1。Thenaturalburthensofanyparticularservice，maybecomprisedunderthefollowingheads：———Theintensityoflabourrequiredinitsperformance，———theulterioruneasinesswhichmayarisefromitsparticularcharacter，———thephysicaldangerattendingit，———theexpensesorothersacrificesnecessarymadepreviouslytoitsexercise，———thediscreditattachedtoit，———thepeculiarenmitiesitproduces。

Thewagesoflabourindifferentbranchesoftrade，areregulatedinexactproportiontothecombinationoftheseseveralcircumstances。Tothelegislator，however，exceptincaseswhereitmaybenecessarytoaddfactitioustonaturalreward，considerationsofthissortareingeneralsubjectsonlyofspeculation。

Thatanyparticularserviceismoreorlesshighlypriced，isoflittleimportance：itaffectstheindividualsonlywhostandinneedofit。Thecompetitionbetweenthosewhowantandthosewhocansupply，fixesthepriceofallservicesinthemostfittingmanner。Itissufficientthatthedemandbepublicandfree。Toassist，ifnecessary，ingivingpublicitytothedemand，andinmaintainingreciprocallibertyinsuchtransactions，isallthatthelegislatoroughtdodo。

2。Naturalrewardsareliabletobeinsufficient，inrelationtoservices，whoseutilityextendstothewholecommunity，withoutproducingparticularadvantagetoanyoneindividualmorethananother。Ofthisnaturearepublicemployments。Itistrue，manypublicemploymentsareattendedbynaturalrewardsintheshapeofhonour，power，themeansofservingone’sconnexions，anddeservingthepublicgratitude；

andwhentheserewardsaresufficient，factitiousrewardsaresuperfluous。

Totheirambassadors，andmanyothersoftheirgreatofficersofstate，theVenetiansnevergaveanypecuniaryreward。InEng1and，thepublicfunctionsofsheriffsandjusticesofthepeacearegenerallydischargedbyopulentandindependentindividuals，whoseonlyrewardconsistsintherespectandpowerattachedtothoseoffices。

3。Therearemanycircumstanceswhichmaydiminishthevalueofareward，withoutbeinggenerallyknownbeforehand，butagainstallofwhichitispropertoguard。Doestherewardconsistofmoney？Itsvaluemaybediminishedbyaburthenofthesamenature，orbyaburthenintheshapeofhonour。Honourandmoneymayevenbeseenatstrifewithoneanother，aswellaswiththemselvesBythesemeans，thevalueofarewardmaysometimesbereducedtonothing，andevenbecomenegative。

Inthiscountry，where，properlyspeaking，thereisnopublicprosecutor，manyoffences，whichnoindividualhasanypeculiarinterestinprosecuting，areliabletoremainunpunished。Inthewayofremedy，thelawoffersfrom&pound；10to&pound；20，tobelevieduponthegoodsoftheoffender，towhoeverwillsuccessfullyundertakethisfunction：sometimesitisadded，thattheexpenseswillberepaidincaseofconviction：sometimesthisisnotpromised。Theseexpensesmayamounttothirty，fifty，andevenonehundredpounds；itisseldomtheyaresolittleastwentypounds。Afterthis，canwebesurprisedthatthelawsareimperfectlyobeyed？

Itmaybeadded，thatitisconsidereddishonourabletoattendtothissummonsofthelaws。Anindividualwhointhismannerendeavourstoservehiscountry，iscalledaninformer；andlestpublicopinionshouldnotbesufficienttobrandhimwithinfamy，theservantsofthelaw，andeventhelawsthemselves，haveonsomeoccasionsendeavouredtofixthestain。Thenumberofprivateprosecutorswouldbemuchmorenumerous，if，insteadoftheinsidiousofferofareward，anindemnificationweresubstituted。Thedishonourableofferbeingsuppressed，thedishonouritselfwouldcease。Andwhocansay，whenbysuchanarrangementthecircumstancewhichoffendsitisremoved，whetherhonouritselfmaynotbepressedintotheserviceofthelaws？

Thereisanothercaseinwhich，bythenegligenceoflegalandofficialarrangements，aconsiderableandcertainexpenseisattachedtoandmadetoprecedeavariableanduncertainreward。Anewideapresentsitselftosomeworkmanorartist。Knowingthatthelawsgranttoeveryinventoraprivilegetoenablehimexclusivelytoreaptheprofitsofhisinvention，heenjoysbyanticipationhissuccess，andlabourstoperfecthisinvention。Having，intheprosecutionofhisdiscovery，consumed，perhaps，thegreaterpartofhispropertyandhislife，hisinventioniscomplete。Hegoes，withajoyfulheart，tothepublicofficetoaskforhispatent。Butwhatdoesheencounter？Clerks，lawyers，andofficersofstate，whoreapbeforehandthefruitsofhisindustry。Thisprivilegeisnotgiven，butis，infact，soldforfrom&pound；100to&pound；

200———sumsgreaterperhapsthanheeverpossessedinhislife。Hefindhimselfcaughtinasnare，whichthelaw，orratherextortionwhichhasobtainedtheforceoflaw，hasspreadfortheindustriousinventor。Itisataxlevieduponingenuity，andnomancansetboundstothevalueoftheservicesitmayhavelosttothenation。

RuleIII。Rewardshouldbeadjustedinsuchamannertoeachparticularservice，thatforeverypartofthebenefittheremaybeamotivetoinduceamantogivebirthtoit。

Inotherwords，thevalueoftherewardoughttoadvancestepbystepwiththevalueoftheservice。Thisruleismoreaccuratelyfollowedinrespectofrewardsthanofpunishments。Ifamanstealaquantityofcorn，thepunishmentisthesame，whetherhestealonebushelorten；

butwhenapremiumisgivenfortheexportationofcorn，theamountofthepremiumbearsanexactproportiontotheamountexported。Tobeconsistentinmattersoflegislation，thescaleoughttobeasregularintheonecaseasintheother。

Theutilityofthisruleisputbeyonddoubtbythedifferencethatmaybeobservedbetweenthequantityofworkperformedbymenemployedbytheday，andmenemployedbythepiece。Whenaditchistobedug，andtheworkisdividedbetweenonesetofmenworkingbytheday，andanothersetworkingbythepiece，thereisnodifficultyinpredictingwhichsetwillhavefinishedfirst。

Hope，andperhapsemulation，arethemotiveswhichactuatethelabourerbythepiece：themotivewhichactuatesthelabourerbythedayisfear———fearofbeingdischargedincaseofmanifestandextraordinaryidleness。

Itmustnot，however，beforgotten，thattherearemanysortsofworkinrespectofwhichitisimpropertoadoptthismodeofpayment；whichtendsindeedtoproducethegreatestquantityoflabour，butatthesametimeiscalculatedtogivebirthtonegligenceandprecipitation。Thismethodoughtonlytobeemployedincaseswherethequalityoftheworkcaneasilybediscerned，anditsimperfections（ifany）detected。

Thevalueofarewardmaybeincreasedordiminished，inrespectofcertaintyaswellasamount：when，therefore，anyservicesrequirefrequentlyrenewedefforts，itisdesirablethateacheffortshouldrendertheprobabilityofitsattainmentmorecertain。

Arrangementsshouldbemadeforconnectingserviceswithreward，insuchmannerthattheattainmentoftherewardshallremainuncertain，without，however，ceasingtobemoreprobablethanthecontraryevent。Thefacultiesoftheindividualemployedwillthusnaturallybekeptuponthefullstretch。Thisisaccomplishedwhenacompetitionisestablishedbetweentwoormorepersons，andarewardispromisedtothatonewhoshallrenderserviceinthemosteminentdegree，whetheritrespectthequantityorthequalityoftheserviceproposed。

RuleIV。Whentwoservicescomeincompetition，ofwhichamancannotbeinducedtoperformboth，therewardforthegreaterserviceoughttobesufficienttoinducehimtopreferittotheless。

Inacertaincountry，mattersaresoarranged，thatmoreistobegainedbybuildingshipsontheoldplan，thanbyinventingbetter；bytakingoneship，thanbyblockadingahundred；byplunderingatsea，thanbyfighting；bydistortingtheestablishedlaws，thanbyexecutingthem；byclamouringfororagainstministers，thanbyshowinginwhatmannerthelawsmaybeimproved。Itmusthoweverbeadmitted，thatinrespectofsomeoftheseabuses，itwouldbedifficulttoprescribetheproperremedy。

Bywhatmethodcancompetitionbetweentwoservicesbeestablished？Theindividualfromwhomtheyarerequiredmust，eitherfrompersonalqualificationsorexternalcircumstances，haveitinhispowertorendereithertheoneortheother。Itispropertodistinguishthecasesinwhichthispositionistransient，fromthoseinwhichitispermanent。Itisinthefirstthatthefaultcommitted，bysufferingdisproportiontosubsist，ismostirreparable。

DuringtheAmericanwar，upwardsofanhundredshipswereatonetimeinoneoftheharboursoftherevoltedcolonies。

Itvasofgreatimportancethattheyshouldbekeptinastateofblockade，sincemanyofthemwereloadedwithmilitarystores。AnEnglishcaptainreceivedorderstoblockadethem。Sufficientlyskilledinarithmetic，andinproverbs，toknowthattwoorthreebirdsinhiscagewereworthahundredinthebush，heactedasthegreaternumberofmenwouldhaveactedinhisplace。Hestoodofftoasufficientdistancetogivetheenemyhopesofescaping：assoonastheyhadquittedtheharbour，hereturned，capturedhalf—a—dozen，andtherestproceededtotheirdestination。Idonotanswerforthetruthofthisanecdote；buttrueornottrue，itisequallygoodasanapologue。Itexhibitsoneofthefruitsofthatinconsiderateprodigality，whichgrants，withoutdiscrimination，theproduceoftheircapturestothecaptors。

Anotherexample。Amanwhohasinfluenceobtainsthecommandofafrigate，withorderstogouponacruise。Thecommandofafirst—rateisacceptedbythoseonlywhocannotobtainafrigate。

Itisthusthatinterestisputincompetitionwithduty———cupiditywithglory。Therearedoubtlessnotwantingnoblemindsbywhomtheseductionsofsinisterinterestareresisted：butwhereforeshouldtheybesomuchexposedtowhatitissodifficulttoresist？

Itistrue，thattheirearsmaynotbealtogetherinsensibletothecallofhonour。Thelawhasbestowedpecuniaryrewardsuponthecaptorsofarmedvessels———（anotherexample，whereoneinstanceofprofusionhascreatedthenecessityofasecond）———buttheserewardsarestillunequal：thechaseofdovesismoreadvantageousthanthepursuitofeagles。

Theremedywouldbetotax，andtaxheavily，theprofitsoflucrativecruises，toformafundofrewardinfavourofdangerous，ormerelyusefulexpeditions。Bythisarrangement，thecountrywouldbedoublybenefited，theservicewouldberenderedmoreattractive，andconductedwithmoreeconomy。Itmaybetrue，thatifthistaxweredeductedfromtheshareoftheseamen，theirardourmightbecooled：neitherinvalueorinnumberaretheirprizesinthislotterysusceptibleofdiminution。

Butthoughthisbetruewithrespecttothelowerranksoftheprofession，oughtwetojudgeinthesamemannerofthesuperiorofficers，whosemindsareelevatedastheirrank，andonwhoseconducttheperformanceofthedutyhasthemostimmediatedependence？

Inthejudicialdepartment，theservicewhichbelongstotheprofessionofanadvocate，andtheservicewhichbelongstotheofficeofajudge，areinastateofrivalry：theyconstitutetheelementsoftwopermanentconditions，ofwhichthefirstamongmostnationsisthepreliminaryroutetothesecond。InEngland，thejudgesareuniformlyselectedfromamongtheclassofadvocates。Nowtheinterestofthecountryrequiresthatthechoiceshouldfalluponthemenofhighestattainmentsintheirprofession，sinceuponthereputationofthejudgesdependstheopinionwhicheverymanformsofhissecurity。Itisnotofthesameimportancetothepublicthatadvocatesshouldbesupereminentlyskilful：theiroccupationisnottoseekoutwhatisagreeabletojustice，butwhatagreeswiththeinterestofthepartytowhichchancehasengagedthem。Onthecontrary，themoredecidedlyanyadvocateisexaltedinpointoftalentsabovehiscolleagues，themoredesirableisitthatheshouldnolongercontinueanadvocate。Inproportiontohispre—eminence，istheprobabilitythathewillbeopposedtothedistributionofjustice。Theworsethecauseofthesuitor，themorepressingishisneedofanableadvocatetoremedyhisweakness。

InEngland，theemolumentsoftheLordChancellorarereckonedat&pound；

20，000

———Vice—Chancellor，5，000

———MasteroftheRolls，4，000

———Chief—JusticeoftheKing’sBench，6，500

———Chief—JusticeoftheCommonPleas，5，000

———Chief—BaronoftheExchequer，5，000

———NinePuisneJudges，4，000Now，amongsttheclassofadvocatestherearealwaystobefoundabouthalf—a—dozenwhoseannualemolumentsaveragefromeighttotwelvethousandpounds。Ofthisnumberthereisnotonewhowouldnotdisdaintheofficeofpuisnejudge，sincehisprofitsareactuallytwoorthreetimesasgreatastheirs。Totheseadvocatesofthefirstclassmaybeaddedasmanymore，whowouldequallydisdainthesesubordinatesituations，inthehopeeverydayofsucceedingtotheadvocateswhoshallsucceedtotheprincipalsituations。Therearetwomethodsofobviatingthisinconvenience：theonebyincreasingtheemolumentsofthejudges。

（Thiscoursehasbeenadopteduponmanyoccasions，andtheyhavebeenraisedtotheirpresentamount，withoutsuccess。）Theotherconsistsinloweringtheprofitsoftheadvocates：adesirableobjectinmorerespectsthanone，butwhichcanresultonlyfromrenderingthewholesystemofthelawsmoresimpleandintelligible。

Inthedepartmentofeducation，thereisanearlysimilarrivalrybetweentheprofessionoftheclergyandtheofficeofprofessor，betweentheprofessionofadvocateandtheofficeofjudge，inthedepartmentofthelaws。Inproportionasheiswhatheoughttobeinordertobeuseful，aclergymanisaprofessorofmorality，havingforhispupilsalargerorsmallernumberofpersonsofeveryclass，duringthewholecourseoftheirlives。Ontheotherhand，aprofessor（asheiscalled）hasforhispupilsanumberofselectindividuals，whosecharacteriscalculatedtoexercisethegreatestinfluenceuponthegeneralmassofthepeople，andamongtheirnumbertheclergyaregenerallytobefound。

Theperiodduringwhichtheseindividualsattendthelecturesoftheprofessoristhemostcriticalperiodoflife———theonlyperiodduringwhichtheyareunderobligationtopayattentiontowhattheyhear，ortoreceivetheinstructionpresentedtothem。Suchbeingtherelationbetweentheservicesofthetwoclasses，letusseewhatistheproportionbetweentheamountofrewardrespectivelyallottedtoeach。

InEngland，theemolumentsoftheclergyvaryfrom&pound；20to&pound；10，000a—year，whilethoseoftheprofessorsinthechiefseatsofeducation———theuniversities———arebetweenthetwentiethandthehundredthpartofthelattersum。InScotland，theemolumentsoftheprofessorsdifferbutlittlefromwhattheyareinEngland，buttherichestecclesiasticalbeneficeisscarcelyequaltotheleastproductiveprofessorship。Itisthus，saysAdamSmith，that``inEnglandthechurchiscontinuallydrainingtheuniversitiesofalltheirbestandablestmembers；

andanoldcollegetutor，whoisknownanddistinguishedasaneminentmanofletters，israrelytobefound’’；whilstinScotlandthecaseisexactlythereverse。ItisbytheinfluenceofthiscircumstancethatheexplainshowacademicaleducationissoexcellentintheScottishuniversities，and，accordingtohim，sodefectiveinthoseofEngland。

Betweentwoprofessionswhichdonotenterintocompetitionwitheachother（forexample，thoseofopera—dancersandclergymen，）

adisproportionbetweentheiremolumentsisnotattendedwithsuchpalpableinconveniences；butwhenbyanycircumstancetwoprofessionsarebroughtintocomparisonwitheachother，theleastadvantageouslosesitsvaluebythecomparison，andthedisproportionpresentstotheeyeoftheobservertheideaofinjustice。

RRBook1Chapter11TheRationaleofRewardBookIOfRewardsinGeneralChapterXICHOICEASTOREWARDSInmakingaproperselectionofpunishments，muchskillisrequired：comparativelymuchlessisrequisiteintheproperselectionofrewards。Notonlyarethespeciesofrewardsmorelimitedinnumberthanthoseofpunishments，butthegroundsofpreferencearemoreeasilydiscoverable，andtherearenot，asinthecaseofpunishments，anypassionswhichtendtomisleadthejudgment。

Thequalitiesdesirableinrewardsarethesameasinthecaseofpunishments：weshallenumeratethem，andthenproceedtopointoutinwhatdegreetheyareunitedincertainmodesofremuneration。

Arewardisbestadaptedtofulfilthepurposeforwhichitmaybedesigned，whenitis———Variable，susceptibleofincreaseordiminutioninrespectofamount，thatitmaybeproportionedtothedifferentdegreesofofservice。

Equable，thatequalportionsmayatalltimesoperatewithequalforceuponallindividuals。

Commensurable，withrespecttootherspeciesofrewardsattachedtootherservices。

Exemplary：itsapparentoughtnottodifferfromitsrealvalue。

Thisqualityiswanting，whenalargeexpenseisincurredforthepurposeofreward，withoutitsbecomingmatterofnotoriety。Theobjectaimedatoughttobetostriketheattention，andproduceadurableimpression。

Economical。Moreoughtnottobepaidforaservicethanitisworth。Thisistheruleineverymarket。

Characteristic：asfaraspossibleanalogoustotheservice。

Itbecomesbythismeansthemoreexemplary。

Popular。Itoughtnottoopposeestablishedprejudices。InvaindidtheRomanemperorsbestowhonoursuponthemostodiousinformers；theydegradedthehonours，buttheinformerswerenotthelessinfamous。Butitisnotenoughthatitdoesnotopposetheprejudices：itisdesirablethateveryrewardshouldobtaintheapprobationofthepublic。

Fructifying：calculatedtoexcitetheperseveranceoftheindividualinthecareerofservice，andtosupplyhimwithnewresources。Intheselectionfromamongthevarietyofrewards，ofthatparticularonewhichmostcertainlywillproduceanydesiredaffect，attentionmustnotonlybepaidtothenatureoftheservice，butalsototheparticulardispositionandcharacteroftheindividualuponwhomitistooperate。Inthisrespect，publicregulationscanneverattaintheperfectionofwhichdomesticdisciplineissusceptible。Nosovereigncaneverinthesamedegreebeacquaintedwiththedispositionsofhissubjects，asafathermaybewiththoseofhischildren。Thisdisadvantageishowevercompensatedbythelargernumberofcompetitors。Inakingdom，everydiversityoftemperament，andeverydegreeofaptitude，maybefoundunitedtogether；andprovidedtherewardbeproportionatetotheservice，itwillbeoflittleimportancewhatmaybeitsnature：likethemagnet，whichoutofheterogeneousmassattractsandseparatesthemosthiddenparticlesofiron，itwilldetecttheindividualsusceptibleofitsattraction。

Besides，thenatureofpecuniaryreward，whichisadaptedtothegreaterproportionofservices，issuchthateveryindividualmayconvertitintothespeciesofpleasurewhichbemostprefers。

Toformajudgmentofthemeritsanddemeritsofpecuniaryreward，aglanceatthelistofdesirablequalitieswillsuffice。

Itwillatoncebeseenwhichofthemitpossesses，andofwhichofthemitisdeficient：itisvariable，equable，andcommensurable。

Itoughttobeadded，thatitisfrequentlyindispensablynecessary：therearemanycasesinwhicheveryotherreward，separatedfromthis，wouldnotonlybeaburthen，butevenamockery，especiallyiftheperformanceoftheservicehavebeenattendedwithanexpenseorlossgreaterthantheindividualcaneasilysupport。

Ontheotherhand，pecuniaryrewardisnotexemptfromdisadvantages。Speakinggenerally（fortherearemanyexceptions，）itisneitherexemplary，norcharacteristic，norevenpopular。[2]Whenallowedtoexceedacertainamount，ittendstodiminishtheactivityofthereceiver：insteadofaddingtohisinclinationtopersevereinhisservices，itmayfurnishhimwithatemptationtodiscontinuethem。TheenrichedmanwillbeapttothinklikethesoldierofLucullus，whobecametimidsosoonashepossessedpropertytopreserve。Ibite&ograve；，quovis，quizonamperdidit，inquit。Hor。Epist。II。lib。2。Therearealsocasesinwhichmoney，insteadofanattractive，mayhavearepulsiveeffect，———insteadofoperatingasareward，maybeconsideredasaninsult，atleastbypersonswhopossessanydelicacyintheirsentimentsofhonour。Acertaindegreeofskillisthereforerequiredintheapplicationofmoneyasareward：

itisoftentimesdesirablethatthepecuniaryshouldappearonlyasanaccessarytothehonorary，whichshouldbemadetoconstitutetheprincipalpartofthereward。[3]

Everypecuniaryrewardmaybe，asitwere，annihilatedbyitsrelativesmallness。Amanofindependentfortune，andofacertainrankinsociety，wouldbeconsideredasdegradedbyacceptingasumthatwouldnotdegradeamechanic。Thereisnorulefordetermining；whatispermittedorprohibitedinthisrespect：customhasestablishedtheprejudice。

Butthedifficultyitpresentsisnotinsurmountable。Bycombiningtogethermoneyandhonour，acompoundisformed，whichisuniversallypleasing：medals，forexample，possessthisdoubleadvantage。Byalittleartandprecaution，asolidpeaceisestablishedbetweenprideandcupidity；andthusunited，theyhavebothbeenrangedunderthebannersofmerit。Prideproclaimsaloud———``Itisnottheintrinsicvalueofthemetalwhichpossessesattractionsforme；itisthecircleofgloryalonewithwhichitissurrounded。’’

Cupiditymakesitscalculationinsilence，andaccuratelyestimatesthevalueofthematerialoftheprize。

BytheSocietyofArtsastillhigherdegreeofperfectionhasbeenattained。Achoiceiscommonlyallowedbetweenasumofmoneyandamedal。Thusallconditionsandtastesaresatisfied：themechanicorpeasantpocketsthemoney；thepeerorgentlemanornamentshiscabinetwithamedal。

Theapparentvalueofmedalsisinsomecasesaugmented，byrenderingthedesign，uponthemcharacteristicoftheserviceonaccountofwhichtheyarebestowed。Bytheadditionofthenameoftheindividualrewarded，anexclusivecertificateismadeinhisfavour。Theingenuitydisplayedinthechoiceofthedesignhassometimesbeenextremelyhappy。

ABritishstatutegivestothepersonwhoapprehendsandconvictsahighwayman，amongstotherrewards，thehorseonwhichtheoffenderwasmountedwhenhecommittedtheoffence。

PossiblytheframerofthislawmayhavetakenthehintfromthepassageinVirgil，inwhichthesonof&AElig；neaspromisestoNisus，incaseofthesuccessoftheexpeditionhewasmeditating，theveryhorseandaccoutrementswhichTurnushadbeenseentouse。

Itisequallypossible，thatthesameknowledgeofhumannature，whichsuggestedtotheLatinpoettheefficacyofsuchareward，suggesteditatoncetotheEnglishlawyer。Bethisasitmay，thisprovisioniscommendableonthreeseveralaccounts。Intheassignmentoftheprize，itpitchesuponanobject，which，fromthenatureofthetransaction，islikelytomakeaparticularimpressiononthemindofthepersonwhoseassistanceisrequired；actinginthisrespectinconformitytotheruleabovelaiddown，whichrecommendsanattentiontothecircumstancesinfluencingthesensibilityofthepersononwhomimpressionistobemade。

Italsohastheadvantageofbeingcharacteristic，aswellasexemplary。

Theanimal，whenthustransferred，becomesavoucherfortheactivityandprowessofitsowner，aswellasatrophyofhisvictory。

Anarrangementlikethis，simpleasitis，orratherbecauseitissosimple，wasanextraordinarystretchinBritishpolicy；

inwhich，thoughthereisgenerallyagreatmixtureofgoodsense，therereignsthroughoutakindoflittlenessandmauvaisehonte，whichavoids，withtimidcaution，everythingthatisbold，striking，andeccentric，scarcelyeverhazardinganyofthosestrongandmasterlytoucheswhichstriketheimagination，andfillthemindwiththeideaofthesublime。

ExamplesofrewardsofthisnatureaboundintheRomansystemofremuneration。Foreveryspeciesofmerit，appropriatesymboliccrownswereprovided。ThisbranchoftheiradministrationpreservedtheancientsimplicityofRomeinitscradle；andthewreathofparsleylongeclipsedthesplendourofthecrownsofgold。Iwasabouttospeakoftheirtriumphs，buthereIamcompelledtostop：humanityshuddersatthatprideofconquestwhichtreadsunderitsfeetthevanquishednations。Thesystemoflegislationoughtnodoubttobeadaptedtotheencouragementofmilitaryardour，butitoughtnottofanitintosuchaflameastomakeitthepredominantpassionofthepeople，andtoprostrateeverythingbeforeit。

Honoraryrewardsareeminentlyexemplary：theyarestandingmonumentsoftheserviceforwhichtheyhavebeenbestowed；

theyalsopossessthedesirablepropertyofoperatingasaperpetualencouragementtofreshexertions。Todisgraceanhonoraryreward，istobeatraitortoone’sself；hethathasoncebeenpronouncedbrave，shouldperpetuallymeritthatcommendation。

Tocreatearewardofthisnature，isnotverydifficult。Thesymbolicallanguageofesteemis，likewrittenlanguage，matterofconvention。Everymodeofdress，everyceremony，sosoonasitismadeamarkofpreeminence，becomeshonourable。Abranchoflaurel，aribband，agarter———everythingpossessesthevaluewhichisassignedtoit。Itishoweverdesirable，thattheseensignsshouldpossesssomeemblematiccharacterexpressiveofthenatureoftheserviceforwhichtheyarebestowed。Withreferencetothisprinciple，theblazonryofheraldryappearsrudeandunmeaning。Thedecorationofthevariousordersofknighthood，thoughnotdeficientinsplendour，arehighlydeficientinrespectofcharacter：

theystriketheeye，buttheyconveynoinstructiontothemind。Aribbandappearsmorelikethefineryofawoman，thanthedistinctivedecorationofahero。

Honorarytitleshavefrequentlyderivedapartoftheirgloryfrombeingcharacteristic。Theplacewhichhasbeenthetheatreofhisexploitshasoftenfurnishedatitleforavictoriousgeneral，wellcalculatedtoperpetuatethememoryofhisserviceandhisglory。Ataveryearlyperiodoftheirhistory，theRomansemployedthisexpedientinadditiontotheotherrewardswhichtheyconferreduponthegeneralwhocompletedaconquest。———HencethesurnamesofAfricanus，Numidicus，Asiaticus，Germanicus，andsomanyothers。

Thiscustomwasfrequentlybeenimitated。CatherineII。reviveditinfavouroftheRomanoffsandOrloffs。Mahon，twiceintheeighteenthcentury，furnishedtitlestoitsconquerors。ThemansionofBlenheimunitestotheeclatofthename，amoresubstantialproofofnationalgratitude。[5]

TheRomansoccasionallyappliedthesamemodeofrewardtoservicesofadifferentdescription。TheAppianwayperpetuallyrecalledtothememoryofthosewhojourneyedonit，theliberalityofAppius。[6]

Thecareeroflegislationmayalsofurnishsomeinstancesofhonourswhichpossessthischaracterofanalogy。InthedigestoftheSardinianlaws，everypraiseworthycarewastakentoinformthepeopletowhichoftheirsovereignstheywereindebtedforeachparticularlaw。Itisanexampleworthyofimitation。Itmayhavebeenintendedasamarkofrespect，aswellasforconvenienceofreference，thatithasbeencustomarytodesignatebythetitleoftheGrenvilleAct，theadmirablelawwhichthisrepresentativeofthepeopleprocuredtobeenactedfortheimpartialdecisionofquestionsrelativetocontestedelections。

HadthestatueofthislegislatorbeenplacedintheHouseofCommons，fromwhichhebanishedascandalousdisorder，itwouldbothhavebeenamonumentofgratitude，andanoblelesson：itmighthaveforitscompanionastatueofhisnoblerival，theauthorofEconomicalReform。Itisthusthattheimpartialjudgmentofposterity，forgettingthedifferenceswhichseparatedthem，delightstorecollecttheexcellencieswhichassimilatedthemtoeachother：itisthusthatithasplaced，sidebysideofeachother，EschinesandDemosthenes。Themoremenbecomeenlightened，themoreclearlywilltheyperceivethenecessity，atleast，ofdividinghonourbetweenthosewhocausenationstoflourishbymeansofgoodlaws，andthosewhodefendthembytheirvalour。

Amongthemostobviousandefficaciousmeansofconferringhonoraryrewards，arepictures，busts，statues，andotherimitativerepresentationsofthepersonmeanttoberewarded。Thesespreadhisfametoposterity，and，inconjunctionwiththehistoryoftheservice，handdowntheideaofthepersonbywhomitwasrendered。Theyarenaturallyaccompaniedwithinscriptionsexplanatoryofthecauseforwhichthehonourwasdecreed。Whentheartofwritinghasbecomecommon，theseinscriptionswillfrequentlygivedisgust，bythelengthorextravaganceoftheelogium；

anditwillthenbecomeanobjectofgoodtastetosayasmuchinasfewwordsaspossible。Perhapsthehappiestspecimensofthekindthatwere，oreverwillbeproduced，arethetwoinscriptionsplacedunderthestatuesofLouisXIV。andVoltaire；theoneerectedbythetownofMontpellier，thelatterbyasocietyofmenofletters，ofwhomFrederickIII。kingofPrussiawasone：———``ALouisXIV。apr&egrave；ssamort。’’``A

Voltaire，pendantsavie：``Totheking，thoughnolongertheobjectofhopeandfear：tothepoetandphilosopher，thoughstillthebuttofenvy。Thebusiness，onoccasionslikethese，isnottoinformbuttoremind：

historyandtheartofprintingdotherest。

Thegreaternumberoftherewardsofwhichwehavespokenabove，areoccasional，thatis，appliedtoaparticularaction。

Thereareotherswhicharemorepermanentintheircharacter，suchastheHospitalsofChelseaandGreenwich，inEngland，andl’H&ocirc；teldesInvalidesatParis。

Doubtshaveoftenbeenentertainedoftheutilityoftheseestablishments。Rewards，ithasbeensaid，mightbeextendedtoamuchgreaternumberofindividuals，iftheannualamountoftheexpensesoftheseplacesweredistributedintheshapeofpensions，whiletheindividualswouldthusberenderedmuchhappier，sincemenwhohavepassedtheirdaysofactivity，unitedinaplacewheretheyarenolongersubjecttothecaresandlaboursoflife，areexposedtothemostceaselesslistlessness。

Ishallnotdisputethetruthoftheseobservations，butontheotherhand，shallexaminetheeffectoftheseestablishmentsuponthemindsofsoldiersandsailors。Theirimaginationsareflatteredbythemagnificenceoftheseretreats；itisabrilliantprospect，openedtothemall；anasylumisprovidedforthosewho，havingquittedtheircountryandtheirfamiliesintheiryouth，havefrequently，intheirdaysofdecrepitudeandage，nootherhomeintheworld。Thosewhoaremutilatedordisfiguredwithwounds，areconsoledbytherenownwhichawaitstheminthehospital，whereeverythingremindsthemoftheirexploits；Itmayalsobeforthebenefitoftheservicemoreprudentthustounitethantodispersethem。Itisaluxury；butitisrational，exemplary，andpossessesacharacterofjusticeandmagnificence。

Theseestablishmentsbeingnecessarilylimitedwithrespecttothenumberwhichcanbeadmittedintothem，maybeconsidereduponthefootingofextraordinaryrewards，applicabletodistinguishedservices。Theywouldthusconstituteaspeciesofnobilityforthesoldiersandsailors。Theywouldacquireanadditionaldegreeofsplendour，weretheirwallsadornedbythetrophiestakeninwar，whichwouldthereappearmuchmoreappropriatelyplaced，thanwhendepositedinthetemplesofpeace。

Thedecorationsofthechapelofl’H&ocirc；teldesInvalidesareadmirable。TheflagssuspendedinthecathedralofSt。Paulonlyawakenthoughtsatvariancewiththoseofreligiousworship：removedtoChelseaorGreenwich，theywouldbeconnectedwithnaturalassociations，andwouldfurnishatexttothecommentariesofthosewhoacquiredthembytheirvalour。

Itisnotoftenthateverydesirablequalityisseentobeunitedinoneandthesamereward：thisunion，however，frequentlytakesplaceinanalmostimperceptiblemanner。

Aninstanceofarewardparticularlywelladaptedtothenatureoftheservice，isthatofthemonopolywhichitisalmostuniversallythecustomtocreateinfavourofinventors。Fromtheverynatureofthething，itadaptsitselfwiththeutmostnicetytothoserulesofproportiontowhichitismostdifficultforrewardartificiallyinstitutedbythelegislatortoconform。Itadaptsitselfwiththeutmostnicetytothevalueoftheservice。Ifconfined，asitoughttobe，totheprecisepointinwhichtheoriginalityoftheinventionconsists，itisconferredwiththeleastpossiblewasteofexpense：itcausesaservicetoberendered，whichwithoutitamanwouldnothaveamotiveforrendering；andthatonlybyforbiddingothersfromdoingthatwhich，wereitnotforthatservice，itwouldnothavebeenpossibleforthemtohavedone。Evenwithregardtosuchinventions（forsuchtherewillbe）whereothers，besideshimwhopossessedhimselfofthereward，havescentoftheinvention，itisstillofuse，bystimulatingallparties，andsettingthemtostrivewhichshallfirstbringhisdiscoverytobear。Withallthisituniteseverypropertywhichcanbewishedforinareward。Itisvariable，equable，commensurable，characteristic，exemplary，frugal，promotiveofperseverance，subservienttocompensation，popular，andrevocable。

RRBook1Chapter12TheRationaleofRewardBookIOfRewardsinGeneralChapterXIIPROCEDUREASTOREWARDS。Theprovinceofrewardisthelastasylumofarbitrarypower。Intheearlystagesofsociety，punishments，pardons，andrewards，wereequallylavishedwithoutmeasureandwithoutnecessity。Theinflictionofpunishmenthasalreadyinameasurebeensubjecttoregulation：atsomefuturetimeruleswillbelaiddownforthegrantingofpardons；andlastofall，forthebestowmentofrewards。Ifpunishmentoughtnottobeinflictedwithoutformalproofofthecommissionofcrime，neitheroughtrewardtobeconferredwithoutequallyformalproofofdesert。

Itmaybeallowed，thatinpointofimportance，thedifferencebetweenthetwocasesisgreat；thatpunishmentinflictedwithouttrialexcitesuniversalalarm，whilstrewardconferredwithoutdesertexcitesnosuchfeelings。Buttheseconsiderationsonlyprovethattheadvantageofformalprocedureinthedistributionofrewardislimitedtothepreventionofprodigality，andoftheotherabusesbywhichthevalueofrewardisdiminished。

AtRome，ifcertaintravellersmaybebelieved，itisthecustom，whenasaintisabouttobecanonized，toallowanadvocate，whoinfamiliarlanguageiscalledtheadvocateofthedevil，topleadagainsthisadmission。Ifthisadvocatehadalwaysbeenfaithfultohisclient，thecalendermightnothavebeensofullasatpresent。Bethisasitmay，theideaitselfitexcellent，andmightadvantageouslybeborrowedbypoliticsfromreligion。L’Italicovalornon&egrave；ancormorto：thereareyetsomelessonstobelearnedinthecapitaloftheworld。

ItisreportedofPetertheGreat，thatwhenhecondescendedtopassthrougheverygradationofmilitaryrank，fromthelowesttothehighestinhisempire，hetooknostepwithoutproducingregularcertificatesofhisqualifications。Wemaybeallowedtosupposethatevenwithinferiorrecommendationstothoseproducedbythegreatprince，hecouldhavesucceeded。Therewasnoadvocateforthedeviltocontestthepoint，andevenhadtherebeenonehisfidelitywouldhavebeendoubtful：buthadthequalificationsoftheCzarbeenasimperfectas，accordingtothehistory，theywerecomplete，hissubmittingtoproducethemwouldhaveofferedanoblelesson。

InEnglandwhenadormantpeerageisclaimedbyanyindividual，theattorney—generalisconstitutedtheadvocateforthedevil，andchargedtoexamineintoandproduceeverythingwhichcaninvalidatehistitle。Whereforeishenotthusemployedwhenitisproposedtocreatenewpeers？Whyshouldhenotbeallowedtourgeeverythingwhichcanbesaidagainstthemeasure？Isitfearedthathewouldbetoooftensuccessful？

Inthedistributionofrewards，wereitalwaysnecessarypubliclytoassignthereasonfortheirbestowment，arestraintwouldbeimposeduponprincesandtheirministers，towhichtheyareunwillingtosubmit。ThereformerlyexistedinSwedenacustom，orpositivelaw，obligingthekingtoinsertinthepatentconferringapensionortitlethereasonforthegrant。In1774，thiscustomwasabolishedbyanexpresslawinsertedintheGazetteofthatcourt，declaringthattheindividualshonouredbythebountyofthekingshouldbeidelitywouldhavebeendoubtful：buthadthequalificationsoftheCzarbeenasimperfectas，accordingtothehistory，theywerecomplete，hissubmittingtoproducethemwouldhaveofferedanoblelesson。

InEngland，theremuneratorybranchofarbitrarypowerhasbeguntobepruned。Exceptinparticularcases，thekingisnotallowedtograntapensionexceeding&pound；300perannum，withouttheconsentofparliament。Sincethepassingoftheactcontainingthisrestriction，thecandidatesforpensionshavebeenbutfew。

WhenM。NeckerundertooktheadministrationofthefinancesinFrance，thetotaloftheacknowledgedpensions，withoutreckoningthesecretgratuities，whichwereveryconsiderable，amountedtotwenty—sevenmillionsoflivres。InEnglandwherethenationalwealthwasnotlessthaninFrance，thepensionsdidnotamounttothetenthpartofthissum。Itisthusthatthedifferencebetweenalimitedandanabsolutemonarchymaybeexhibited，eveninfigures。

InIreland，thekinguponhissoleauthority，inl783，createdanorderofknighthood；thusprofitingbywhatremainedofthefragmentsofarbitrarypower。Noblamewasimputedtohimforestablishingthistaxuponhonour：hadheleviedataxuponproperty，thenationmightnothavebeensotractable。Thosewhohopedtoshareinthenewtreasurewerecarefulnottoraiseanoutcryagainstitsestablishment：thoseatwhoseexpensethistreasurewasestablished，didnotunderstandthispieceoffinesse；theyopenedtheireyeswidelybutcomprehendednothing。Themeasurecouldnothavebeenbetterjustifiedbycircumstances。Everydaythecrownfounditselfstrippedofsomeprerogative，justlyorunjustlythesubjectofenvy；itwasthereforehightimetoavailitselfofthesmallnumberofthose，intheexerciseofwhichitwasstilltolerated。

BecomeindependentofGreatBritain，thehonouroftheIrishnationseemedtorequireadecorationofthiskind：forwhatisakingdomwithoutanorderofknighthood？

Toenterintotheconsiderationofthedetailsrequisitefortheestablishmentofasystemofremuneratoryprocedure，comesnotwithinthepresentpartofourdesign：averyslightsketchoftheleadingprinciplesonwhichitmightbegrounded，istheutmostthatcanherebegiven。Thegeneralideawouldofcoursebetakenfromthesystemestablishedinpenalandcivilcases。Betweenthesesystems，themoststrikingdifferencewould，however，arisefromtheinterestandwishesoftheagentwhoseactmightbethesubjectofinvestigation，withrespecttothepublicityoftheact。Intheonecase，theconsequencesofsuchhisact，incaseitwereproved，beingpernicioustohim，allhisendeavourwouldbetokeepitconcealed：intheother，theseconsequencesbeingbeneficial，hisendeavourwouldbetoplaceitinthemostconspicuouslightimaginable。

Inthefirstcase，hisendeavourswouldbetodelaytheprocessandifpossiblemakeitvoid：inthelattertoexpediteitandkeepitvalid。

Themoststrikingpointofcoincidenceistheoccasionthereisinbothcasesfortwoparties。Inthecivilbranchtherecanhardlybeadeficiencyinthisrespect；therebeingcommonlytwoindividualswhoseinterestsareopposite，andknownandfelttobeso。Butinthepenalbranch，inoneverylargedivisionofit，thereisnaturallynosuchopposition；Imeaninthatwhichconcernsoffencesagainstthepubliconly。Here，therefore，thelawhasbeenobligedtocreatesuchanopposition，andhasaccordinglycreateditbytheestablishmentofapublicprosecutor。Intheremuneratorybranchofprocedure，thereisasimilarabsenceofnaturalopposition，andaccordinglythegranddesideratumistheappointmentofanofficerwhosebusinessitshouldbetocontestonthepartofthepublic，thetitletowhateverrewardisproposedtobegrantedinthisyear。Hemightbeentitled，forshortness，bysomesuchnameasthatofContestor—general。Withoutaprosecutor—general，inthelargeandimportantdivisionofcasesabovementioned，therewouldnot，unlessbyaccident———Imeanwhenanindividualisengagedinthetaskofprosecutionbypublicspirit，orwhatisthemorenatural，byprivatepique———beanysuitinstituted，anypunishmentinflicted。Forwantofacontestor—generalthereisnotunlessbyasimilaraccidentanycheckgiventotheinjusticeofunmeritedremuneration。Uponthewhole，then，thepenalandcivilbranchesofprocedure，butparticularlythepenal，mayinallcasesserveeitherasthemodels，or，ifthetermmaybeadmitted，astheanti—modelsoftheremuneratorybranchofprocedure。

RRBook1Chapter13TheRationaleofRewardBookIOfRewardsinGeneralChapterXIIIREWARDSTOINFORMERS。Theexecutionofalawcannotbeenforced，unlesstheviolationofitbedenounced；theassistanceoftheinformeristhereforealtogetherasnecessaryandasmeritoriousasthatofthejudge。

Wehavealreadyhadoccasiontoremark，thatwithrespecttopublicoffences，wherenooneindividualmorethananotherisinterestedintheirprosecution，ithasbeenfoundnecessarytocreateasortofmagistrate，anaccuser—general，tocarryonsuchprosecutionsinvirtueofhisoffice；butitisindispensablynecessarythatoffencesshouldbedenouncedtohim，beforehecanbegintoact。

Inawell—orderedcommunityitwouldbethedutyofeveryindividualpossessingevidenceofthecommissionofacrime，todenouncethecriminaltothetribunals；andsuchindividualwouldbedisposedsotodo。Inmostcountries，however，meningeneralaredesirousofwithdrawingfromtheperformanceofthisduty。Somerefusetoperformitfrommistakennotionsofpitytowardsthedelinquent；others，becausetheydisapproveofsomepartofthelaw；others，fromthefearofmakingenemies；manyfromindolence；almostallfromadisinclinationtosubmittothatlosswhichwouldarisefromtheinterruptionoftheirordinaryoccupations。

Inthesecountries，therefore，ithasbeenfoundnecessarytoofferpecuniaryrewardstoinformers。

Sofarasmyknowledgeextends，governmentshaveneverbeenadvisedtodiscontinuethispractice。Itissupportedbyauthority，butitiscondemnedbypublicopinion：mercenaryinformationsareconsidereddisgraceful，salariedinformers，odious。Henceitresults，thattherewardofferedbythelawdoesnotpossessallitsnominalvalue；thedisgraceattachedtotheserviceisadrawbackuponitsamount。Theindividualisrewardedbythestate，andpunishedbythemoralsanction。

Letusexaminetheusualobjectionsmadeagainstmercenaryinformations。

1。Itisodious（itissaid）toprofitbytheevilwehavecausedtoothers。

Thisobjectionisfoundeduponafeelingofimpropercommiserationfortheoffender；sincepitytowardstheguiltyiscrueltytowardstheinnocent。Therewardpaidtotheinformerhasforitsobject，theservicehehasperformed；inthisrespect，heisuponalevelwiththejudgewhoispaidforpassingsentence。Theinformerisaservantofthegovernment，employedinopposingtheinternalenemiesofthestate，asthesoldierisaservantemployedinopposingitsexternalfoes。

2。Itintroducesintosocietyasystemofespionage。

Tothewordespionage，astigmaisattached：letussubstitutethewordinspection，whichisunconnectedwiththesameprejudices。Ifthisinspectionconsistinthemaintenanceofanoppressivesystemofpolice，whichsubjectsinnocentactionstopunishment，whichcondemnssecretlyandarbitrarily，itisnaturalthatsuchasystemanditsagentsshouldbecomeodious。Butifthisinspectionconsistinthemaintenanceofasystemofpolice，forthepreservationofthepublictranquillityandtheexecutionofgoodlaws，allitsinspectors，andallitsguardians，actausefulandsalutarypart：itistheviciousonlywhowillhavereasontocomplain；itwillbeformidabletothemalone。

3。Pecuniaryrewardsmayinducefalsewitnessestoconspireagainsttheinnocent。

Ifwesupposeapublicandwell—organizedsystemofprocedure，inwhichtheinnocentarenotdeprivedofanymeansofdefence，thedangerresultingfromconspiracywillappearbutsmall。Besidestheprodigiousdifficultyofinventingacoherenttalecapableofenduringarigorousexamination，thereisnocomparisonbetweentherewardofferedbythelaw，andtherisktowhichfalsewitnessesareexposed。Mercenarywitnessesalsoareexactlythosewhoexcitethegreatestdistrustinthemindofajudge，andiftheyaretheonlywitnesses，asuspicionofconspiracyinstantlypresentsitself，andbecomesaprotectiontotheaccused。

Theseobjectionsareurgedinjustificationoftheprejudicewhichexists；buttheprejudiceitselfhasbeenproducedbyothercauses；andthosecausesarespecious。Thefirst，withrespecttotheeducatedclassesofsociety，isaprejudicedrawnfromhistory，especiallyfromthatoftheRomanemperors。Thewordinformeratoncerecallstothemindthosedetestablemiscreants，thehorrorofallages，whomeventhepencilofTacitusfailedtocoverwithalltheignominytheydeserved：

buttheseinformerswerenottheexecutorsofthelaw，theyweretheexecutorsofthepersonalandlawlessvengeanceofthesovereign。

Thesecondandmostgeneralcauseofthisprejudiceisfoundedupontheemploymentgiventoinformersbyreligiousintolerance：

intheagesofignoranceandbigotry，barbarouslawshavingbeenenactedagainstthosewhodidnotprofessthedominantreligion，informerswerethenconsideredaszealousandorthodoxbelievers；butinproportiontotheincreaseofknowledge，themannersofmenhavebeensoftened，andtheselawshavingbecomeodious，theinformers，withoutwhoseservicestheywouldhavefallenintodisuse，partookofthehatredwhichthelawsthemselvesinspired。Itwasaninjusticeinrespecttothem，butasalutoryeffectresultedfromit，totheclassesexposedtooppression。

Thesecasesoftyrannyexcepted，theprejudicewhichcondemnsmercenaryinformersisanevil。Itisaconsequenceoftheinattentionofthepublictotheirtrueinterests，andofthegeneralignoranceinmattersoflegislation。Insteadofactinginconsonancewiththedictatesoftheprincipleofutility，peopleingeneralhaveblindlyabandonedthemselvestotheguidanceofsympathyandantipathy———ofsympathyinfavourofthosewhoinjure———ofantipathytothosewhorenderthemessentialservice。Ifaninformerdeservestobehated，ajudgedeservestobeabhorred。

Thisprejudicealsopartlyspringsfromaconfusionofideas。Nodistinctionismadebetweenthejudicialandtheprivateinformer；

betweenthemanwhodenouncesacrimeinacourtofjustice，andhewhosecretlyinsinuatesaccusationsagainsthisenemies；betweenthemanwhoaffordstotheaccusedanopportunityofdefendinghimself，andhewhoimposestheconditionofsilencewithrespecttohisperfidiousreports。

Clandestineaccusationsarejustlyconsideredasthebaneofsociety：theydestroyconfidence，andproduceirremediableevils；buttheyhavenothingincommonwithjudicialaccusations。

Itisextremelydifficulttoeradicateprejudicessodeeplyrootedandnatural。Fromnecessity，thepracticeofpayingpublicinformerscontinuestobeinuse；butthecharacterofaninformerisstillregardedasdisgraceful，andbysomestrangefatalitythejudgesmakenoeffortstoenlightenthepublicmindonthissubject，andtoprotectthisusefulandevennecessaryclassofmenfromtherigourofpublicopinion。

Theyoughtnottosuffertheeloquenceofthebartoinsultbeforetheirfacesthesenecessaryassistantsintheadministrationofjustice。TheconductoftheEnglishlawtowardsinformersfurnishesacuriousbutdeplorableinstanceofhumanfrailty。Itemploysthem，oftentimesdeceivesthem，andalwaysholdsthemuptocontempt。

Itistimeforlawgiversatleasttoweanthemselvesfromtheseschoolboyprejudiceswhichcanconsistonlywithagrossinattentiontotheinterestsofthepublic，joinedtoagrossignoranceoftheprinciplesofhumannature。Theyshouldsettlewiththemselvesonceforallwhatitistheywouldhave：theyshouldstrike，somehoworother，abalancebetweenthebenefitexpectedfromtheeffectsofalaw，andtheinconveniences，orsupposedinconveniences，inseparablefromitsexecution。Iftheinconveniencespreponderate，lettherebeanendofthelaw；ifthebenefits，lettherebeanendofallobstacleswhichanaversiontothenecessaryinstrumentswhichitsefficacydepends，wouldopposetoitsexecution。

RRBook1Chapter14TheRationaleofRewardBookIOfRewardsinGeneralChapterXIVREWARDSTOACCOMPLICES。Amonginformers，criminalswhodenouncetheiraccompliceshavebeendistinguishedfromothers，andtheofferofpardonorrewardstoinducethemthustoact，hasbeencondemnedasaltogetherimproper。

Itmustbeacknowledged，thatsolongasthereisanyothermeansofobtainingtheconvictionofacriminalwithoutthusrewardinganaccomplice，thismethodisbad；theimpunitynecessarilyaccompanyingitisanevil。Butiftherebenoothermeans，thismethodisgood：sincetheimpunityofasinglecriminalislessevilthantheimpunityofmany。

Inrelation，however，toweightyandseriouscrimes，nosuchrewardscanwithproprietybeappointedbyagenerallaw。Agenerallawofferingpardonandrewardtothecriminalwhoinformedamongsthisaccomplices，wouldbeaninvitationtothecommissionofallsortsofcrimes：

itwouldbeasthoughthelegislatorhadsaid，``Amongamultitudeofcriminals，themostwickedshallnotonlybeunpunishedbutrewarded。’’Amanshalllayplansforthecommissionofacrime———shallengageaccompliceswiththeintentionofbetrayingthem：tothenaturalprofitsofthecrime，suchalawwouldaddtherewardbestoweduponhimasaninformer。ItiswhathasoftenhappenedunderEnglishlaw。Itisoneofthefruitsofthemaximwhichprohibitstheexaminationofsuspectedpersonsrespectingfactswhichmaytendtocriminatethemselves。Itis，however，criminalswhocanalwaysfurnish，andwhoofoftencanalonefurnish，thelightnecessaryfortheguidanceofjustice。Buttheexaminationofsuspectedpersonsbeingforbiddenasameansofobtainingintelligence，thereremainsonlythemethodofreward。

Butwhenthereward，insteadofbeingbestowedinvirtueofagenerallaw，islefttothediscretionofthejudge，andofferedonlywhennecessary，thisinconveniencedoesnotexist。Advantageouscrimescannolongerbecommittedwithsecurity。Recoursebeinghadtothiscostlymethodonlywhenallothermethodsfail，therewillalwaysbealongerorshorterinterval，duringwhicheverycriminalwillfeelhimselfexposedtothepunishmentdenouncedagainsthiscrimes。Theemploymentofrewardinthismannerhavingbecomeusual，willexerciseuponthesecurityofcriminalstheeffectofagenerallaw：itmightevenbeprescribedbysuchalaw。Thismethodwouldthenpossessalltheadvantagesofanunconditionallaw，withoutitsinconveniences。

Beccariahascondemned，withoutexception，everyrewardofferedtoaccomplices。Asthefoundationofhisopinion，heproducesonlyaconfusedsentimentofdisapprobationattachedtothewords``treasonandfaithlessness’’。

Voluntaryconventionsamongmenaregenerallyusefultosociety。Itwouldbeinmostcasesproductiveofevil，weretheynotconsideredbinding。Infamyhasthereforebecomeconstantlyattachedtothetermstreasonandfaithlessness。Theacts，howevertowhichthesetermsareapplied，areonlyperniciousinasfarasthecontractsofwhichtheyareviolationsareatleastinnocent。Torenderthesecurityofsociety（whichcrimes，weretheytoremainunpunished，woulddestroy）

subordinatetotheaccomplishmentofallmannerofengagements，wouldbetorendertheendsubordinatetothemeans。Whatwouldbecomeofsociety，wereitonceestablishedasaprinciple，thatthecommissionofacrimebecameadutyifonceithadbeenpromised？Thatpromisesoughttobeperformed，isamaximwhich，withoutalimitationexceptingthosetheperformanceofwhichwouldbepernicioustosociety，mighttohaveplaceneitherinlawsnorinmorals。Itisdoubtfulwhichwouldbemostinjurious———thenon—performanceofeverypromise，ortheperformanceofall。Farfrombeingagreaterevilthanthattowhichitisopposed，itwouldbedifficulttoshowthatthenon—performanceofcriminalengagementsisproductiveofanyevil。Fromtheperformanceofsuchanengagement，anunfavourablejudgmentonlycanbeformedofthecharacteroftheparty：howcanaasimilarjudgmentbeformedfromitsviolation？Becausehehasrepentedofhavingcommittedorbeenwillingtocommitanactioninjurioustosociety，andwhichheknewtobeso，doesitfollowthathewillfailtoperformactionswhichheknowstobeinnocentanduseful？

Fromtheviolationofengagementsamongcriminals，whatevilcanbeapprehended？———Thatunanimityshallbewantingamongthem？———thattheirenterprisesshallbeunsuccessful？———thattheirassociationsshallbedissolved？Itisproverbiallysaid，``thereishonouramongthieves’’。

【推荐阅读】幽幽深宫，醒来一梦似千年，重生于下堂妃身躯中的她，将如何手刃仇人? 点击阅读