PHILADELPHIA
PORTER&COATES
CONTENTS
CHAPTERI。
IntroductionBritainundertheRomansBritainundertheSaxonsConversionoftheSaxonstoChristianityDanishInvasions;TheNormansTheNormanConquestSeparationofEnglandandNormandyAmalgamationofRacesEnglishConquestsontheContinentWarsoftheRosesExtinctionofVillenageBeneficialOperationoftheRomanCatholicReligionTheearlyEnglishPolityoftenmisrepresented,andwhy?
NatureoftheLimitedMonarchiesoftheMiddleAgesPrerogativesoftheearlyEnglishKingsLimitationsofthePrerogativeResistanceanordinaryCheckonTyrannyintheMiddleAgesPeculiarCharacteroftheEnglishAristocracyGovernmentoftheTudorsLimitedMonarchiesoftheMiddleAgesgenerallyturnedintoAbsoluteMonarchiesTheEnglishMonarchyasingularExceptionTheReformationanditsEffectsOriginoftheChurchofEnglandHerpeculiarCharacter7
RelationinwhichshestoodtotheCrownThePuritansTheirRepublicanSpiritNosystematicparliamentaryOppositionofferedtotheGovernmentofElizabethQuestionoftheMonopoliesScotlandandIrelandbecomePartsofthesameEmpirewithEnglandDiminutionoftheImportanceofEnglandaftertheAccessionofJamesI
DoctrineofDivineRightTheSeparationbetweentheChurchandthePuritansbecomeswiderAccessionandCharacterofCharlesI
TacticsoftheOppositionintheHouseofCommonsPetitionofRightPetitionofRightviolated;CharacterandDesignsofWentworthCharacterofLaudStarChamberandHighCommissionShip—MoneyResistancetotheLiturgyinScotlandAParliamentcalledanddissolvedTheLongParliamentFirstAppearanceoftheTwogreatEnglishPartiesTheRemonstranceImpeachmentoftheFiveMembersDepartureofCharlesfromLondonCommencementoftheCivilWarSuccessesoftheRoyalistsRiseoftheIndependentsOliverCromwellSelfdenyingOrdinance;VictoryoftheParliamentDominationandCharacteroftheArmyRisingagainsttheMilitaryGovernmentsuppressedProceedingsagainsttheKingHisExecutionSubjugationofIrelandandScotlandExpulsionoftheLongParliamentTheProtectorateofOliverCromwellOliversucceededbyRichardFallofRichardandRevivaloftheLongParliamentSecondExpulsionoftheLongParliamentTheArmyofScotlandmarchesintoEnglandMonkdeclaresforaFreeParliamentGeneralElectionof1660
TheRestorationCHAPTERII。
ConductofthosewhorestoredtheHouseofStuartunjustlycensuredAbolitionofTenuresbyKnightService;DisbandmentoftheArmyDisputesbetweentheRoundheadsandCavaliersrenewedReligiousDissensionUnpopularityofthePuritansCharacterofCharlesII
CharacteroftheDukeofYorkandEarlofClarendonGeneralElectionof1661
ViolenceoftheCavaliersinthenewParliamentPersecutionofthePuritansZealoftheChurchforHereditaryMonarchyChangeintheMoralsoftheCommunityProfligacyofPoliticiansStateofScotlandStateofIrelandTheGovernmentbecomeunpopularinEnglandWarwiththeDutchOppositionintheHouseofCommonsFallofClarendonStateofEuropeanPolitics,andAscendancyofFranceCharacterofLewisXIV
TheTripleAllianceTheCountryPartyConnectionbetweenCharlesII。andFranceViewsofLewiswithrespecttoEnglandTreatyofDoverNatureoftheEnglishCabinetTheCabalShuttingoftheExchequerWarwiththeUnitedProvinces,andtheirextremeDangerWilliam,PrinceofOrangeMeetingoftheParliament;DeclarationofIndulgenceItiscancelled,andtheTestActpassedTheCabaldissolvedPeacewiththeUnitedProvinces;AdministrationofDanbyEmbarrassingSituationoftheCountryPartyDealingsofthatPartywiththeFrenchEmbassyPeaceofNimeguenViolentDiscontentsinEnglandFallofDanby;thePopishPlotViolenceofthenewHouseofCommonsTemple’sPlanofGovernmentCharacterofHalifaxCharacterofSunderlandProrogationoftheParliament;HabeasCorpusAct;SecondGeneralElectionof1679
PopularityofMonmouthLawrenceHydeSidneyGodolphinViolenceofFactionsontheSubjectoftheExclusionBillNamesofWhigandToryMeetingofParliament;TheExclusionBillpassestheCommons;
ExclusionBillrejectedbytheLordsExecutionofStafford;GeneralElectionof1681
ParliamentheldatOxford,anddissolvedToryReactionPersecutionoftheWhigsCharteroftheCityconfiscated;WhigConspiraciesDetectionoftheWhigConspiraciesSeverityoftheGovernment;SeizureofChartersInfluenceoftheDukeofYorkHeisopposedbyHalifaxLordGuildfordPolicyofLewisStateofFactionsintheCourtofCharlesatthetimeofhisDeathCHAPTERIII。
GreatChangeintheStateofEnglandsince1685
PopulationofEnglandin1685
IncreaseofPopulationgreaterintheNorththanintheSouthRevenuein1685
MilitarySystemTheNavyTheOrdnanceNoneffectiveCharge;ChargeofCivilGovernmentGreatGainsofMinistersandCourtiersStateofAgriculture5
MineralWealthoftheCountryIncreaseofRentTheCountryGentlemenTheClergyTheYeomanry;GrowthoftheTowns;BristolNorwichOtherCountryTownsManchester;Leeds;SheffieldBirminghamLiverpoolWatering—places;Cheltenham;Brighton;Buxton;TunbridgeWellsBathLondonTheCityFashionablePartoftheCapitalLightingofLondonPoliceofLondonWhitefriars;TheCourtTheCoffeeHousesDifficultyofTravellingBadnessoftheRoadsStageCoachesHighwaymenInnsPostOfficeNewspapersNews—lettersTheObservatorScarcityofBooksinCountryPlaces;FemaleEducationLiteraryAttainmentsofGentlemenInfluenceofFrenchLiteratureImmoralityofthePoliteLiteratureofEnglandStateofScienceinEnglandStateoftheFineArtsStateoftheCommonPeople;AgriculturalWagesWagesofManufacturersLabourofChildreninFactoriesWagesofdifferentClassesofArtisansNumberofPaupersBenefitsderivedbytheCommonPeoplefromtheProgressofCivilisationDelusionwhichleadsMentooverratetheHappinessofprecedingGenerationsCHAPTERIV。
DeathofCharlesII
SuspicionsofPoisonSpeechofJamesII。tothePrivyCouncilJamesproclaimedStateoftheAdministrationNewArrangementsSirGeorgeJeffreysTheRevenuecollectedwithoutanActofParliamentAParliamentcalledTransactionsbetweenJamesandtheFrenchKingChurchillsentAmbassadortoFrance;HisHistoryFeelingsoftheContinentalGovernmentstowardsEnglandPolicyoftheCourtofRomeStruggleintheMindofJames;FluctuationsinhisPolicyPublicCelebrationoftheRomanCatholicRitesinthePalaceHisCoronationEnthusiasmoftheTories;AddressesTheElectionsProceedingsagainstOatesProceedingsagainstDangerfieldProceedingsagainstBaxterMeetingoftheParliamentofScotlandFeelingofJamestowardsthePuritansCruelTreatmentoftheScotchCovenantersFeelingofJamestowardstheQuakersWilliamPennPeculiarFavourshowntoRomanCatholicsandQuakersMeetingoftheEnglishParliament;TrevorchosenSpeaker;
CharacterofSeymourTheKing’sSpeechtotheParliamentDebateintheCommons;SpeechofSeymourTheRevenuevoted;ProceedingsoftheCommonsconcerningReligionAdditionalTaxesvoted;SirDudleyNorthProceedingsoftheLordsBillforreversingtheAttainderofStaffordCHAPTERV。
WhigRefugeesontheContinentTheirCorrespondentsinEnglandCharactersoftheleadingRefugees;Ayloffe;WadeGoodenough;RumboldLordGreyMonmouthFergusonScotchRefugees;EarlofArgyleSirPatrickHume;SirJohnCochrane;FletcherofSaltounUnreasonableConductoftheScotchRefugeesArrangementforanAttemptonEnglandandScotlandJohnLockePreparationsmadebyGovernmentfortheDefenceofScotlandConversationofJameswiththeDutchAmbassadors;IneffectualAttemptstopreventArgylefromsailingDepartureofArgylefromHolland;HelandsinScotlandHisDisputeswithhisFollowersTemperoftheScotchNationArgyle’sForcesdispersedArgyleaPrisonerHisExecution。
ExecutionofRumboldDeathofAyloffeDevastationofArgyleshireIneffectualAttemptstopreventMonmouthfromleavingHollandHisArrivalatLymeHisDeclarationHisPopularityintheWestofEnglandEncounteroftheRebelswiththeMilitiaatBridportEncounteroftheRebelswiththeMilitiaatAxminster;NewsoftheRebellioncarriedtoLondon;LoyaltyoftheParliamentReceptionofMonmouthatTauntonHetakestheTitleofKingHisReceptionatBridgewaterPreparationsoftheGovernmenttoopposehimHisDesignonBristolHerelinquishesthatDesignSkirmishatPhilip’sNorton;DespondenceofMonmouthHereturnstoBridgewater;TheRoyalArmyencampsatSedgemoorBattleofSedgemoorPursuitoftheRebelsMilitaryExecutions;FlightofMonmouthHisCaptureHisLettertotheKing;HeiscarriedtoLondonHisInterviewwiththeKingHisExecutionHisMemorycherishedbytheCommonPeopleCrueltiesoftheSoldiersintheWest;KirkeJeffreyssetsoutontheWesternCircuitTrialofAliceLisleTheBloodyAssizesAbrahamHolmesChristopherBattiseombe;TheHewlingsPunishmentofTutchinRebelsTransportedConfiscationandExtortionRapacityoftheQueenandherLadiesGrey;Cochrane;StoreyWade,Goodenough,andFergusonJeffreysmadeLordChancellorTrialandExecutionofCornishTrialsandExecutionsofFernleyandElizabethGauntTrialandExecutionofBatemanPersecutionoftheProtestantDissentersHISTORYOFENGLAND。
CHAPTERI。
IPURPOSEtowritethehistoryofEnglandfromtheaccessionofKingJamestheSeconddowntoatimewhichiswithinthememoryofmenstillliving。Ishallrecounttheerrorswhich,inafewmonths,alienatedaloyalgentryandpriesthoodfromtheHouseofStuart。Ishalltracethecourseofthatrevolutionwhichterminatedthelongstrugglebetweenoursovereignsandtheirparliaments,andbounduptogethertherightsofthepeopleandthetitleofthereigningdynasty。Ishallrelatehowthenewsettlementwas,duringmanytroubledyears,successfullydefendedagainstforeignanddomesticenemies;how,underthatsettlement,theauthorityoflawandthesecurityofpropertywerefoundtobecompatiblewithalibertyofdiscussionandofindividualactionneverbeforeknown;how,fromtheauspiciousunionoforderandfreedom,sprangaprosperityofwhichtheannalsofhumanaffairshadfurnishednoexample;howourcountry,fromastateofignominiousvassalage,rapidlyrosetotheplaceofumpireamongEuropeanpowers;howheropulenceandhermartialglorygrewtogether;how,bywiseandresolutegoodfaith,wasgraduallyestablishedapubliccreditfruitfulofmarvelswhichtothestatesmenofanyformeragewouldhaveseemedincredible;
howagiganticcommercegavebirthtoamaritimepower,comparedwithwhicheveryothermaritimepower,ancientormodern,sinksintoinsignificance;howScotland,afteragesofenmity,wasatlengthunitedtoEngland,notmerelybylegalbonds,butbyindissolubletiesofinterestandaffection;how,inAmerica,theBritishcoloniesrapidlybecamefarmightierandwealthierthantherealmswhichCortesandPizarrohadaddedtothedominionsofCharlestheFifth;howinAsia,BritishadventurersfoundedanempirenotlesssplendidandmoredurablethanthatofAlexander。
Norwillitbelessmydutyfaithfullytorecorddisastersmingledwithtriumphs,andgreatnationalcrimesandfolliesfarmorehumiliatingthananydisaster。Itwillbeseenthatevenwhatwejustlyaccountourchiefblessingswerenotwithoutalloy。Itwillbeseenthatthesystemwhicheffectuallysecuredourlibertiesagainsttheencroachmentsofkinglypowergavebirthtoanewclassofabusesfromwhichabsolutemonarchiesareexempt。Itwillbeseenthat,inconsequencepartlyofunwiseinterference,andpartlyofunwiseneglect,theincreaseofwealthandtheextensionoftradeproduced,togetherwithimmensegood,someevilsfromwhichpoorandrudesocietiesarefree。Itwillbeseenhow,intwoimportantdependenciesofthecrown,wrongwasfollowedbyjustretribution;howimprudenceandobstinacybrokethetieswhichboundtheNorthAmericancoloniestotheparentstate;howIreland,cursedbythedominationofraceoverrace,andofreligionoverreligion,remainedindeedamemberoftheempire,butawitheredanddistortedmember,addingnostrengthtothebodypolitic,andreproachfullypointedatbyallwhofearedorenviedthegreatnessofEngland。
Yet,unlessIgreatlydeceivemyself,thegeneraleffectofthischequerednarrativewillbetoexcitethankfulnessinallreligiousminds,andhopeinthebreastsofallpatriots。Forthehistoryofourcountryduringthelasthundredandsixtyyearsiseminentlythehistoryofphysical,ofmoral,andofintellectualimprovement。Thosewhocomparetheageonwhichtheirlothasfallenwithagoldenagewhichexistsonlyintheirimaginationmaytalkofdegeneracyanddecay:butnomanwhoiscorrectlyinformedastothepastwillbedisposedtotakeamoroseordespondingviewofthepresent。
IshouldveryimperfectlyexecutethetaskwhichIhaveundertakenifIweremerelytotreatofbattlesandsieges,oftheriseandfallofadministrations,ofintriguesinthepalace,andofdebatesintheparliament。Itwillbemyendeavourtorelatethehistoryofthepeopleaswellasthehistoryofthegovernment,totracetheprogressofusefulandornamentalarts,todescribetheriseofreligioussectsandthechangesofliterarytaste,toportraythemannersofsuccessivegenerationsandnottopassbywithneglecteventherevolutionswhichhavetakenplaceindress,furniture,repasts,andpublicamusements。
Ishallcheerfullybearthereproachofhavingdescendedbelowthedignityofhistory,ifIcansucceedinplacingbeforetheEnglishofthenineteenthcenturyatruepictureofthelifeoftheirancestors。
TheeventswhichIproposetorelateformonlyasingleactofagreatandeventfuldramaextendingthroughages,andmustbeveryimperfectlyunderstoodunlesstheplotoftheprecedingactsbewellknown。Ishallthereforeintroducemynarrativebyaslightsketchofthehistoryofourcountryfromtheearliesttimes。I
shallpassveryrapidlyovermanycenturies:butIshalldwellatsomelengthonthevicissitudesofthatcontestwhichtheadministrationofKingJamestheSecondbroughttoadecisivecrisis。1
NothingintheearlyexistenceofBritainindicatedthegreatnesswhichshewasdestinedtoattain。HerinhabitantswhenfirsttheybecameknowntotheTyrianmariners,werelittlesuperiortothenativesoftheSandwichIslands。ShewassubjugatedbytheRomanarms;butshereceivedonlyafainttinctureofRomanartsandletters。OfthewesternprovinceswhichobeyedtheCaesars,shewasthelastthatwasconquered,andthefirstthatwasflungaway。NomagnificentremainsofLatinporchesandaqueductsaretobefoundinBritain。NowriterofBritishbirthisreckonedamongthemastersofLatinpoetryandeloquence。ItisnotprobablethattheislanderswereatanytimegenerallyfamiliarwiththetongueoftheirItalianrulers。FromtheAtlantictothevicinityoftheRhinetheLatinhas,duringmanycenturies,beenpredominant。ItdroveouttheCeltic;itwasnotdrivenoutbytheTeutonic;anditisatthisdaythebasisoftheFrench,SpanishandPortugueselanguages。InourislandtheLatinappearsnevertohavesupersededtheoldGaelicspeech,andcouldnotstanditsgroundagainsttheGerman。
ThescantyandsuperficialcivilisationwhichtheBritonshadderivedfromtheirsouthernmasterswaseffacedbythecalamitiesofthefifthcentury。InthecontinentalkingdomsintowhichtheRomanempirewasthendissolved,theconquerorslearnedmuchfromtheconqueredrace。InBritaintheconqueredracebecameasbarbarousastheconquerors。
AllthechiefswhofoundedTeutonicdynastiesinthecontinentalprovincesoftheRomanempire,Alaric,Theodoric,Clovis,Alboin,werezealousChristians。ThefollowersofIdaandCerdic,ontheotherhand,broughttotheirsettlementsinBritainallthesuperstitionsoftheElbe。WhiletheGermanprinceswhoreignedatParis,Toledo,Arles,andRavennalistenedwithreverencetotheinstructionsofbishops,adoredtherelicsofmartyrs,andtookparteagerlyindisputestouchingtheNicenetheology,therulersofWessexandMerciawerestillperformingsavageritesinthetemplesofThorandWoden。
ThecontinentalkingdomswhichhadrisenontheruinsoftheWesternEmpirekeptupsomeintercoursewiththoseeasternprovinceswheretheancientcivilisation,thoughslowlyfadingawayundertheinfluenceofmisgovernment,mightstillastonishandinstructbarbarians,wherethecourtstillexhibitedthesplendourofDiocletianandConstantine,wherethepublicbuildingswerestilladornedwiththesculpturesofPolycletusandthepaintingsofApelles,andwherelaboriouspedants,themselvesdestituteoftaste,sense,andspirit,couldstillreadandinterpretthemasterpiecesofSophocles,ofDemosthenes,andofPlato。FromthiscommunionBritainwascutoff。Hershoreswere,tothepolishedracewhichdweltbytheBosphorus,objectsofamysterioushorror,suchasthatwithwhichtheIoniansoftheageofHomerhadregardedtheStraitsofScyllaandthecityoftheLaestrygoniancannibals。Therewasoneprovinceofourislandinwhich,asProcopiushadbeentold,thegroundwascoveredwithserpents,andtheairwassuchthatnomancouldinhaleitandlive。TothisdesolateregionthespiritsofthedepartedwereferriedoverfromthelandoftheFranksatmidnight。Astrangeraceoffishermenperformedtheghastlyoffice。Thespeechofthedeadwasdistinctlyheardbytheboatmen,theirweightmadethekeelsinkdeepinthewater;buttheirformswereinvisibletomortaleye。Suchwerethemarvelswhichanablehistorian,thecontemporaryofBelisarius,ofSimplicius,andofTribonian,gravelyrelatedintherichandpoliteConstantinople,touchingthecountryinwhichthefounderofConstantinoplehadassumedtheimperialpurple。ConcerningalltheotherprovincesoftheWesternEmpirewehavecontinuousinformation。ItisonlyinBritainthatanageoffablecompletelyseparatestwoagesoftruth。OdoacerandTotila,EuricandThrasimund,Clovis,Fredegunda,andBrunechild,arehistoricalmenandwomen。ButHengistandHorsa,VortigernandRowena,ArthurandMordredaremythicalpersons,whoseveryexistencemaybequestioned,andwhoseadventuresmustbeclassedwiththoseofHerculesandRomulusAtlengththedarknessbeginstobreak;andthecountrywhichhadbeenlosttoviewasBritainreappearsasEngland。TheconversionoftheSaxoncoloniststoChristianitywasthefirstofalongseriesofsalutaryrevolutions。ItistruethattheChurchhadbeendeeplycorruptedbothbythatsuperstitionandbythatphilosophyagainstwhichshehadlongcontended,andoverwhichshehadatlasttriumphed。Shehadgivenatooeasyadmissiontodoctrinesborrowedfromtheancientschools,andtoritesborrowedfromtheancienttemples。RomanpolicyandGothicignorance,GrecianingenuityandSyrianasceticism,hadcontributedtodepraveher。Yetsheretainedenoughofthesublimetheologyandbenevolentmoralityofherearlierdaystoelevatemanyintellects,andtopurifymanyhearts。Somethingsalsowhichatalaterperiodwerejustlyregardedasamongherchiefblemisheswere,intheseventhcentury,andlongafterwards,amongherchiefmerits。Thatthesacerdotalordershouldencroachonthefunctionsofthecivilmagistratewould,inourtime,beagreatevil。Butthatwhichinanageofgoodgovernmentisanevilmay,inanagoofgrosslybadgovernment,beablessing。Itisbetterthatmankindshouldbegovernedbywiselawswelladministered,andbyanenlightenedpublicopinion,thanbypriestcraft:butitisbetterthatmenshouldbegovernedbypriestcraftthanbybruteviolence,bysuchaprelateasDunstanthanbysuchawarriorasPenda。Asocietysunkinignorance,andruledbymerephysicalforce,hasgreatreasontorejoicewhenaclass,ofwhichtheinfluenceisintellectualandmoral,risestoascendancy。Suchaclasswilldoubtlessabuseitspower:butmentalpower,evenwhenabused,isstillanoblerandbetterpowerthanthatwhichconsistsmerelyincorporealstrength。WereadinourSaxonchroniclesoftyrants,who,whenattheheightofgreatness,weresmittenwithremorse,whoabhorredthepleasuresanddignitieswhichtheyhadpurchasedbyguilt,whoabdicatedtheircrowns,andwhosoughttoatonefortheiroffencesbycruelpenancesandincessantprayers。Thesestorieshavedrawnforthbitterexpressionsofcontemptfromsomewriterswho,whiletheyboastedofliberality,wereintruthasnarrow—mindedasanymonkofthedarkages,andwhosehabitwastoapplytoalleventsinthehistoryoftheworldthestandardreceivedintheParisiansocietyoftheeighteenthcentury。Yetsurelyasystemwhich,howeverdeformedbysuperstition,introducedstrongmoralrestraintsintocommunitiespreviouslygovernedonlybyvigourofmuscleandbyaudacityofspirit,asystemwhichtaughtthefiercestandmightiestrulerthathewas,likehismeanestbondman,aresponsiblebeing,mighthaveseemedtodeserveamorerespectfulmentionfromphilosophersandphilanthropists。
Thesameobservationswillapplytothecontemptwithwhich,inthelastcentury,itwasfashionabletospeakofthepilgrimages,thesanctuaries,thecrusades,andthemonasticinstitutionsofthemiddleages。Intimeswhenmenwerescarcelyeverinducedtotravelbyliberalcuriosity,orbythepursuitofgain,itwasbetterthattherudeinhabitantoftheNorthshouldvisitItalyandtheEastasapilgrim,thanthatheshouldneverseeanythingbutthosesqualidcabinsandunclearedwoodsamidstwhichhewasborn。Intimeswhenlifeandwhenfemalehonourwereexposedtodailyriskfromtyrantsandmarauders,itwasbetterthattheprecinctofashrineshouldberegardedwithanirrationalawe,thanthatthereshouldbenorefugeinaccessibletocrueltyandlicentiousness。Intimeswhenstatesmenwereincapableofformingextensivepoliticalcombinations,itwasbetterthattheChristiannationsshouldberousedandunitedfortherecoveryoftheHolySepulchre,thanthattheyshould,onebyone,beoverwhelmedbytheMahometanpower。Whateverreproachmay,atalaterperiod,havebeenjustlythrownontheindolenceandluxuryofreligiousorders,itwassurelygoodthat,inanageofignoranceandviolence,thereshouldbequietcloistersandgardens,inwhichtheartsofpeacecouldbesafelycultivated,inwhichgentleandcontemplativenaturescouldfindanasylum,inwhichonebrothercouldemployhimselfintranscribingthe苙eidofVirgil,andanotherinmeditatingtheAnalyticsofAristotle,inwhichhewhohadageniusforartmightilluminateamartyrologyorcarveacrucifix,andinwhichhewhohadaturnfornaturalphilosophymightmakeexperimentsonthepropertiesofplantsandminerals。Hadnotsuchretreatsbeenscatteredhereandthere,amongthehutsofamiserablepeasantry,andthecastlesofaferociousaristocracy,Europeansocietywouldhaveconsistedmerelyofbeastsofburdenandbeastsofprey。TheChurchhasmanytimesbeencomparedbydivinestothearkofwhichwereadintheBookofGenesis:butneverwastheresemblancemoreperfectthanduringthateviltimewhenshealonerode,amidstdarknessandtempest,onthedelugebeneathwhichallthegreatworksofancientpowerandwisdomlayentombed,bearingwithinherthatfeeblegermfromwhichaSecondandmoregloriouscivilisationwastospring。
EventhespiritualsupremacyarrogatedbythePopewas,inthedarkages,productiveoffarmoregoodthanevil。ItseffectwastounitethenationsofWesternEuropeinonegreatcommonwealth。
WhattheOlympianchariotcourseandthePythianoracleweretoalltheGreekcities,fromTrebizondtoMarseilles,RomeandherBishopweretoallChristiansoftheLatincommunion,fromCalabriatotheHebrides。Thusgrewupsentimentsofenlargedbenevolence。Racesseparatedfromeachotherbyseasandmountainsacknowledgedafraternaltieandacommoncodeofpubliclaw。Eveninwar,thecrueltyoftheconquerorwasnotseldommitigatedbytherecollectionthatheandhisvanquishedenemieswereallmembersofonegreatfederation。
IntothisfederationourSaxonancestorswerenowadmitted。A
regularcommunicationwasopenedbetweenourshoresandthatpartofEuropeinwhichthetracesofancientpowerandpolicywereyetdiscernible。Manynoblemonumentswhichhavesincebeendestroyedordefacedstillretainedtheirpristinemagnificence;
andtravellers,towhomLivyandSallustwereunintelligible,mightgainfromtheRomanaqueductsandtemplessomefaintnotionofRomanhistory。ThedomeofAgrippa,stillglitteringwithbronze,themausoleumofAdrian,notyetdeprivedofitscolumnsandstatues,theFlavianamphitheatre,notyetdegradedintoaquarry,toldtotherudeEnglishpilgrimssomepartofthestoryofthatgreatcivilisedworldwhichhadpassedaway。Theislandersreturned,withawedeeplyimpressedontheirhalfopenedminds,andtoldthewonderinginhabitantsofthehovelsofLondonandYorkthat,nearthegraveofSaintPeter,amightyrace,nowextinct,hadpiledupbuildingswhichwouldneverbedissolvedtillthejudgmentday。LearningfollowedinthetrainofChristianity。ThepoetryandeloquenceoftheAugustanagewasassiduouslystudiedinMercianandNorthumbrianmonasteries。ThenamesofBedeandAlcuinwerejustlycelebratedthroughoutEurope。Suchwasthestateofourcountrywhen,intheninthcentury,beganthelastgreatmigrationofthenorthernbarbariansDuringmanyyearsDenmarkandScandinaviacontinuedtopourforthinnumerablepirates,distinguishedbystrength,byvalour,bymercilessferocity,andbyhatredoftheChristianname。NocountrysufferedsomuchfromtheseinvadersasEngland。Hercoastlayneartotheportswhencetheysailed;norwasanyshiresofardistantfromtheseaastobesecurefromattack。ThesameatrocitieswhichhadattendedthevictoryoftheSaxonovertheCeltwerenow,afterthelapseofages,sufferedbytheSaxonatthehandoftheDane。Civilization,——justasitbegantorise,wasmetbythisblow,andsankdownoncemore。LargecoloniesofadventurersfromtheBalticestablishedthemselvesontheeasternshoresofourisland,spreadgraduallywestward,and,supportedbyconstantreinforcementsfrombeyondthesea,aspiredtothedominionofthewholerealm。ThestrugglebetweenthetwofierceTeutonicbreedslastedthroughsixgenerations。Eachwasalternatelyparamount。Cruelmassacresfollowedbycruelretribution,provinceswasted,conventsplundered,andcitiesrasedtotheground,makeupthegreaterpartofthehistoryofthoseevildays。AtlengththeNorthceasedtosendforthaconstantstreamoffreshdepredators;andfromthattimethemutualaversionoftheracesbegantosubside。Intermarriagebecamefrequent。TheDaneslearnedthereligionoftheSaxons;
andthusonecauseofdeadlyanimositywasremoved。TheDanishandSaxontongues,bothdialectsofonewidespreadlanguage,wereblendedtogether。Butthedistinctionbetweenthetwonationswasbynomeanseffaced,whenaneventtookplacewhichprostratedboth,incommonslaveryanddegradation,atthefeetofathirdpeople。
TheNormanswerethentheforemostraceofChristendom。TheirvalourandferocityhadmadethemconspicuousamongtheroverswhomScandinaviahadsentforthtoravageWesternEurope。TheirsailswerelongtheterrorofbothcoastsoftheChannel。Theirarmswererepeatedlycarriedfarintotheheartof:theCarlovingianempire,andwerevictoriousunderthewallsofMaestrichtandParis。AtlengthoneofthefeebleheirsofCharlemagnecededtothestrangersafertileprovince,wateredbyanobleriver,andcontiguoustotheseawhichwastheirfavouriteelement。Inthatprovincetheyfoundedamightystate,whichgraduallyextendeditsinfluenceovertheneighbouringprincipalitiesofBritannyandMaine。WithoutlayingasidethatdauntlessvalourwhichhadbeentheterrorofeverylandfromtheElbetothePyrenees,theNormansrapidlyacquiredall,andmorethanall,theknowledgeandrefinementwhichtheyfoundinthecountrywheretheysettled。Theircouragesecuredtheirterritoryagainstforeigninvasion。Theyestablishedinternalorder,suchashadlongbeenunknownintheFrankempire。TheyembracedChristianity;andwithChristianitytheylearnedagreatpartofwhattheclergyhadtoteach。Theyabandonedtheirnativespeech,andadoptedtheFrenchtongue,inwhichtheLatinwasthepredominantelement。Theyspeedilyraisedtheirnewlanguagetoadignityandimportancewhichithadneverbeforepossessed。Theyfounditabarbarousjargon;theyfixeditinwriting;andtheyemployeditinlegislation,inpoetry,andinromance。TheyrenouncedthatbrutalintemperancetowhichalltheotherbranchesofthegreatGermanfamilyweretoomuchinclined。ThepoliteluxuryoftheNormanpresentedastrikingcontrasttothecoarsevoracityanddrunkennessofhisSaxonandDanishneighbours。Helovedtodisplayhismagnificence,notinhugepilesoffoodandhogsheadsofstrongdrink,butinlargeandstatelyedifices,richarmour,gallanthorses,choicefalcons,wellorderedtournaments,banquetsdelicateratherthanabundant,andwinesremarkableratherfortheirexquisiteflavourthanfortheirintoxicatingpower。Thatchivalrousspirit,whichhasexercisedsopowerfulaninfluenceonthepolitics,morals,andmannersofalltheEuropeannations,wasfoundinthehighestexaltationamongtheNormannobles。Thosenoblesweredistinguishedbytheirgracefulbearingandinsinuatingaddress。
Theyweredistinguishedalsobytheirskillinnegotiation,andbyanaturaleloquencewhichtheyassiduouslycultivated。ItwastheboastofoneoftheirhistoriansthattheNormangentlemenwereoratorsfromthecradle。Buttheirchieffamewasderivedfromtheirmilitaryexploits。Everycountry,fromtheAtlanticOceantotheDeadSea,witnessedtheprodigiesoftheirdisciplineandvalour。OneNormanknight,attheheadofahandfulofwarriors,scatteredtheCeltsofConnaught。AnotherfoundedthemonarchyoftheTwoSicilies,andsawtheemperorsbothoftheEastandoftheWestflybeforehisarms。Athird,theUlyssesofthefirstcrusade,wasinvestedbyhisfellowsoldierswiththesovereigntyofAntioch;andafourth,theTancredwhosenamelivesinthegreatpoemofTasso,wascelebratedthroughChristendomasthebravestandmostgenerousofthedeliverersoftheHolySepulchre。
ThevicinityofsoremarkableapeopleearlybegantoproduceaneffectonthepublicmindofEngland。BeforetheConquest,EnglishprincesreceivedtheireducationinNormandy。EnglishseesandEnglishestateswerebestowedonNormans。TheFrenchofNormandywasfamiliarlyspokeninthepalaceofWestminster。ThecourtofRouenseemstohavebeentothecourtofEdwardtheConfessorwhatthecourtofVersailleslongafterwardswastothecourtofCharlestheSecond。
ThebattleofHastings,andtheeventswhichfollowedit,notonlyplacedaDukeofNormandyontheEnglishthrone,butgaveupthewholepopulationofEnglandtothetyrannyoftheNormanrace。Thesubjugationofanationbyanationhasseldom,eveninAsia,beenmorecomplete。Thecountrywasportionedoutamongthecaptainsoftheinvaders。Strongmilitaryinstitutions,closelyconnectedwiththeinstitutionofproperty,enabledtheforeignconquerorstooppressthechildrenofthesoil。Acruelpenalcode,cruellyenforced,guardedtheprivileges,andeventhesports,ofthealientyrants。Yetthesubjectrace,thoughbeatendownandtroddenunderfoot,stillmadeitsstingfelt。Someboldmen,thefavouriteheroesofouroldestballads,betookthemselvestothewoods,andthere,indefianceofcurfewlawsandforestlaws,wagedapredatorywaragainsttheiroppressors。
Assassinationwasaneventofdailyoccurrence。ManyNormanssuddenlydisappearedleavingnotrace。Thecorpsesofmanywerefoundbearingthemarksofviolence。Deathbytorturewasdenouncedagainstthemurderers,andstrictsearchwasmadeforthem,butgenerallyinvain;forthewholenationwasinaconspiracytoscreenthem。ItwasatlengththoughtnecessarytolayaheavyfineoneveryHundredinwhichapersonofFrenchextractionshouldbefoundslain;andthisregulationwasfollowedupbyanotherregulation,providingthateverypersonwhowasfoundslainshouldbesupposedtobeaFrenchman,unlesshewasprovedtobeaSaxon。
DuringthecenturyandahalfwhichfollowedtheConquest,thereis,tospeakstrictly,noEnglishhistory。TheFrenchKingsofEnglandrose,indeed,toaneminencewhichwasthewonderanddreadofallneighbouringnations。TheyconqueredIreland。TheyreceivedthehomageofScotland。Bytheirvalour,bytheirpolicy,bytheirfortunatematrimonialalliances,theybecamefarmorepopularontheContinentthantheirliegelordstheKingsofFrance。Asia,aswellasEurope,wasdazzledbythepowerandgloryofourtyrants。ArabianchroniclersrecordedwithunwillingadmirationthefallofAcre,thedefenceofJoppa,andthevictoriousmarchtoAscalon;andArabianmotherslongawedtheirinfantstosilencewiththenameofthelionheartedPlantagenet。
AtonetimeitseemedthatthelineofHughCapetwasabouttoendastheMerovingianandCarlovingianlineshadended,andthatasinglegreatmonarchywouldspreadfromtheOrkneystothePyrenees。Sostronganassociationisestablishedinmostmindsbetweenthegreatnessofasovereignandthegreatnessofthenationwhichherules,thatalmosteveryhistorianofEnglandhasexpatiatedwithasentimentofexultationonthepowerandsplendourofherforeignmasters,andhaslamentedthedecayofthatpowerandsplendourasacalamitytoourcountry。Thisis,intruth,asabsurdasitwouldbeinaHaytiannegroofourtimetodwellwithnationalprideonthegreatnessofLewistheFourteenth,andtospeakofBlenheimandRamilieswithpatrioticregretandshame。TheConquerorandhisdescendantstothefourthgenerationwerenotEnglishmen:mostofthemwereborninFrance:
theyspentthegreaterpartoftheirlivesinFrance:theirordinaryspeechwasFrench:almosteveryhighofficeintheirgiftwasfilledbyaFrenchman:everyacquisitionwhichtheymadeontheContinentestrangedthemmoreandmorefromthepopulationofourisland。OneoftheablestamongthemindeedattemptedtowintheheartsofhisEnglishsubjectsbyespousinganEnglishprincess。But,bymanyofhisbarons,thismarriagewasregardedasamarriagebetweenawhiteplanterandaquadroongirlwouldnowberegardedinVirginia。InhistoryheisknownbythehonourablesurnameofBeauclerc;but,inhisowntime,hisowncountrymencalledhimbyaSaxonnickname,incontemptuousallusiontohisSaxonconnection。
HadthePlantagenets,asatonetimeseemedlikely,succeededinunitingallFranceundertheirgovernment,itisprobablethatEnglandwouldneverhavehadanindependentexistence。Herprinces,herlords,herprelates,wouldhavebeenmendifferinginraceandlanguagefromtheartisansandthetillersoftheearth。TherevenuesofhergreatproprietorswouldhavebeenspentinfestivitiesanddiversionsonthebanksoftheSeine。
ThenoblelanguageofMiltonandBurkewouldhaveremainedarusticdialect,withoutaliterature,afixedgrammar,orafixedorthography,andwouldhavebeencontemptuouslyabandonedtotheuseofboors。NomanofEnglishextractionwouldhaverisentoeminence,exceptbybecominginspeechandhabitsaFrenchman。
Englandowesherescapefromsuchcalamitiestoaneventwhichherhistorianshavegenerallyrepresentedasdisastrous。Herinterestwassodirectlyopposedtotheinterestsofherrulersthatshehadnohopebutintheirerrorsandmisfortunes。ThetalentsandeventhevirtuesofherfirstsixFrenchKingswereacursetoher。Thefolliesandvicesoftheseventhwerehersalvation。HadJohninheritedthegreatqualitiesofhisfather,ofHenryBeauclerc,oroftheConqueror,nay,hadheevenpossessedthemartialcourageofStephenorofRichard,andhadtheKingofFranceatthesametimebeenasincapableasalltheothersuccessorsofHughCapethadbeen,theHouseofPlantagenetmusthaverisentounrivalledascendancyinEurope。But,justatthisconjuncture,France,forthefirsttimesincethedeathofCharlemagne,wasgovernedbyaprinceofgreatfirmnessandability。OntheotherhandEngland,which,sincethebattleofHastings,hadbeenruledgenerallybywisestatesmen,alwaysbybravesoldiers,fellunderthedominionofatriflerandacoward。Fromthatmomentherprospectsbrightened。JohnwasdrivenfromNormandy。TheNormannobleswerecompelledtomaketheirelectionbetweentheislandandthecontinent。Shutupbytheseawiththepeoplewhomtheyhadhithertooppressedanddespised,theygraduallycametoregardEnglandastheircountry,andtheEnglishastheircountrymen。Thetworaces,solonghostile,soonfoundthattheyhadcommoninterestsandcommonenemies。Bothwerealikeaggrievedbythetyrannyofabadking。
BothwerealikeindignantatthefavourshownbythecourttothenativesofPoitouandAquitaine。ThegreatgrandsonsofthosewhohadfoughtunderWilliamandthegreatgrandsonsofthosewhohadfoughtunderHaroldbegantodrawneartoeachotherinfriendship;andthefirstpledgeoftheirreconciliationwastheGreatCharter,wonbytheirunitedexertions,andframedfortheircommonbenefit。
HerecommencesthehistoryoftheEnglishnation。Thehistoryoftheprecedingeventsisthehistoryofwrongsinflictedandsustainedbyvarioustribes,whichindeedalldweltonEnglishground,butwhichregardedeachotherwithaversionsuchashasscarcelyeverexistedbetweencommunitiesseparatedbyphysicalbarriers。Foreventhemutualanimosityofcountriesatwarwitheachotherislanguidwhencomparedwiththeanimosityofnationswhich,morallyseparated,areyetlocallyintermingled。InnocountryhastheenmityofracebeencarriedfartherthaninEngland。Innocountryhasthatenmitybeenmorecompletelyeffaced。Thestagesoftheprocessbywhichthehostileelementsweremelteddownintoonehomogeneousmassarenotaccuratelyknowntous。Butitiscertainthat,whenJohnbecameKing,thedistinctionbetweenSaxonsandNormanswasstronglymarked,andthatbeforetheendofthereignofhisgrandsonithadalmostdisappeared。InthetimeofRichardtheFirst,theordinaryimprecationofaNormangentlemanwas"MayIbecomeanEnglishman!"Hisordinaryformofindignantdenialwas"DoyoutakemeforanEnglishman?"ThedescendantofsuchagentlemanahundredyearslaterwasproudoftheEnglishname。
Thesourcesofthenoblestriverswhichspreadfertilityovercontinents,andbearrichlyladenfleetstothesea,aretobesoughtinwildandbarrenmountaintracts,incorrectlylaiddowninmaps,andrarelyexploredbytravellers。Tosuchatractthehistoryofourcountryduringthethirteenthcenturymaynotunaptlybecompared。Sterileandobscureasisthatportionofourannals,itistherethatwemustseekfortheoriginofourfreedom,ourprosperity,andourglory。ThenitwasthatthegreatEnglishpeoplewasformed,thatthenationalcharacterbegantoexhibitthosepeculiaritieswhichithaseversinceretained,andthatourfathersbecameemphaticallyislanders,islandersnotmerelyingeographicalposition,butintheirpolitics,theirfeelings,andtheirmanners。Thenfirstappearedwithdistinctnessthatconstitutionwhichhaseversince,throughallchanges,preserveditsidentity;thatconstitutionofwhichalltheotherfreeconstitutionsintheworldarecopies,andwhich,inspiteofsomedefects,deservestoberegardedasthebestunderwhichanygreatsocietyhaseveryetexistedduringmanyages。ThenitwasthattheHouseofCommons,thearchetypeofalltherepresentativeassemblieswhichnowmeet,eitherintheoldorinthenewworld,helditsfirstsittings。Thenitwasthatthecommonlawrosetothedignityofascience,andrapidlybecameanotunworthyrivaloftheimperialjurisprudence。ThenitwasthatthecourageofthosesailorswhomannedtherudebarksoftheCinquePortsfirstmadetheflagofEnglandterribleontheseas。Thenitwasthatthemostancientcollegeswhichstillexistatboththegreatnationalseatsoflearningwerefounded。Thenwasformedthatlanguage,lessmusicalindeedthanthelanguagesofthesouth,butinforce,inrichness,inaptitudeforallthehighestpurposesofthepoet,thephilosopher,andtheorator,inferiortothetongueofGreecealone。Thentooappearedthefirstfaintdawnofthatnobleliterature,themostsplendidandthemostdurableofthemanygloriesofEngland。
Earlyinthefourteenthcenturytheamalgamationoftheraceswasallbutcomplete;anditwassoonmademanifest,bysignsnottobemistaken,thatapeopleinferiortononeexistingintheworldhadbeenformedbythemixtureofthreebranchesofthegreatTeutonicfamilywitheachother,andwiththeaboriginalBritons。
Therewas,indeed,scarcelyanythingincommonbetweentheEnglandtowhichJohnhadbeenchasedbyPhilipAugustus,andtheEnglandfromwhichthearmiesofEdwardtheThirdwentforthtoconquerFrance。
Aperiodofmorethanahundredyearsfollowed,duringwhichthechiefobjectoftheEnglishwastoestablish,byforceofarms,agreatempireontheContinent。TheclaimofEdwardtotheinheritanceoccupiedbytheHouseofValoiswasaclaiminwhichitmightseemthathissubjectswerelittleinterested。Butthepassionforconquestspreadfastfromtheprincetothepeople。
ThewardifferedwidelyfromthewarswhichthePlantagenetsofthetwelfthcenturyhadwagedagainstthedescendantsofHughCapet。ForthesuccessofHenrytheSecond,orofRichardtheFirst,wouldhavemadeEnglandaprovinceofFrance。TheeffectofthesuccessesofEdwardtheThirdandHenrytheFifthwastomakeFrance,foratime,aprovinceofEngland。Thedisdainwithwhich,inthetwelfthcentury,theconquerorsfromtheContinenthadregardedtheislanders,wasnowretortedbytheislandersonthepeopleoftheContinent。EveryyeomanfromKenttoNorthumberlandvaluedhimselfasoneofaracebornforvictoryanddominion,andlookeddownwithscornonthenationbeforewhichhisancestorshadtrembled。EventhoseknightsofGasconyandGuiennewhohadfoughtgallantlyundertheBlackPrincewereregardedbytheEnglishasmenofaninferiorbreed,andwerecontemptuouslyexcludedfromhonourableandlucrativecommands。
Innolongtimeourancestorsaltogetherlostsightoftheoriginalgroundofquarrel。TheybegantoconsiderthecrownofFranceasamereappendagetothecrownofEngland;and,wheninviolationoftheordinarylawofsuccession,theytransferredthecrownofEnglandtotheHouseofLancaster,theyseemtohavethoughtthattherightofRichardtheSecondtothecrownofFrancepassed,asofcourse,tothathouse。ThezealandvigourwhichtheydisplayedpresentaremarkablecontrasttothetorporoftheFrench,whowerefarmoredeeplyinterestedintheeventofthestruggle。Themostsplendidvictoriesrecordedinthehistoryofthemiddleagesweregainedatthistime,againstgreatodds,bytheEnglisharmies。Victoriesindeedtheywereofwhichanationmayjustlybeproud;fortheyaretobeattributedtothemoralsuperiorityofthevictors,asuperioritywhichwasmoststrikinginthelowestranks。TheknightsofEnglandfoundworthyrivalsintheknightsofFrance。ChandosencounteredanequalfoeinDuGuesclin。ButFrancehadnoinfantrythatdaredtofacetheEnglishbowsandbills。AFrenchKingwasbroughtprisonertoLondon。AnEnglishKingwascrownedatParis。ThebannerofSt。GeorgewascarriedfarbeyondthePyreneesandtheAlps。OnthesouthoftheEbrotheEnglishwonagreatbattle,whichforatimedecidedthefateofLeonandCastile;andtheEnglishCompaniesobtainedaterriblepreeminenceamongthebandsofwarriorswholetouttheirweaponsforhiretotheprincesandcommonwealthsofItaly。
Norweretheartsofpeaceneglectedbyourfathersduringthatstirringperiod。WhileFrancewaswastedbywar,tillsheatlengthfoundinherowndesolationamiserabledefenceagainstinvaders,theEnglishgatheredintheirharvests,adornedtheircities,pleaded,traded,andstudiedinsecurity。Manyofournoblestarchitecturalmonumentsbelongtothatage。ThenrosethefairchapelsofNewCollegeandofSaintGeorge,thenaveofWinchesterandthechoirofYork,thespireofSalisburyandthemajestictowersofLincoln。Acopiousandforciblelanguage,formedbyaninfusionofFrenchintoGerman,wasnowthecommonpropertyofthearistocracyandofthepeople。Norwasitlongbeforegeniusbegantoapplythatadmirablemachinetoworthypurposes。WhileEnglishwarriors,leavingbehindthemthedevastatedprovincesofFrance,enteredValladolidintriumph,andspreadterrortothegatesofFlorence,Englishpoetsdepictedinvividtintsallthewidevarietyofhumanmannersandfortunes,andEnglishthinkersaspiredtoknow,ordaredtodoubt,wherebigotshadbeencontenttowonderandtobelieve。
ThesameagewhichproducedtheBlackPrinceandDerby,ChandosandHawkwood,producedalsoGeoffreyChaucerandJohnWycliffe。
InsosplendidandimperialamannerdidtheEnglishpeople,properlysocalled,firsttakeplaceamongthenationsoftheworld。Yetwhilewecontemplatewithpleasurethehighandcommandingqualitieswhichourforefathersdisplayed,wecannotbutadmitthattheendwhichtheypursuedwasanendcondemnedbothbyhumanityandbyenlightenedpolicy,andthatthereverseswhichcompelledthem,afteralongandbloodystruggle,torelinquishthehopeofestablishingagreatcontinentalempire,werereallyblessingsintheguiseofdisasters。ThespiritoftheFrenchwasatlastaroused:theybegantoopposeavigorousnationalresistancetotheforeignconquerors;andfromthattimetheskilloftheEnglishcaptainsandthecourageoftheEnglishsoldierswere,happilyformankind,exertedinvain。Aftermanydesperatestruggles,andwithmanybitterregrets,ourancestorsgaveupthecontest。SincethatagenoBritishgovernmenthaseverseriouslyandsteadilypursuedthedesignofmakinggreatconquestsontheContinent。Thepeople,indeed,continuedtocherishwithpridetherecollectionofCressy,ofPoitiers,andofAgincourt。EvenafterthelapseofmanyyearsitwaseasytofiretheirbloodandtodrawforththeirsubsidiesbypromisingthemanexpeditionfortheconquestofFrance。Buthappilytheenergiesofourcountryhavebeendirectedtobetterobjects;andshenowoccupiesinthehistoryofmankindaplacefarmoregloriousthanifshehad,asatonetimeseemednotimprobable,acquiredbytheswordanascendancysimilartothatwhichformerlybelongedtotheRomanrepublic。
Coopeduponcemorewithinthelimitsoftheisland,thewarlikepeopleemployedincivilstrifethosearmswhichhadbeentheterrorofEurope。ThemeansofprofuseexpenditurehadlongbeendrawnbytheEnglishbaronsfromtheoppressedprovincesofFrance。Thatsourceofsupplywasgone:buttheostentatiousandluxurioushabitswhichprosperityhadengenderedstillremained;
andthegreatlords,unabletogratifytheirtastesbyplunderingtheFrench,wereeagertoplundereachother。Therealmtowhichtheywerenowconfinedwouldnot,inthephraseofComines,themostjudiciousobserverofthattime,sufficeforthemall。Twoaristocraticalfactions,headedbytwobranchesoftheroyalfamily,engagedinalongandfiercestruggleforsupremacy。Astheanimosityofthosefactionsdidnotreallyarisefromthedisputeaboutthesuccessionitlastedlongafterallgroundofdisputeaboutthesuccessionwasremoved。ThepartyoftheRedRosesurvivedthelastprincewhoclaimedthecrowninrightofHenrytheFourth。ThepartyoftheWhiteRosesurvivedthemarriageofRichmondandElizabeth。Leftwithoutchiefswhohadanydecentshowofright,theadherentsofLancasterralliedroundalineofbastards,andtheadherentsofYorksetupasuccessionofimpostors。When,atlength,manyaspiringnobleshadperishedonthefieldofbattleorbythehandsoftheexecutioner,whenmanyillustrioushouseshaddisappearedforeverfromhistory,whenthosegreatfamilieswhichremainedhadbeenexhaustedandsoberedbycalamities,itwasuniversallyacknowledgedthattheclaimsofallthecontendingPlantagenetswereunitedinthehouseofTudor。
Meanwhileachangewasproceedinginfinitelymoremomentousthantheacquisitionorlossofanyprovince,thantheriseorfallofanydynasty。Slaveryandtheevilsbywhichslaveryiseverywhereaccompaniedwerefastdisappearing。
ItisremarkablethatthetwogreatestandmostsalutarysocialrevolutionswhichhavetakenplaceinEngland,thatrevolutionwhich,inthethirteenthcentury,putanendtothetyrannyofnationovernation,andthatrevolutionwhich,afewgenerationslater,putanendtothepropertyofmaninman,weresilentlyandimperceptiblyeffected。Theystruckcontemporaryobserverswithnosurprise,andhavereceivedfromhistoriansaveryscantymeasureofattention。Theywerebroughtaboutneitherbylegislativeregulationsnorbyphysicalforce。MoralcausesnoiselesslyeffacedfirstthedistinctionbetweenNormanandSaxon,andthenthedistinctionbetweenmasterandslave。Nonecanventuretofixtheprecisemomentatwhicheitherdistinctionceased。SomefainttracesoftheoldNormanfeelingmightperhapshavebeenfoundlateinthefourteenthcentury。SomefainttracesoftheinstitutionofvillenageweredetectedbythecurioussolateasthedaysoftheStuarts;norhasthatinstitutionever,tothishour,beenabolishedbystatute。
Itwouldbemostunjustnottoacknowledgethatthechiefagentinthesetwogreatdeliveranceswasreligion;anditmayperhapsbedoubtedwhetherapurerreligionmightnothavebeenfoundalessefficientagent。ThebenevolentspiritoftheChristianmoralityisundoubtedlyadversetodistinctionsofcaste。ButtotheChurchofRomesuchdistinctionsarepeculiarlyodious;fortheyareincompatiblewithotherdistinctionswhichareessentialtohersystem。Sheascribestoeverypriestamysteriousdignitywhichentitleshimtothereverenceofeverylayman;andshedoesnotconsideranymanasdisqualified,byreasonofhisnationorofhisfamily,forthepriesthood。Herdoctrinesrespectingthesacerdotalcharacter,howevererroneoustheymaybe,haverepeatedlymitigatedsomeoftheworstevilswhichcanafflictsociety。Thatsuperstitioncannotberegardedasunmixedlynoxiouswhich,inregionscursedbythetyrannyofraceoverrace,createsanaristocracyaltogetherindependentofrace,invertstherelationbetweentheoppressorandtheoppressed,andcompelsthehereditarymastertokneelbeforethespiritualtribunalofthehereditarybondman。Tothisday,insomecountrieswherenegroslaveryexists,PoperyappearsinadvantageouscontrasttootherformsofChristianity。ItisnotoriousthattheantipathybetweentheEuropeanandAfricanracesisbynomeanssostrongatRioJanerioasatWashington。
InourowncountrythispeculiarityoftheRomanCatholicsystemproduced,duringthemiddleages,manysalutaryeffects。Itistruethat,shortlyafterthebattleofHastings,Saxonprelatesandabbotswereviolentlydeposed,andthatecclesiasticaladventurersfromtheContinentwereintrudedbyhundredsintolucrativebenefices。YeteventhenpiousdivinesofNormanbloodraisedtheirvoicesagainstsuchaviolationoftheconstitutionoftheChurch,refusedtoacceptmitresfromthehandsofWilliam,andchargedhim,ontheperilofhissoul,nottoforgetthatthevanquishedislanderswerehisfellowChristians。ThefirstprotectorwhomtheEnglishfoundamongthedominantcastewasArchbishopAnselm。AtatimewhentheEnglishnamewasareproach,andwhenallthecivilandmilitarydignitiesofthekingdomweresupposedtobelongexclusivelytothecountrymenoftheConqueror,thedespisedracelearned,withtransportsofdelight,thatoneofthemselves,NicholasBreakspear,hadbeenelevatedtothepapalthrone,andhadheldouthisfoottobekissedbyambassadorssprungfromthenoblesthousesofNormandy。
ItwasanationalaswellasareligiousfeelingthatdrewgreatmultitudestotheshrineofBecket,whomtheyregardedastheenemyoftheirenemies。WhetherhewasaNormanoraSaxonmaybedoubted:butthereisnodoubtthatheperishedbyNormanhands,andthattheSaxonscherishedhismemorywithpeculiartendernessandveneration,and,intheirpopularpoetry,representedhimasoneoftheirownrace。AsuccessorofBecketwasforemostamongtherefractorymagnateswhoobtainedthatcharterwhichsecuredtheprivilegesbothoftheNormanbaronsandoftheSaxonyeomanry。HowgreataparttheRomanCatholicecclesiasticssubsequentlyhadintheabolitionofvillenagewelearnfromtheunexceptionabletestimonyofSirThomasSmith,oneoftheablestProtestantcounsellorsofElizabeth。Whenthedyingslaveholderaskedforthelastsacraments,hisspiritualattendantsregularlyadjuredhim,ashelovedhissoul,toemancipatehisbrethrenforwhomChristhaddied。SosuccessfullyhadtheChurchusedherformidablemachinerythat,beforetheReformationcame,shehadenfranchisedalmostallthebondmeninthekingdomexceptherown,who,todoherjustice,seemtohavebeenverytenderlytreated。
Therecanbenodoubtthat,whenthesetwogreatrevolutionshadbeeneffected,ourforefatherswerebyfarthebestgovernedpeopleinEurope。Duringthreehundredyearsthesocialsystemhadbeeninaconstantcourseofimprovement。UnderthefirstPlantagenetstherehadbeenbaronsabletobiddefiancetothesovereign,andpeasantsdegradedtotheleveloftheswineandoxenwhichtheytended。Theexorbitantpowerofthebaronhadbeengraduallyreduced。Theconditionofthepeasanthadbeengraduallyelevated。Betweenthearistocracyandtheworkingpeoplehadsprungupamiddleclass,agriculturalandcommercial。
Therewasstill,itmaybe,moreinequalitythanisfavourabletothehappinessandvirtueofourspecies:butnomanwasaltogetherabovetherestraintsoflaw;andnomanwasaltogetherbelowitsprotection。
ThatthepoliticalinstitutionsofEnglandwere,atthisearlyperiod,regardedbytheEnglishwithprideandaffection,andbythemostenlightenedmenofneighbouringnationswithadmirationandenvy,isprovedbytheclearestevidence。Buttouchingthenatureoftheseinstitutionstherehasbeenmuchdishonestandacrimoniouscontroversy。
ThehistoricalliteratureofEnglandhasindeedsufferedgrievouslyfromacircumstancewhichhasnotalittlecontributedtoherprosperity。Thechange,greatasitis,whichherpolityhasundergoneduringthelastsixcenturies,hasbeentheeffectofgradualdevelopment,notofdemolitionandreconstruction。Thepresentconstitutionofourcountryis,totheconstitutionunderwhichsheflourishedfivehundredyearsago,whatthetreeistothesapling,whatthemanistotheboy。Thealterationhasbeengreat。Yetthereneverwasamomentatwhichthechiefpartofwhatexistedwasnotold。Apolitythusformedmustaboundinanomalies。Butfortheevilsarisingfrommereanomalieswehaveamplecompensation。Othersocietiespossesswrittenconstitutionsmoresymmetrical。Butnoothersocietyhasyetsucceededinunitingrevolutionwithprescription,progresswithstability,theenergyofyouthwiththemajestyofimmemorialantiquity。
Thisgreatblessing,however,hasitsdrawbacks:andoneofthosedrawbacksisthateverysourceofinformationastoourearlyhistoryhasbeenpoisonedbypartyspirit。Asthereisnocountrywherestatesmenhavebeensomuchundertheinfluenceofthepast,sothereisnocountrywherehistorianshavebeensomuchundertheinfluenceofthepresent。Betweenthesetwothings,indeed,thereisanaturalconnection。Wherehistoryisregardedmerelyasapictureoflifeandmanners,orasacollectionofexperimentsfromwhichgeneralmaximsofcivilwisdommaybedrawn,awriterliesundernoverypressingtemptationtomisrepresenttransactionsofancientdate。Butwherehistoryisregardedasarepositoryoftitledeeds,onwhichtherightsofgovernmentsandnationsdepend,themotivetofalsificationbecomesalmostirresistible。AFrenchmanisnotnowimpelledbyanystronginteresteithertoexaggerateortounderratethepoweroftheKingsofthehouseofValois。TheprivilegesoftheStatesGeneral,oftheStatesofBritanny,oftheStatesofBurgundy,aretohimmattersofaslittlepracticalimportanceastheconstitutionoftheJewishSanhedrimoroftheAmphictyonicCouncil。Thegulphofagreatrevolutioncompletelyseparatesthenewfromtheoldsystem。NosuchchasmdividestheexistenceoftheEnglishnationintotwodistinctparts。Ourlawsandcustomshaveneverbeenlostingeneralandirreparableruin。Withustheprecedentsofthemiddleagesarestillvalidprecedents,andarestillcited,onthegravestoccasions,bythemosteminentStatesmen。Forexample,whenKingGeorgetheThirdwasattackedbythemaladywhichmadehimincapableofperforminghisregalfunctions,andwhenthemostdistinguishedlawyersandpoliticiansdifferedwidelyastothecoursewhichought,insuchcircumstances,tobepursued,theHousesofParliamentwouldnotproceedtodiscussanyplanofregencytillalltheprecedentswhichweretobefoundinourannals,fromtheearliesttimes,hadbeencollectedandarranged。Committeeswereappointedtoexaminetheancientrecordsoftherealm。Thefirstcasereportedwasthatoftheyear1217:muchimportancewasattachedtothecasesof1326,of1377,andof1422:butthecasewhichwasjustlyconsideredasmostinpointwasthatof1455。Thusinourcountrythedearestinterestsofpartieshavefrequentlybeenontheresultsoftheresearchesofantiquaries。Theinevitableconsequencewasthatourantiquariesconductedtheirresearchesinthespiritofpartisans。
Itisthereforenotsurprisingthatthosewhohavewritten,concerningthelimitsofprerogativeandlibertyintheoldpolityofEnglandshouldgenerallyhaveshownthetemper,notofjudges,butofangryanduncandidadvocates。Fortheywerediscussing,notaspeculativematter,butamatterwhichhadadirectandpracticalconnectionwiththemostmomentousandexcitingdisputesoftheirownday。FromthecommencementofthelongcontestbetweentheParliamentandtheStuartsdowntothetimewhenthepretensionsoftheStuartsceasedtobeformidable,fewquestionswerepracticallymoreimportantthanthequestionwhethertheadministrationofthatfamilyhadorhadnotbeeninaccordancewiththeancientconstitutionofthekingdom。Thisquestioncouldbedecidedonlybyreferencetotherecordsofprecedingreigns。BractonandFleta,theMirrorofJusticeandtheRollsofParliament,wereransackedtofindpretextsfortheexcessesoftheStarChamberononeside,andoftheHighCourtofJusticeontheother。DuringalongcourseofyearseveryWhighistorianwasanxioustoprovethattheoldEnglishgovernmentwasallbutrepublican,everyToryhistoriantoprovethatitwasallbutdespotic。
Withsuchfeelings,bothpartieslookedintothechroniclesofthemiddleages。Bothreadilyfoundwhattheysought;andbothobstinatelyrefusedtoseeanythingbutwhattheysought。ThechampionsoftheStuartscouldeasilypointoutinstancesofoppressionexercisedonthesubject。ThedefendersoftheRoundheadscouldaseasilyproduceinstancesofdeterminedandsuccessfulresistanceofferedtotheCrown。TheToriesquoted,fromancientwritings,expressionsalmostasservileaswereheardfromthepulpitofMainwaring。TheWhigsdiscoveredexpressionsasboldandsevereasanythatresoundedfromthejudgmentseatofBradshaw。OnesetofwritersadducednumerousinstancesinwhichKingshadextortedmoneywithouttheauthorityofParliament。AnothersetcitedcasesinwhichtheParliamenthadassumedtoitselfthepowerofinflictingpunishmentonKings。ThosewhosawonlyonehalfoftheevidencewouldhaveconcludedthatthePlantagenetswereasabsoluteastheSultansofTurkey:thosewhosawonlytheotherhalfwouldhaveconcludedthatthePlantagenetshadaslittlerealpowerastheDogesofVenice;andbothconclusionswouldhavebeenequallyremotefromthetruth。
TheoldEnglishgovernmentwasoneofaclassoflimitedmonarchieswhichsprangupinWesternEuropeduringthemiddleages,andwhich,notwithstandingmanydiversities,boretooneanotherastrongfamilylikeness。ThatthereshouldhavebeensuchalikenessisnotstrangeThecountriesinwhichthosemonarchiesarosehadbeenprovincesofthesamegreatcivilisedempire,andhadbeenoverrunandconquered,aboutthesametime,bytribesofthesamerudeandwarlikenation。TheyweremembersofthesamegreatcoalitionagainstIslam。TheywereincommunionwiththesamesuperbandambitiousChurch。Theirpolitynaturallytookthesameform。TheyhadinstitutionsderivedpartlyfromimperialRome,partlyfrompapalRome,partlyfromtheoldGermany。AllhadKings;andinallthekinglyofficebecamebydegreesstrictlyhereditary。Allhadnoblesbearingtitleswhichhadoriginallyindicatedmilitaryrank。Thedignityofknighthood,therulesofheraldry,werecommontoall。Allhadrichlyendowedecclesiasticalestablishments,municipalcorporationsenjoyinglargefranchises,andsenateswhoseconsentwasnecessarytothevalidityofsomepublicacts。
OfthesekindredconstitutionstheEnglishwas,fromanearlyperiod,justlyreputedthebest。Theprerogativesofthesovereignwereundoubtedlyextensive。Thespiritofreligionandthespiritofchivalryconcurredtoexalthisdignity。Thesacredoilhadbeenpouredonhishead。Itwasnodisparagementtothebravestandnoblestknightstokneelathisfeet。Hispersonwasinviolable。HealonewasentitledtoconvoketheEstatesoftherealm:hecouldathispleasuredismissthem;andhisassentwasnecessarytoalltheirlegislativeacts。Hewasthechiefoftheexecutiveadministration,thesoleorganofcommunicationwithforeignpowers,thecaptainofthemilitaryandnavalforcesofthestate,thefountainofjustice,ofmercy,andofhonour。Hehadlargepowersfortheregulationoftrade。Itwasbyhimthatmoneywascoined,thatweightsandmeasureswerefixed,thatmartsandhavenswereappointed。Hisecclesiasticalpatronagewasimmense。Hishereditaryrevenues,economicallyadministered,sufficedtomeettheordinarychargesofgovernment。Hisowndomainswereofvastextent。Hewasalsofeudallordparamountofthewholesoilofhiskingdom,and,inthatcapacity,possessedmanylucrativeandmanyformidablerights,whichenabledhimtoannoyanddepressthosewhothwartedhim,andtoenrichandaggrandise,withoutanycosttohimself,thosewhoenjoyedhisfavour。
Buthispower,thoughample,waslimitedbythreegreatconstitutionalprinciples,soancientthatnonecansaywhentheybegantoexist,sopotentthattheirnaturaldevelopment,continuedthroughmanygenerations,hasproducedtheorderofthingsunderwhichwenowlive。
First,theKingcouldnotlegislatewithouttheconsentofhisParliament。Secondly,hecouldimposenotaxwithouttheconsentofhisParliament。Thirdly,hewasboundtoconducttheexecutiveadministrationaccordingtothelawsoftheland,and,ifhebrokethoselaws,hisadvisersandhisagentswereresponsible。
NocandidTorywilldenythattheseprincipleshad,fivehundredyearsago,acquiredtheauthorityoffundamentalrules。Ontheotherhand,nocandidWhigwillaffirmthattheywere,tillalaterperiod,clearedfromallambiguity,orfollowedouttoalltheirconsequences。Aconstitutionofthemiddleageswasnot,likeaconstitutionoftheeighteenthornineteenthcentury,createdentirebyasingleact,andfullysetforthinasingledocument。Itisonlyinarefinedandspeculativeagethatapolityisconstructedonsystem。Inrudesocietiestheprogressofgovernmentresemblestheprogressoflanguageandofversification。Rudesocietieshavelanguage,andoftencopiousandenergeticlanguage:buttheyhavenoscientificgrammar,nodefinitionsofnounsandverbs,nonamesfordeclensions,moods,tenses,andvoices。Rudesocietieshaveversification,andoftenversificationofgreatpowerandsweetness:buttheyhavenometricalcanons;andtheminstrelwhosenumbers,regulatedsolelybyhisear,arethedelightofhisaudience,wouldhimselfbeunabletosayofhowmanydactylsandtrocheeseachofhislinesconsists。Aseloquenceexistsbeforesyntax,andsongbeforeprosody,sogovernmentmayexistinahighdegreeofexcellencelongbeforethelimitsoflegislative,executive,andjudicialpowerhavebeentracedwithprecision。
Itwasthusinourcountry。Thelinewhichboundedtheroyalprerogative,thoughingeneralsufficientlyclear,hadnoteverywherebeendrawnwithaccuracyanddistinctness。Therewas,therefore,nearthebordersomedebatablegroundonwhichincursionsandreprisalscontinuedtotakeplace,till,afteragesofstrife,plainanddurablelandmarkswereatlengthsetup。Itmaybeinstructivetonoteinwhatway,andtowhatextent,ourancientsovereignswereinthehabitofviolatingthethreegreatprinciplesbywhichthelibertiesofthenationwereprotected。
NoEnglishKinghaseverlaidclaimtothegenerallegislativepower。ThemostviolentandimperiousPlantagenetneverfanciedhimselfcompetenttoenact,withouttheconsentofhisgreatcouncil,thatajuryshouldconsistoftenpersonsinsteadoftwelve,thatawidow’sdowershouldbeafourthpartinsteadofathird,thatperjuryshouldbeafelony,orthatthecustomofgavelkindshouldbeintroducedintoYorkshire。2ButtheKinghadthepowerofpardoningoffenders;andthereisonepointatwhichthepowerofpardoningandthepoweroflegislatingseemtofadeintoeachother,andmayeasily,atleastinasimpleage,beconfounded。Apenalstatuteisvirtuallyannulledifthepenaltieswhichitimposesareregularlyremittedasoftenastheyareincurred。Thesovereignwasundoubtedlycompetenttoremitpenaltieswithoutlimit。Hewasthereforecompetenttoannulvirtuallyapenalstatute。Itmightseemthattherecouldbenoseriousobjectiontohisdoingformallywhathemightdovirtually。Thus,withthehelpofsubtleandcourtlylawyers,grewup,onthedoubtfulfrontierwhichseparatesexecutivefromlegislativefunctions,thatgreatanomalyknownasthedispensingpower。
ThattheKingcouldnotimposetaxeswithouttheconsentofParliamentisadmittedtohavebeen,fromtimeimmemorial,afundamentallawofEngland。ItwasamongthearticleswhichJohnwascompelledbytheBaronstosign。EdwardtheFirstventuredtobreakthroughtherule:but,able,powerful,andpopularashewas,heencounteredanoppositiontowhichhefounditexpedienttoyield。Hecovenantedaccordinglyinexpressterms,forhimselfandhisheirs,thattheywouldneveragainlevyanyaidwithouttheassentandgoodwilloftheEstatesoftherealm。Hispowerfulandvictoriousgrandsonattemptedtoviolatethissolemncompact:
buttheattemptwasstrenuouslywithstood。AtlengththePlantagenetsgaveupthepointindespair:but,thoughtheyceasedtoinfringethelawopenly,theyoccasionallycontrived,byevadingit,toprocureanextraordinarysupplyforatemporarypurpose。Theywereinterdictedfromtaxing;buttheyclaimedtherightofbeggingandborrowing。Theythereforesometimesbeggedinatonenoteasilytobedistinguishedfromthatofcommand,andsometimesborrowedwithsmallthoughtofrepaying。Butthefactthattheythoughtitnecessarytodisguisetheirexactionsunderthenamesofbenevolencesandloanssufficientlyprovesthattheauthorityofthegreatconstitutionalrulewasuniversallyrecognised。
TheprinciplethattheKingofEnglandwasboundtoconducttheadministrationaccordingtolaw,andthat,ifhedidanythingagainstlaw,hisadvisersandagentswereanswerable,wasestablishedataveryearlyperiod,astheseverejudgmentspronouncedandexecutedonmanyroyalfavouritessufficientlyprove。Itis,however,certainthattherightsofindividualswereoftenviolatedbythePlantagenets,andthattheinjuredpartieswereoftenunabletoobtainredress。AccordingtolawnoEnglishmancouldbearrestedordetainedinconfinementmerelybythemandateofthesovereign。Infact,personsobnoxioustothegovernmentwerefrequentlyimprisonedwithoutanyotherauthoritythanaroyalorder。Accordingtolaw,torture,thedisgraceoftheRomanjurisprudence,couldnot,inanycircumstances,beinflictedonanEnglishsubject。Nevertheless,duringthetroublesofthefifteenthcentury,arackwasintroducedintotheTower,andwasoccasionallyusedunderthepleaofpoliticalnecessity。ButitwouldbeagreaterrortoinferfromsuchirregularitiesthattheEnglishmonarchswere,eitherintheoryorinpractice,absolute。Weliveinahighlycivilisedsociety,throughwhichintelligenceissorapidlydiffusedbymeansofthepressandofthepostofficethatanygrossactofoppressioncommittedinanypartofourislandis,inafewhours,discussedbymillions。IfthesovereignwerenowtoimmureasubjectindefianceofthewritofHabeasCorpus,ortoputaconspiratortothetorture,thewholenationwouldbeinstantlyelectrifiedbythenews。Inthemiddleagesthestateofsocietywaswidelydifferent。Rarelyandwithgreatdifficultydidthewrongsofindividualscometotheknowledgeofthepublic。AmanmightbeillegallyconfinedduringmanymonthsinthecastleofCarlisleorNorwich;andnowhisperofthetransactionmightreachLondon。
Itishighlyprobablethattherackhadbeenmanyyearsinusebeforethegreatmajorityofthenationhadtheleastsuspicionthatitwaseveremployed。Norwereourancestorsbyanymeanssomuchaliveaswearetotheimportanceofmaintaininggreatgeneralrules。Wehavebeentaughtbylongexperiencethatwecannotwithoutdangersufferanybreachoftheconstitutiontopassunnoticed。Itisthereforenowuniversallyheldthatagovernmentwhichunnecessarilyexceedsitspowersoughttobevisitedwithsevereparliamentarycensure,andthatagovernmentwhich,underthepressureofagreatexigency,andwithpureintentions,hasexceededitspowers,oughtwithoutdelaytoapplytoParliamentforanactofindemnity。ButsuchwerenotthefeelingsoftheEnglishmenofthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies。Theywerelittledisposedtocontendforaprinciplemerelyasaprinciple,ortocryoutagainstanirregularitywhichwasnotalsofelttobeagrievance。Aslongasthegeneralspiritoftheadministrationwasmildandpopular,theywerewillingtoallowsomelatitudetotheirsovereign。If,forendsgenerallyacknowledgedtobegood,heexertedavigourbeyondthelaw,theynotonlyforgave,butapplaudedhim,andwhiletheyenjoyedsecurityandprosperityunderhisrule,werebuttooreadytobelievethatwhoeverhadincurredhisdispleasurehaddeservedit。Buttothisindulgencetherewasalimit;norwasthatKingwisewhopresumedfarontheforbearanceoftheEnglishpeople。Theymightsometimesallowhimtooversteptheconstitutionalline:buttheyalsoclaimedtheprivilegeofoversteppingthatlinethemselves,wheneverhisencroachmentsweresoseriousastoexcitealarm。If,notcontentwithoccasionallyoppressingindividuals,hecaredtooppressgreatmasses,hissubjectspromptlyappealedtothelaws,and,thatappealfailing,appealedaspromptlytotheGodofbattles。
Ourforefathersmightindeedsafelytolerateakinginafewexcesses;fortheyhadinreserveacheckwhichsoonbroughtthefiercestandproudestkingtoreason,thecheckofphysicalforce。ItisdifficultforanEnglishmanofthenineteenthcenturytoimaginetohimselfthefacilityandrapiditywithwhich,fourhundredyearsago,thischeckwasapplied。Thepeoplehavelongunlearnedtheuseofarms。Theartofwarhasbeencarriedtoaperfectionunknowntoformerages;andtheknowledgeofthatartisconfinedtoaparticularclass。Ahundredthousandsoldiers,welldisciplinedandcommanded,willkeepdowntenmillionsofploughmenandartisans。Afewregimentsofhouseholdtroopsaresufficienttooveraweallthediscontentedspiritsofalargecapital。Inthemeantimetheeffectoftheconstantprogressofwealthhasbeentomakeinsurrectionfarmoreterribletothinkingmenthanmaladministration。Immensesumshavebeenexpendedonworkswhich,ifarebellionbrokeout,mightperishinafewhours。ThemassofmovablewealthcollectedintheshopsandwarehousesofLondonaloneexceedsfivehundredfoldthatwhichthewholeislandcontainedinthedaysofthePlantagenets;and,ifthegovernmentweresubvertedbyphysicalforce,allthismovablewealthwouldbeexposedtoimminentriskofspoliationanddestruction。Stillgreaterwouldbetherisktopubliccredit,onwhichthousandsoffamiliesdirectlydependforsubsistence,andwithwhichthecreditofthewholecommercialworldisinseparablyconnected。ItisnoexaggerationtosaythatacivilwarofaweekonEnglishgroundwouldnowproducedisasterswhichwouldbefeltfromtheHoang—hototheMissouri,andofwhichthetraceswouldbediscernibleatthedistanceofacentury。Insuchastateofsocietyresistancemustberegardedasacuremoredesperatethanalmostanymaladywhichcanafflictthestate。
【推荐阅读】幽幽深宫,醒来一梦似千年,重生于下堂妃身躯中的她,将如何手刃仇人? 点击阅读