuritywhichbelongedtoherasthemysticalspouseofChrist。

Discardingacrowdofpantomimicgestureswhich，intheRomanCatholicworship，aresubstitutedforintelligiblewords，sheyetshockedmanyrigidProtestantsbymarkingtheinfantjustsprinkledfromthefontwiththesignofthecross。TheRomanCatholicaddressedhisprayerstoamultitudeofSaints，amongwhomwerenumberedmanymenofdoubtful，andsomeofhateful，character。ThePuritanrefusedtheadditionofSainteventotheapostleoftheGentiles，andtothedisciplewhomJesusloved。

TheChurchofEngland，thoughsheaskedfortheintercessionofnocreatedbeing，stillsetapartdaysforthecommemorationofsomewhohaddoneandsufferedgreatthingsforthefaith。Sheretainedconfirmationandordinationasedifyingrites；butshedegradedthemfromtherankofsacraments。Shriftwasnopartofhersystem。Yetshegentlyinvitedthedyingpenitenttoconfesshissinstoadivine，andempoweredherministerstosoothethedepartingsoulbyanabsolutionwhichbreathestheveryspiritoftheoldreligion。Ingeneralitmaybesaidthatsheappealsmoretotheunderstanding，andlesstothesensesandtheimagination，thantheChurchofRome，andthatsheappealslesstotheunderstanding，andmoretothesensesandimagination，thantheProtestantChurchesofScotland，France，andSwitzerland。

Nothing，however，sostronglydistinguishedtheChurchofEnglandfromotherChurchesastherelationinwhichshestoodtothemonarchy。TheKingwasherhead。Thelimitsoftheauthoritywhichhepossessed，assuch，werenottraced，andindeedhaveneveryetbeentracedwithprecision。Thelawswhichdeclaredhimsupremeinecclesiasticalmattersweredrawnrudelyandingeneralterms。If，forthepurposeofascertainingthesenseofthoselaws，weexaminethebooksandlivesofthosewhofoundedtheEnglishChurch，ourperplexitywillbeincreased。ForthefoundersoftheEnglishChurchwroteandactedinanageofviolentintellectualfermentation，andofconstantactionandreaction。Theythereforeoftencontradictedeachotherandsometimescontradictedthemselves。ThattheKingwas，underChrist，soleheadoftheChurchwasadoctrinewhichtheyallwithonevoiceaffirmed:butthosewordshadverydifferentsignificationsindifferentmouths，andinthesamemouthatdifferentconjunctures。SometimesanauthoritywhichwouldhavesatisfiedHildebrandwasascribedtothesovereign:thenitdwindleddowntoanauthoritylittlemorethanthatwhichhadbeenclaimedbymanyancientEnglishprinceswhohadbeeninconstantcommunionwiththeChurchofRome。WhatHenryandhisfavouritecounsellorsmeant，atonetime，bythesupremacy，wascertainlynothinglessthanthewholepowerofthekeys。TheKingwastobethePopeofhiskingdom，thevicarofGod，theexpositorofCatholicverity，thechannelofsacramentalgraces。

Hearrogatedtohimselftherightofdecidingdogmaticallywhatwasorthodoxdoctrineandwhatwasheresy，ofdrawingupandimposingconfessionsoffaith，andofgivingreligiousinstructiontohispeople。Heproclaimedthatalljurisdiction，spiritualaswellastemporal，wasderivedfromhimalone，andthatitwasinhispowertoconferepiscopalauthority，andtotakeitaway。Heactuallyorderedhissealtobeputtocommissionsbywhichbishopswereappointed，whoweretoexercisetheirfunctionsashisdeputies，andduringhispleasure。

Accordingtothissystem，asexpoundedbyCranmer，theKingwasthespiritualaswellasthetemporalchiefofthenation。InbothcapacitiesHisHighnessmusthavelieutenants。Asheappointedcivilofficerstokeephisseal，tocollecthisrevenues，andtodispensejusticeinhisname，soheappointeddivinesofvariousrankstopreachthegospel，andtoadministerthesacraments。Itwasunnecessarythatthereshouldbeanyimpositionofhands。TheKing，——suchwastheopinionofCranmergivenintheplainestwords，——mightinvirtueofauthorityderivedfromGod，makeapriest；andthepriestsomadeneedednoordinationwhatever。TheseopinionstheArchbishop，inspiteoftheoppositionoflesscourtlydivines，followedouttoeverylegitimateconsequence。Heheldthathisownspiritualfunctions，likethesecularfunctionsoftheChancellorandTreasurer，wereatoncedeterminedbyademiseofthecrown。WhenHenrydied，therefore，thePrimateandhissuffraganstookoutfreshcommissions，empoweringthemtoordainandtogoverntheChurchtillthenewsovereignshouldthinkfittoorderotherwise。Whenitwasobjectedthatapowertobindandtoloose，altogetherdistinctfromtemporalpower，hadbeengivenbyourLordtohisapostles，sometheologiansofthisschoolrepliedthatthepowertobindandtoloosehaddescended，nottotheclergy，buttothewholebodyofChristianmen，andoughttobeexercisedbythechiefmagistrateastherepresentativeofthesociety。WhenitwasobjectedthatSaintPaulhadspokenofcertainpersonswhomtheHolyGhosthadmadeoverseersandshepherdsofthefaithful，itwasansweredthatKingHenrywastheveryoverseer，theveryshepherdwhomtheHolyGhosthadappointed，andtowhomtheexpressionsofSaintPaulapplied。3

ThesehighpretensionsgavescandaltoProtestantsaswellastoCatholics；andthescandalwasgreatlyincreasedwhenthesupremacy，whichMaryhadresignedbacktothePope，wasagainannexedtothecrown，ontheaccessionofElizabeth。ItseemedmonstrousthatawomanshouldbethechiefbishopofaChurchinwhichanapostlehadforbiddenhereventolethervoicebeheard。TheQueen，therefore，founditnecessaryexpresslytodisclaimthatsacerdotalcharacterwhichherfatherhadassumed，andwhich，accordingtoCranmer，hadbeeninseparablyjoined，bydivineordinance，totheregalfunction。WhentheAnglicanconfessionoffaithwasrevisedinherreign，thesupremacywasexplainedinamannersomewhatdifferentfromthatwhichhadbeenfashionableatthecourtofHenry。Cranmerhaddeclared，inemphaticterms，thatGodhadimmediatelycommittedtoChristianprincesthewholecureofalltheirsubjects，aswellconcerningtheadministrationofGod’swordforthecureofsouls，asconcerningtheadministrationofthingspolitical。4Thethirty—seventharticleofreligion，framedunderElizabeth，declares，intermsasemphatic，thattheministeringofGod’sworddoesnotbelongtoprinces。TheQueen，however，stillhadovertheChurchavisitatorialpowerofvastandundefinedextent。ShewasentrustedbyParliamentwiththeofficeofrestrainingandpunishingheresyandeverysortofecclesiasticalabuse，andwaspermittedtodelegateherauthoritytocommissioners。TheBishopswerelittlemorethanherministers。

Ratherthangranttothecivilmagistratetheabsolutepowerofnominatingspiritualpastors，theChurchofRome，intheeleventhcentury，setallEuropeonfire。Ratherthangranttothecivilmagistratetheabsolutepowerofnominatingspiritualpastors，theministersoftheChurchofScotland，inourtime，resignedtheirlivingsbyhundreds。TheChurchofEnglandhadnosuchscruples。Bytheroyalauthorityaloneherprelateswereappointed。BytheroyalauthorityaloneherConvocationsweresummoned，regulated，prorogued，anddissolved。Withouttheroyalsanctionhercanonshadnoforce。Oneofthearticlesofherfaithwasthatwithouttheroyalconsentnoecclesiasticalcouncilcouldlawfullyassemble。Fromallherjudicaturesanappeallay，inthelastresort，tothesovereign，evenwhenthequestionwaswhetheranopinionoughttobeaccountedheretical，orwhethertheadministrationofasacramenthadbeenvalid。NordidtheChurchgrudgethisextensivepowertoourprinces。Bythemshehadbeencalledintoexistence，nursedthroughafeebleinfancy，guardedfromPapistsononesideandfromPuritansontheother，protectedagainstParliamentswhichborehernogoodwill，andavengedonliteraryassailantswhomshefoundithardtoanswer。Thusgratitude，hope，fear，commonattachments，commonenmities，boundhertothethrone。Allhertraditions，allhertastes，weremonarchical。Loyaltybecameapointofprofessionalhonouramongherclergy，thepeculiarbadgewhichdistinguishedthematoncefromCalvinistsandfromPapists。BoththeCalvinistsandthePapists，widelyastheydifferedinotherrespects，regardedwithextremejealousyallencroachmentsofthetemporalpoweronthedomainofthespiritualpower。BothCalvinistsandPapistsmaintainedthatsubjectsmightjustifiablydrawtheswordagainstungodlyrulers。InFranceCalvinistsresistedCharlestheNinth:PapistsresistedHenrytheFourth:

bothPapistsandCalvinistsresistedHenrytheThird。InScotlandCalvinistsledMarycaptive。OnthenorthoftheTrentPapiststookarmsagainsttheEnglishthrone。TheChurchofEnglandmeantimecondemnedbothCalvinistsandPapists，andloudlyboastedthatnodutywasmoreconstantlyorearnestlyinculcatedbyherthanthatofsubmissiontoprinces。

TheadvantageswhichthecrownderivedfromthisclosealliancewiththeEstablishedChurchweregreat；buttheywerenotwithoutseriousdrawbacks。ThecompromisearrangedbyCranmerhadfromthefirstbeenconsideredbyalargebodyofProtestantsasaschemeforservingtwomasters，asanattempttounitetheworshipoftheLordwiththeworshipofBaal。InthedaysofEdwardtheSixththescruplesofthispartyhadrepeatedlythrowngreatdifficultiesinthewayofthegovernment。WhenElizabethcametothethrone，thosedifficultiesweremuchincreased。

Violencenaturallyengendersviolence。ThespiritofProtestantismwasthereforefarfiercerandmoreintolerantafterthecrueltiesofMarythanbeforethem。Manypersonswhowerewarmlyattachedtothenewopinionshad，duringtheevildays，takenrefugeinSwitzerlandandGermany。Theyhadbeenhospitablyreceivedbytheirbrethreninthefaith，hadsateatthefeetofthegreatdoctorsofStrasburg，Zurich，andGeneva，andhadbeen，during，someyears，accustomedtoamoresimpleworship，andtoamoredemocraticalformofchurchgovernment，thanEnglandhadyetseen。ThesemenreturnedtotheircountryconvincedthatthereformwhichhadbeeneffectedunderKingEdwardhadbeenfarlesssearchingandextensivethantheinterestsofpurereligionrequired。ButitwasinvainthattheyattemptedtoobtainanyconcessionfromElizabeth。Indeedhersystem，whereveritdifferedfromherbrother’s，seemedtothemtodifferfortheworse。Theywerelittledisposedtosubmit，inmattersoffaith，toanyhumanauthority。Theyhadrecently，inrelianceontheirowninterpretationofScripture，risenupagainstaChurchstronginimmemorialantiquityandcatholicconsent。Itwasbynocommonexertionofintellectualenergythattheyhadthrownofftheyokeofthatgorgeousandimperialsuperstition；anditwasvaintoexpectthat，immediatelyaftersuchanemancipation，theywouldpatientlysubmittoanewspiritualtyranny。Longaccustomed，whenthepriestliftedupthehost，tobowdownwiththeirfacestotheearth，asbeforeapresentGod，theyhadlearnedtotreatthemassasanidolatrousmummery。LongaccustomedtoregardthePopeasthesuccessorofthechiefoftheapostles，asthebearerofthekeysofearthandheaven，theyhadlearnedtoregardhimastheBeast，theAntichrist，theManofSin。ItwasnottobeexpectedthattheywouldimmediatelytransfertoanupstartauthoritythehomagewhichtheyhadwithdrawnfromtheVatican；

thattheywouldsubmittheirprivatejudgmenttotheauthorityofaChurchfoundedonprivatejudgmentalone；thattheywouldbeafraidtodissentfromteacherswhothemselvesdissentedfromwhathadlatelybeentheuniversalfaithofwesternChristendom。

Itiseasytoconceivetheindignationwhichmusthavebeenfeltbyboldandinquisitivespirits，gloryinginnewlyacquiredfreedom，whenaninstitutionyoungerbymanyyearsthanthemselves，aninstitutionwhichhad，undertheirowneyes，graduallyreceiveditsformfromthepassionsandinterestofacourt，begantomimictheloftystyleofRome。

Sincethesemencouldnotbeconvinced，itwasdeterminedthattheyshouldbepersecuted。Persecutionproduceditsnaturaleffectonthem。Itfoundthemasect:itmadethemafaction。TotheirhatredoftheChurchwasnowaddedhatredoftheCrown。Thetwosentimentswereintermingled；andeachembitteredtheother。

TheopinionsofthePuritanconcerningtherelationofrulerandsubjectwerewidelydifferentfromthosewhichwereinculcatedintheHomilies。Hisfavouritedivineshad，bothbypreceptandbyexample，encouragedresistancetotyrantsandpersecutors。HisfellowCalvinistsinFrance，inHolland，andinScotland，wereinarmsagainstidolatrousandcruelprinces。Hisnotions，too，respecting，thegovernmentofthestatetookatingefromhisnotionsrespectingthegovernmentoftheChurch。Someofthesarcasmswhichwerepopularlythrownonepiscopacymight，withoutmuchdifficulty，beturnedagainstroyalty；andmanyoftheargumentswhichwereusedtoprovethatspiritualpowerwasbestlodgedinasynodseemedtoleadtotheconclusionthattemporalpowerwasbestlodgedinaparliament。

Thus，asthepriestoftheEstablishedChurchwas，frominterest，fromprinciple，andfrompassion，zealousfortheroyalprerogatives，thePuritanwas，frominterest，fromprinciple，andfrompassion，hostiletothem。Thepowerofthediscontentedsectarieswasgreat。Theywerefoundineveryrank；buttheywerestrongestamongthemercantileclassesinthetowns，andamongthesmallproprietorsinthecountry。EarlyinthereignofElizabeththeybegantoreturnamajorityoftheHouseofCommons。Anddoubtlesshadourancestorsbeenthenatlibertytofixtheirattentionentirelyondomesticquestions，thestrifebetweentheCrownandtheParliamentwouldinstantlyhavecommenced。Butthatwasnoseasonforinternaldissensions。Itmight，indeed，wellbedoubtedwhetherthefirmestunionamongalltheordersofthestatecouldavertthecommondangerbywhichallwerethreatened。RomanCatholicEuropeandreformedEuropewerestrugglingfordeathorlife。Francedividedagainstherself，had，foratime，ceasedtobeofanyaccountinChristendom。TheEnglishGovernmentwasattheheadoftheProtestantinterest，and，whilepersecutingPresbyteriansathome，extendedapowerfulprotectiontoPresbyterianChurchesabroad。Attheheadoftheoppositepartywasthemightiestprinceoftheage，aprincewhoruledSpain，Portugal，Italy，theEastandtheWestIndies，whosearmiesrepeatedlymarchedtoParis，andwhosefleetskeptthecoastsofDevonshireandSussexinalarm。ItlongseemedprobablethatEnglishmenwouldhavetofightdesperatelyonEnglishgroundfortheirreligionandindependence。Norweretheyeverforamomentfreefromapprehensionsofsomegreattreasonathome。Forinthatageithadbecomeapointofconscienceandofhonourwithmanymenofgenerousnaturestosacrificetheircountrytotheirreligion。A

successionofdarkplots，formedbyRomanCatholicsagainstthelifeoftheQueenandtheexistenceofthenation，keptsocietyinconstantalarm。WhatevermightbethefaultsofElizabeth，itwasplainthat，tospeakhumanly，thefateoftherealmandofallreformedChurcheswasstakedonthesecurityofherpersonandonthesuccessofheradministration。Tostrengthenherhandswas，therefore，thefirstdutyofapatriotandaProtestant；andthatdutywaswellperformed。ThePuritans，eveninthedepthsoftheprisonstowhichshehadsentthem，prayed，andwithnosimulatedfervour，thatshemightbekeptfromthedaggeroftheassassin，thatrebellionmightbeputdownunderherfeet，andthatherarmsmightbevictoriousbyseaandland。Oneofthemoststubbornofthestubbornsect，immediatelyafterhishandhadbeenloppedoffforanoffenceintowhichhehadbeenhurriedbyhisintemperatezeal，wavedhishatwiththehandwhichwasstilllefthim，andshouted"GodsavetheQueen！"Thesentimentwithwhichthesemenregardedherhasdescendedtotheirposterity。TheNonconformists，rigorouslyasshetreatedthem，have，asabody，alwaysveneratedhermemory。5

Duringthegreaterpartofherreign，therefore，thePuritansintheHouseofCommons，thoughsometimesmutinous，feltnodispositiontoarraythemselvesinsystematicoppositiontothegovernment。But，whenthedefeatoftheArmada，thesuccessfulresistanceoftheUnitedProvincestotheSpanishpower，thefirmestablishmentofHenrytheFourthonthethroneofFrance，andthedeathofPhiliptheSecond，hadsecuredtheStateandtheChurchagainstalldangerfromabroad，anobstinatestruggle，destinedtolastduringseveralgenerations，instantlybeganathome。

ItwasintheParliamentof1601thattheoppositionwhichhad，duringfortyyears，beensilentlygatheringandhusbandingstrength，foughtitsfirstgreatbattleandwonitsfirstvictory。Thegroundwaswellchosen。TheEnglishSovereignshadalwaysbeenentrustedwiththesupremedirectionofcommercialpolice。Itwastheirundoubtedprerogativetoregulatecoin，weights，andmeasures，andtoappointfairs，markets，andports。

Thelinewhichboundedtheirauthorityovertradehad，asusual，beenbutlooselydrawn。Theytherefore，asusual，encroachedontheprovincewhichrightfullybelongedtothelegislature。Theencroachmentwas，asusual，patientlyborne，tillitbecameserious。ButatlengththeQueentookuponherselftograntpatentsofmonopolybyscores。Therewasscarcelyafamilyintherealmwhichdidnotfeelitselfaggrievedbytheoppressionandextortionwhichthisabusenaturallycaused。Iron，oil，vinegar，coal，saltpetre，lead，starch，yarn，skins，leather，glass，couldbeboughtonlyatexorbitantprices。TheHouseofCommonsmetinanangryanddeterminedmood。ItwasinvainthatacourtlyminorityblamedtheSpeakerforsufferingtheactsoftheQueen’sHighnesstobecalledinquestion。Thelanguageofthediscontentedpartywashighandmenacing，andwasechoedbythevoiceofthewholenation。Thecoachofthechiefministerofthecrownwassurroundedbyanindignantpopulace，whocursedthemonopolies，andexclaimedthattheprerogativeshouldnotbesufferedtotouchtheoldlibertiesofEngland。ThereseemedforamomenttobesomedangerthatthelongandgloriousreignofElizabethwouldhaveashamefulanddisastrousend。She，however，withadmirablejudgmentandtemper，declinedthecontest，putherselfattheheadofthereformingparty，redressedthegrievance，thankedtheCommons，intouchinganddignifiedlanguage，fortheirtendercareofthegeneralweal，broughtbacktoherselftheheartsofthepeople，andlefttohersuccessorsamemorableexampleofthewayinwhichitbehovesarulertodealwithpublicmovementswhichhehasnotthemeansofresisting。

Intheyear1603thegreatQueendied。Thatyearis，onmanyaccounts，oneofthemostimportantepochsinourhistory。ItwasthenthatbothScotlandandIrelandbecamepartsofthesameempirewithEngland。BothScotlandandIreland，indeed，hadbeensubjugatedbythePlantagenets；butneithercountryhadbeenpatientundertheyoke。Scotlandhad，withheroicenergy，vindicatedherindependence，had，fromthetimeofRobertBruce，beenaseparatekingdom，andwasnowjoinedtothesouthernpartoftheislandinamannerwhichrathergratifiedthanwoundedhernationalpride。Irelandhadnever，sincethedaysofHenrytheSecond，beenabletoexpeltheforeigninvaders；butshehadstruggledagainstthemlongandfiercely。During，thefourteenthandfifteenthcenturiestheEnglishpowerinthatislandwasconstantlydeclining，andinthedaysofHenrytheSeventh，sanktothelowestpoint。TheIrishdominionsofthatprinceconsistedonlyofthecountiesofDublinandLouth，ofsomepartsofMeathandKildare，andofafewseaportsscatteredalongthecoast。A

largeportionevenofLeinsterwasnotyetdividedintocounties。

Munster，Ulster，andConnaughtwereruledbypettysovereigns，partlyCelts，andpartlydegenerateNormans，whohadforgottentheiroriginandhadadoptedtheCelticlanguageandmanners。Butduringthesixteenthcentury，theEnglishpowerhadmadegreatprogress。ThehalfsavagechieftainswhoreignedbeyondthepalehadsubmittedoneafteranothertothelieutenantsoftheTudors。

Atlength，afewweeksbeforethedeathofElizabeth，theconquest，whichhadbeenbegunmorethanfourhundredyearsbeforebyStrongbow，wascompletedbyMountjoy。ScarcelyhadJamestheFirstmountedtheEnglishthronewhenthelastO’DonnelandO’NeilwhohaveheldtherankofindependentprinceskissedhishandatWhitehall。ThenceforwardhiswritsranandhisjudgesheldassizesineverypartofIreland；andtheEnglishlawsupersededthecustomswhichhadprevailedamongtheaboriginaltribes。

InextentScotlandandIrelandwerenearlyequaltoeachother，andweretogethernearlyequaltoEngland，butweremuchlessthicklypeopledthanEngland，andwereveryfarbehindEnglandinwealthandcivilisation。Scotlandhadbeenkeptbackbythesterilityofhersoil；and，inthemidstoflight，thethickdarknessofthemiddleagesstillrestedonIreland。

ThepopulationofScotland，withtheexceptionoftheCeltictribeswhichwerethinlyscatteredovertheHebridesandoverthemountainouspartsofthenorthernshires，wasofthesamebloodwiththepopulationofEngland，andspokeatonguewhichdidnotdifferfromthepurestEnglishmorethanthedialectsofSomersetshireandLancashiredifferedfromeachother。InIreland，onthecontrary，thepopulation，withtheexceptionofthesmallEnglishcolonynearthecoast，wasCeltic，andstillkepttheCelticspeechandmanners。

InnaturalcourageandintelligenceboththenationswhichnowbecameconnectedwithEnglandrankedhigh。Inperseverance，inselfcommand，inforethought，inallthevirtueswhichconducetosuccessinlife，theScotshaveneverbeensurpassed。TheIrish，ontheotherhand，weredistinguishedbyqualitieswhichtendtomakemeninterestingratherthanprosperous。Theywereanardentandimpetuousrace，easilymovedtotearsortolaughter，tofuryortolove。AloneamongthenationsofnorthernEuropetheyhadthesusceptibility，thevivacity，thenaturalturnforactingandrhetoric，whichareindigenousontheshoresoftheMediterraneanSea。InmentalcultivationScotlandhadanindisputablesuperiority。ThoughthatkingdomwasthenthepoorestinChristendom，italreadyviedineverybranchoflearningwiththemostfavouredcountries。Scotsmen，whosedwellingsandwhosefoodwereaswretchedasthoseoftheIcelandersofourtime，wroteLatinversewithmorethanthedelicacyofVida，andmadediscoveriesinsciencewhichwouldhaveaddedtotherenownofGalileo。IrelandcouldboastofnoBuchananorNapier。Thegenius，withwhichheraboriginalinhabitantswerelargelyendowed’showeditselfasyetonlyinballadswhichwildandruggedastheywere，seemedtothejudgingeyeofSpensertocontainaportionofthepuregoldofpoetry。

Scotland，inbecomingpartoftheBritishmonarchy，preservedherdignity。Having，duringmanygenerations，courageouslywithstoodtheEnglisharms，shewasnowjoinedtoherstrongerneighbouronthemosthonourableterms。ShegaveaKinginsteadofreceivingone。Sheretainedherownconstitutionandlaws。HertribunalsandparliamentsremainedentirelyindependentofthetribunalsandparliamentswhichsateatWestminster。TheadministrationofScotlandwasinScottishhands；fornoEnglishmanhadanymotivetoemigratenorthward，andtocontendwiththeshrewdestandmostpertinaciousofallracesforwhatwastobescrapedtogetherinthepoorestofalltreasuries。NeverthelessScotlandbynomeansescapedthefateordainedforeverycountrywhichisconnected，butnotincorporated，withanothercountryofgreaterresources。

Thoughinnameanindependentkingdom，shewas，duringmorethanacentury，reallytreated，inmanyrespects，asasubjectprovince。

Irelandwasundisguisedlygovernedasadependencywonbythesword。Herrudenationalinstitutionshadperished。TheEnglishcolonistssubmittedtothedictationofthemothercountry，withoutwhosesupporttheycouldnotexist，andindemnifiedthemselvesbytramplingonthepeopleamongwhomtheyhadsettled。TheparliamentswhichmetatDublincouldpassnolawwhichhadnotbeenpreviouslyapprovedbytheEnglishPrivyCouncil。TheauthorityoftheEnglishlegislatureextendedoverIreland。TheexecutiveadministrationwasentrustedtomentakeneitherfromEnglandorfromtheEnglishpale，and，ineithercase，regardedasforeigners，andevenasenemies，bytheCelticpopulation。

Butthecircumstancewhich，morethananyother，hasmadeIrelandtodifferfromScotlandremainstobenoticed。ScotlandwasProtestant。InnopartofEuropehadthemovementofthepopularmindagainsttheRomanCatholicChurchbeensorapidandviolent。

TheReformershadvanquished，deposed，andimprisonedtheiridolatroussovereign。TheywouldnotendureevensuchacompromiseashadbeeneffectedinEngland。TheyhadestablishedtheCalvinisticdoctrine，discipline，andworship；andtheymadelittledistinctionbetweenPoperyandPrelacy，betweentheMassandtheBookofCommonPrayer。UnfortunatelyforScotland，theprincewhomshesenttogovernafairerinheritancehadbeensomuchannoyedbythepertinacitywithwhichhertheologianshadassertedagainsthimtheprivilegesofthesynodandthepulpitthathehatedtheecclesiasticalpolitytowhichshewasfondlyattachedasmuchasitwasinhiseffeminatenaturetohateanything，andhadnosoonermountedtheEnglishthronethanhebegantoshowanintolerantzealforthegovernmentandritualoftheEnglishChurch。

TheIrishweretheonlypeopleofnorthernEuropewhohadremainedtruetotheoldreligion。Thisistobepartlyascribedtothecircumstancethattheyweresomecenturiesbehindtheirneighboursinknowledge。Butothercauseshadcooperated。TheReformationhadbeenanationalaswellasamoralrevolt。Ithadbeen，notonlyaninsurrectionofthelaityagainsttheclergy，butalsoaninsurrectionofallthebranchesofthegreatGermanraceagainstanaliendomination。ItisamostsignificantcircumstancethatnolargesocietyofwhichthetongueisnotTeutonichaseverturnedProtestant，andthat，whereveralanguagederivedfromthatofancientRomeisspoken，thereligionofmodernRometothisdayprevails。ThepatriotismoftheIrishhadtakenapeculiardirection。TheobjectoftheiranimositywasnotRome，butEngland；andtheyhadespecialreasontoabhorthoseEnglishsovereignswhohadbeenthechiefsofthegreatschism，HenrytheEighthandElizabeth。DuringthevainstrugglewhichtwogenerationsofMilesianprincesmaintainedagainsttheTudors，religiousenthusiasmandnationalenthusiasmbecameinseparablyblendedinthemindsofthevanquishedrace。

ThenewfeudofProtestantandPapistinflamedtheoldfeudofSaxonandCelt。TheEnglishconquerors。meanwhile，neglectedalllegitimatemeansofconversion。Nocarewastakentoprovidethevanquishednationwithinstructorscapableofmakingthemselvesunderstood。NotranslationoftheBiblewasputforthintheIrishlanguage。ThegovernmentcontenteditselfwithsettingupavasthierarchyofProtestantarchbishops，bishops，andrectors，whodidnothing，andwho，fordoingnothing，werepaidoutofthespoilsofaChurchlovedandreveredbythegreatbodyofthepeople。

TherewasmuchinthestatebothofScotlandandofIrelandwhichmightwellexcitethepainfulapprehensionsofafarsightedstatesman。Asyet，however，therewastheappearanceoftranquillity。ForthefirsttimealltheBritishisleswerepeaceablyunitedunderonesceptre。

ItshouldseemthattheweightofEnglandamongEuropeannationsought，fromthisepoch，tohavegreatlyincreased。TheterritorywhichhernewKinggovernedwas，inextent，nearlydoublethatwhichElizabethhadinherited。Hisempirewasthemostcompletewithinitselfandthemostsecurefromattackthatwastobefoundintheworld。ThePlantagenetsandTudorshadbeenrepeatedlyunderthenecessityofdefendingthemselvesagainstScotlandwhiletheywereengagedincontinentalwar。ThelongconflictinIrelandhadbeenasevereandperpetualdrainontheirresources。YetevenundersuchdisadvantagesthosesovereignshadbeenhighlyconsideredthroughoutChristendom。Itmight，therefore，notunreasonablybeexpectedthatEngland，Scotland，andIrelandcombinedwouldformastatesecondtononethatthenexisted。

Allsuchexpectationswerestrangelydisappointed。OnthedayoftheaccessionofJamestheFirst，Englanddescendedfromtherankwhichshehadhithertoheld，andbegantoheregardedasapowerhardlyofthesecondorder。DuringmanyyearsthegreatBritishmonarchy，underfoursuccessiveprincesoftheHouseofStuart，wasscarcelyamoreimportantmemberoftheEuropeansystemthanthelittlekingdomofScotlandhadpreviouslybeen。This，however，islittletoberegretted。OfJamestheFirst，asofJohn，itmaybesaidthat，ifhisadministrationhadbeenableandsplendid，itwouldprobablyhavebeenfataltoourcountry，andthatweowemoretohisweaknessandmeannessthantothewisdomandcourageofmuchbettersovereigns。Hecametothethroneatacriticalmoment。ThetimewasfastapproachingwheneithertheKingmustbecomeabsolute，ortheparliamentmustcontrolthewholeexecutiveadministration。HadJamesbeen，likeHenrytheFourth，likeMauriceofNassau，orlikeGustavusAdolphus，avaliant，active，andpoliticruler，hadheputhimselfattheheadoftheProtestantsofEurope，hadhegainedgreatvictoriesoverTillyandSpinola，hadheadornedWestminsterwiththespoilsofBavarianmonasteriesandFlemishcathedrals，hadhehungAustrianandCastilianbannersinSaintPaul’s，andhadhefoundhimself，aftergreatachievements，attheheadoffiftythousandtroops，brave，welldisciplined，anddevotedlyattachedtohisperson，theEnglishParliamentwouldsoonhavebeennothingmorethananame。Happilyhewasnotamantoplaysuchapart。HebeganhisadministrationbyputtinganendtothewarwhichhadragedduringmanyyearsbetweenEnglandandSpain；andfromthattimeheshunnedhostilitieswithacautionwhichwasproofagainsttheinsultsofhisneighboursandtheclamoursofhissubjects。Nottillthelastyearofhislifecouldtheinfluenceofhisson，hisfavourite，hisParliament，andhispeoplecombined，inducehimtostrikeonefeebleblowindefenceofhisfamilyandofhisreligion。Itwaswellforthosewhomhegovernedthatheinthismatterdisregardedtheirwishes。

Theeffectofhispacificpolicywasthat，inhistime，noregulartroopswereneeded，andthat，whileFrance，Spain，Italy，Belgium，andGermanyswarmedwithmercenarysoldiers，thedefenceofourislandwasstillconfidedtothemilitia。

AstheKinghadnostandingarmy，anddidnotevenattempttoformone，itwouldhavebeenwiseinhimtoavoidanyconflictwithhispeople。Butsuchwashisindiscretionthat，whilehealtogetherneglectedthemeanswhichalonecouldmakehimreallyabsolute，heconstantlyputforward，inthemostoffensiveform，claimsofwhichnoneofhispredecessorshadeverdreamed。ItwasatthistimethatthosestrangetheorieswhichFilmerafterwardsformedintoasystemandwhichbecamethebadgeofthemostviolentclassofToriesandhighchurchmen，firstemergedintonotice。ItwasgravelymaintainedthattheSupremeBeingregardedhereditarymonarchy，asopposedtootherformsofgovernment，withpeculiarfavour；thattheruleofsuccessioninorderofprimogeniturewasadivineinstitution，anteriortotheChristian，andeventotheMosaicdispensation；thatnohumanpower，noteventhatofthewholelegislature，nolengthofadversepossession，thoughitextendedtotencenturies，coulddeprivealegitimateprinceofhisrights，thattheauthorityofsuchaprincewasnecessarilyalwaysdespotic；thatthelaws，bywhich，inEnglandandinothercountries，theprerogativewaslimited，weretoberegardedmerelyasconcessionswhichthesovereignhadfreelymadeandmightathispleasureresume；andthatanytreatywhichakingmightconcludewithhispeoplewasmerelyadeclarationofhispresentintentions，andnotacontractofwhichtheperformancecouldbedemanded。Itisevidentthatthistheory，thoughintendedtostrengthenthefoundationsofgovernment，altogetherunsettlesthem。Doesthedivineandimmutablelawofprimogenitureadmitfemales，orexcludethem？OneithersuppositionhalfthesovereignsofEuropemustbeusurpers，reigningindefianceofthelawofGod，andliabletobedispossessedbytherightfulheirs。ThedoctrinethatkinglygovernmentispeculiarlyfavouredbyHeavenreceivesnocountenancefromtheOldTestament；forintheOldTestamentwereadthatthechosenpeoplewereblamedandpunishedfordesiringaking，andthattheywereafterwardscommandedtowithdrawtheirallegiancefromhim。Theirwholehistory，farfromcountenancingthenotionthatsuccessioninorderofprimogenitureisofdivineinstitution，wouldratherseemtoindicatethatyoungerbrothersareundertheespecialprotectionofheaven。IsaacwasnottheeldestsonofAbraham，norJacobofIsaac，norJudahofJacob，norDavidofJessenorSolomonofDavidNordoesthesystemofFilmerreceiveanycountenancefromthosepassagesoftheNewTestamentwhichdescribegovernmentasanordinanceofGod:forthegovernmentunderwhichthewritersoftheNewTestamentlivedwasnotahereditarymonarchy。TheRomanEmperorswererepublicanmagistrates，namedbythesenate。

Noneofthempretendedtorulebyrightofbirth；and，infact，bothTiberius，towhomChristcommandedthattributeshouldbegiven，andNero，whomPauldirectedtheRomanstoobey，were，accordingtothepatriarchaltheoryofgovernment，usurpers。Inthemiddleagesthedoctrineofindefeasiblehereditaryrightwouldhavebeenregardedasheretical:foritwasaltogetherincompatiblewiththehighpretensionsoftheChurchofRome。ItwasadoctrineunknowntothefoundersoftheChurchofEngland。

TheHomilyonWilfulRebellionhadstrongly，andindeedtoostrongly，inculcatedsubmissiontoconstitutedauthority，buthadmadenodistinctionbetweenhereditaryendelectivemonarchies，orbetweenmonarchiesandrepublics。IndeedmostofthepredecessorsofJameswould，frompersonalmotives，haveregardedthepatriarchaltheoryofgovernmentwithaversion。WilliamRufus，HenrytheFirst，Stephen，John，HenrytheFourth，HenrytheFifth，HenrytheSixth，RichardtheThird，andHenrytheSeventh，hadallreignedindefianceofthestrictruleofdescent。AgravedoubthungoverthelegitimacybothofMaryandofElizabeth。ItwasimpossiblethatbothCatharineofAragonandAnneBoleyncouldhavebeenlawfullymarriedtoHenrytheEighth；

andthehighestauthorityintherealmhadpronouncedthatneitherwasso。TheTudors，farfromconsideringthelawofsuccessionasadivineandunchangeableinstitution，wereconstantlytamperingwithit。HenrytheEighthobtainedanactofparliament，givinghimpowertoleavethecrownbywill，andactuallymadeawilltotheprejudiceoftheroyalfamilyofScotland。EdwardtheSixth，unauthorisedbyParliament，assumedasimilarpower，withthefullapprobationofthemosteminentReformers。Elizabeth，consciousthatherowntitlewasopentograveobjection，andunwillingtoadmitevenareversionaryrightinherrivalandenemytheQueenofScots，inducedtheParliamenttopassalaw，enactingthatwhoevershoulddenythecompetencyofthereigningsovereign，withtheassentoftheEstatesoftherealm，toalterthesuccession，shouldsufferdeathasatraitor:

ButthesituationofJameswaswidelydifferentfromthatofElizabeth。Farinferiortoherinabilitiesandinpopularity，regardedbytheEnglishasanalien，andexcludedfromthethronebythetestamentofHenrytheEighth，theKingofScotswasyettheundoubtedheirofWilliamtheConquerorandofEgbert。Hehad，therefore，anobviousinterestininculcatingthesuperstitionsnotionthatbirthconfersrightsanteriortolaw，andunalterablebylaw。Itwasanotion，moreover，wellsuitedtohisintellectandtemper。Itsoonfoundmanyadvocatesamongthosewhoaspiredtohisfavour，andmaderapidprogressamongtheclergyoftheEstablishedChurch。

Thus，attheverymomentatwhicharepublicanspiritbegantomanifestitselfstronglyintheParliamentandinthecountry，theclaimsofthemonarchtookamonstrousformwhichwouldhavedisgustedtheproudestandmostarbitraryofthosewhohadprecededhimonthethrone。

Jameswasalwaysboastingofhisskillinwhathecalledkingcraft；andyetitishardlypossibleeventoimagineacoursemoredirectlyopposedtoalltherulesofkingcraft，thanthatwhichhefollowed。Thepolicyofwiserulershasalwaysbeentodisguisestrongactsunderpopularforms。ItwasthusthatAugustusandNapoleonestablishedabsolutemonarchies，whilethepublicregardedthemmerelyaseminentcitizensinvestedwithtemporarymagistracies。ThepolicyofJameswasthedirectreverseoftheirs。HeenragedandalarmedhisParliamentbyconstantlytellingthemthattheyheldtheirprivilegesmerelyduringhispleasureandthattheyhadnomorebusinesstoinquirewhathemightlawfullydothanwhattheDeitymightlawfullydo。

Yethequailedbeforethem，abandonedministerafterministertotheirvengeance，andsufferedthemtoteasehimintoactsdirectlyopposedtohisstrongestinclinations。Thustheindignationexcitedbyhisclaimsandthescornexcitedbyhisconcessionswentongrowingtogether。Byhisfondnessforworthlessminions，andbythesanctionwhichhegavetotheirtyrannyandrapacity，hekeptdiscontentconstantlyalive。Hiscowardice，hischildishness，hispedantry，hisungainlyperson，hisprovincialaccent，madehimanobjectofderision。Eveninhisvirtuesandaccomplishmentstherewassomethingeminentlyunkingly。Throughoutthewholecourseofhisreign，allthevenerableassociationsbywhichthethronghadlongbeenfencedweregraduallylosingtheirstrength。DuringtwohundredyearsallthesovereignswhohadruledEngland，withtheexceptionofHenrytheSixth，hadbeenstrongminded，highspirited，courageous，andofprincelybearing。Almostallhadpossessedabilitiesabovetheordinarylevel。ItwasnolightthingthatontheveryeveofthedecisivestrugglebetweenourKingsandtheirParliaments，royaltyshouldbeexhibitedtotheworldstammering，slobbering，sheddingunmanlytears，tremblingatadrawnsword，andtalkinginthestylealternatelyofabuffoonandofapedagogue。

Inthemeantimethereligiousdissensions，bywhich，fromthedaysofEdwardtheSixth，theProtestantbodyhadbeendistracted，hadbecomemoreformidablethanever。TheintervalwhichhadseparatedthefirstgenerationofPuritansfromCranmerandJewelwassmallindeedwhencomparedwiththeintervalwhichseparatedthethirdgenerationofPuritansfromLaudandHammond。

【推荐阅读】幽幽深宫，醒来一梦似千年，重生于下堂妃身躯中的她，将如何手刃仇人? 点击阅读