Preface

ADVERTISEMENTBYTHEEDITOR

ThehistoryofthepresentWorkissomewhatcurious：itisextractedfromtwosetsofmanuscripts，differingconsiderablyastotheirarrangement；theoneinFrenchandtheotherinEnglish，writtenbyMr。Benthambetweenfortyandfiftyyearsago；andwhichdonotappeartohavebeeneverconfrontedtogether。

Boththesemanuscripts，withMr。Bentham’sPapersonPunishment，were，atthedesireofMr。Dumont，placedinhishands，and，togetherwithsomefewadditionsfromhisownelegantpen，formthematteroftheworkpublishedbyhim（atParisin1811）underthetitleofTh&egrave；oriedesPeinesetdesR&eacute；compenses。OfthisworkthreeeditionshavebeenprintedinFrance，andoneinEngland：

the``RationaleofReward’’occupiesthesecondvolume。

InpreparingitforitsappearancebeforetheEnglishpublic，theEditorhastakentheabovevolumeasthegroundworkofhislabours；

buthavingavailedhimselfwhereverhecouldoftheoriginalmanuscripts，hiswill，inmanyinstances，notbefoundaliteraltranslationofM。Dumont’swork。

TheadditionsmadebyM。Dumontaremarkedout，wheredistinguishable，byappropriateindications。OneoftheseadditionsbeingatvariancewithMr。Bentham’spresentopinions，hasgivenrisetotheremarkswhichimmediatelyfollow。

RRPrefaceSection2TheRationaleofRewardPrefaceREMARKSBYMR。BENTHAM``Catherine’sScaleofRanks’’：———``BenthamorDumont，onPensionsofRetreat？’’———whichyouplease。———Youaskmypresentthoughts：———I

amallobedience。Allowmeonlytonametheplace。Notinyourwork，butletitbeinasequelIampreparingforit。Fromthatwhichyouhavesokindlymadeyours，thosewickedthoughtswouldscareawayreaders，whom，ifcontentwithwhatyougivethemfrommyfirstfriend，thatsequelmayhaveachancefor。Inthatproductionmaybeseen，notindescriptiononly，butinterminis，thearrangements，which，afterfromfortytofiftyyearsforreflection，exhibitthepractical———Idonotsaythenowpracticable———resultoftheprinciplesofyours：andthatcleared（forgivemysayingso）ofwhatnowshowsitselftomeasdross。Noryetwillitdrawreadersfromyours；———forinyoursalonewillbefounddiscussions，explanations，andreasoningsatlength；inthenewone（exceptwheretheoppositeofficiallyavowedprinciplesareexamined）littleelsethanresults。

OfficialAptitudeMaximized；ExpenseMinimized。

Inthesewordsyouhavethetitleofaplanofofficialeconomyandeducationthatgivesdenominationtothewhole，andanindicationofthematterofthefirstandprincipalpart。Sendyourreaders，ifyouhaveany，tothatwork。There，withofficialeconomy，andofficialeducation，theymayseenationalgrowingoutofit———added，andthatwithoutneedofadditionaldescriptionorexpense。There，confrontedwithRadical，theymayseeWhigandToryeconomy，andtaketheirchoice。IsayWhigandTory；forthesetwoareone。

AstoCatherineandherranks，theyranknotquitesohighwithmenowasthen。Pensionsofretreatwouldbeinvitedtomaketheirretreatfromyourpages，wereitnotformyrespectforeditorsandreaders。Inmyownworkmaybeseenapictureofthem，paintedinthosecolourswhichnowappeartometheirproperones。

``Revise？’’Impossible：nottospeakofmydoingyoumoreharmthangood。IntheFrenchalone，the``PensionsofRetreat’’

havealreadycostme———Ihadalmostsaidlostme———moredaysthanIcanenduretothinkof：Iwhohavesofewleft，andworkenoughleftforahundredtimesthenumber。WhatIhavefoundpossible，Ihavedone，———lookingoverthetitlesofthechaptersandsections（stillintheFrenchalone）

and，inrelationtothem，submittingwhatappearstomeanappropriatewording，togetherwithsomelittlealterationsandadditionswhichpresentedthemselvestomeasamendments。

RRPrefaceSection3TheRationaleofRewardPrefacePRELIMINARYOBSERVATIONSThegreatesthappinessofthegreatestnumberoughttobetheobjectofeverylegislator：foraccomplishinghispurposesrespectingthisobject，hepossessestwoinstruments———PunishmentandReward。Thetheoriesofthesetwoforcesdividebetweenthem，althoughinunequalshares，thewholefieldoflegislation。

ThesubjectofthepresentworkisReward；andnotrewardalone，buteveryotherusewhichcanbemadeofthatmatterofwhichrewardsmaybeformed。

Inthefollowingwork，thedifferentsourcesfromwhichrewardsmaybederivedareexamined；thechoicewhichoughttobemadebetweenthedifferentmodificationsofwhichrewardissusceptible，ispointedout；andrulesarelaiddownfortheproductionofthegreatesteffectwiththeleastportionofthispreciousmatter。

Ontheonehand，indicationisgivenofthevenom，moreorlessconcealed，whichisincludedintheemploymentswhichhavetoocommonlybeenmadeofit；andanattempthasbeenmadetotakeswayfromotherscertainimputationswhichtheenthusiasmofvirtuehascastuponthem。

Thelimitshavebeentracedbetweenthefieldsofrewardandpunishment；thespringsofthatmechanismdeveloped，whencethoselawsarisetowhichthepowerisattributedofexecutingthemselves，anddirectionsgivenforthatcombinationofremedies，thesweetwiththebitter，wherebysohappyaunionisproducedbetweeninterestandduty。

Theadvantagesofasystemofremuneratoryprocedurearepointedout；anideagivenofthecourseitoughttotake；andanenumerationmadeoftheusesofthematterofrewardwhicharenotremuneratory。Thenatureandeffectsofsalariesandotherofficialemolumentsareinquiredinto；thenatureanddegreeoftheencouragementpropertobeaffordedtotheartsandsciencesisdiscussed；

and，finally，thequestion，———Howfaritispossiblebeneficiallytoapplyartificialrewardtotheencouragementofproductionandtrade，isconsidered。

RRBook1Chapter1TheRationaleofRewardBookIOfRewardsinGeneralChapterIDEFINITIONSReward，inthemostgeneralandextensivesenseevergiventotheword，maybedefinedtobe———aportionofthematterofgood，which，inconsiderationofsomeservicesupposedorexpectedtobedone，isbestowedonsomeone，intheintentthathemaybebenefitedthereby。{AlternativeDefinition}

Whenemployedunderthedirectionoftheprincipleofutility，itoperatesasamotivefortheperformanceofactionsusefultosocietyinthesamemanneras，underthesameguidance，punishmentoperatesinthepreventionofactionstowhichweascribeaninjurioustendency。

Theservices，intheproductionofwhichthispreciousmattermaybeemployed，maybedistinguishedintoordinaryandextraordinary。

Ordinaryservicesmayhesubdividedintoregularlyrecurringorroutine，andoccasional。Byroutineservices，Imeanthosewhich，inallthevariousdepartmentsofgovernment，thepublicfunctionariesareboundtoperforminvirtueoftheirrespectiveoffices。

Byoccasionalservices，Imeanthoserequiredbythegovernmentatthehandsofpersonsnotinitsemploy。Theybelongalmostentirelytotheadministrationofjustice，andthatbranchofthepolicewhichisconnectedwithit———asdenouncingandprosecutingcriminals，givingjudicialevidence，andseizingpersonsaccused，&amp；c。Tothesameheadmaybereferredservicesrenderedtoindividualsincaseoffires，inundations，andshipwrecks：inasmuchasthegovernmentisinterestedinthepreservationofeveryindividualinthecommunity，theseservicesmaybeconsideredasrenderedtoit。

Totheheadofextraordinaryservices，maybereferred———Servicesrenderedtothewholecommunitybynewinventions，givingtotheoperationsofgovernment，inanyofitsdifferentbranches，anincreaseddegreeofperfection：suchasimportantimprovementsinmilitaryornavaltactics，fortificationorshipbuilding，&amp；c。；inthemodeofadministeringjustice，regulatingthepoliceorthefinances，orinanyotherpartofthefieldoflegislation。Servicesrenderedintimeofwar，bytheseizureordestructionofobjectscontributingtothepoweroftheenemy，orbythepreservationofsuchasbelongtoone’sowncountry。Servicesrenderedbypersonsexercisingtheofficeofforeignministers，consistinginthepreventionorterminationofthecalamitiesofwar，orinthebringingaboutusefulalliances。Discoveriesofgreatimportancetotheaugmentationofthenationalwealth；

newmethodsofabridginglabour；theintroductionofnewbranchesofindustry&amp；c。Discoveriesinscience，whicharenotsusceptibleofimmediateapplicationtothearts。Nobleactions，anddistinguishedinstancesofvirtue：inconsideringwhich，notonlytheimmediatebenefitshouldberewarded，buttheirinfluenceasexamplesuponthecultivationofsimilarexcellencies。Suchisthefieldofservices；such，therefore，isthefieldofreward。

Withregardtorewards，themostimportantdivisionisintooccasionalandpermanent，thefirstareapplied，accordingtotimesandcircumstances，toasingleindividual，ortoanumberofindividuals，invirtueofsomeinsulatedandspecificservice。Theothersarechargeduponsomegeneralfundprovidedforanindefinitenumberofpersons，andforasuccessionofservices。

Inconsequenceoftheextentandpermanenceoftheireffects，itisprincipallywithregardtothelatterclassofrewardsthatitwillbefoundofimportancetoestablishthetrueprincipleswhichoughttoregulatetheirdistribution。Occasionalrewardsbeingconfinedwithinnarrowerlimits，andtheireffectsmoretransitory，erroneousviewsrespectingthemarecomparativelyoftriflingconsequence。

Themostextensiveuseofthematterofrewardtakesplaceintransactionsbetweenindividuals。Inthecaseofpersonalserviceswhichareperformedinvirtueofcontract，thepaygiventohimbywhomtheyarerendered，ishisreward。Inbuyingandselling，reciprocaldeliveryistherewardforthemutualtransfer。Butthepublic，thatistosay，thegovernmentonaccountofthepublic，hasademandforavarietyofservicesandgoodsexactlysimilartothoseofwhichanindividualstandsinneed：anditisthusthatthemostadvantageousmodeofemployingthematterofreward，evenintheordinarycourseofbusiness，entersintothesphereofpolitics，andclaimstheattentionofthelegislator。

RRBook1Chapter2TheRationaleofRewardBookIOfRewardsinGeneralChapterIIMATTEROFREWARD———SOURCESBetweenthefourobjects———delinquency，punishment，expenditure，andreward，thereisanintimateconnexion。Hewhoknowsthroughthenatureandpossiblemodificationsofanyone，knowsthoroughlythenatureandpossiblemodificationsofalltherest。Whyso？Becausetheyareallofthembutsomanymodificationsofgoodandevil———oftheinstrumentsorcausesofpainandpleasure，consideredinaparticularpointofview。

Whatevermischiefbeingproducedcontrarytothewillofthelegislator，takesthenameofanoffence，thesamewhenproducedinpursuanceofthatwill（soitbewithadirectintentiononhispartthatthepartyshallbeasuffererbyit）takesthenameofpunishment。Rewardistogood，whatpunishmentistoevil：rewardononepartsupposesexpenditureontheother：

whateverisreceivedbyonepartyonthefootingofreward，isexpendedbysomeother：———whenaview，then，isgivenoftheseveralpossiblemodificationsofoffence，aviewisatthesametimegiveninreality，ifnotinname，oftheseveralpossiblemodificationsofreward。

Thismayatfirstsightappearaparadox；butastheabsenceofgoodiscomparativelyanevil，sotheabsenceofeviliscomparativelyagood：thenotion，therefore，ofevil，andofallsortsofevil，isincludedinthenotionofreward。

Theseveralmodificationsofthematterofrewardmaybecomprisedunderfourheads：———1。Thematterofwealth；2。Honour；3。Power；4。Exemptions。Inrespectoftheemploymentofthedirectmodeforaffordingpleasure，itbelongsnotproperlytopolitical，buttodomesticgovernmentoreducation。

1。Thematterofwealth。———Money，ormoney’sworth，isbymuchthemostcommonstuffofwhichrewardsaremade；andingeneralthemostsuitableofwhichtheycanbemade：whyitissowillappearhereafter。

2。Honour。———Honourmaybemadeoutofanystuff。Insomecases，itisproducedbythebearingaparticulartitlenothereditary，———asthenameoftheofficeamanholds。Inothercases，itishereditary，andplacestheindividualsbearingitinadistinctrank，superiortothatoftheotherclasses，———asinthecaseofthenobility。

Inothercases，itisunaccompaniedwithanydistinguishingdenomination，oranyparticulartitle，———asinthecaseofmedals，orpublicthanksconferredafteranygreatvictory，inthenameofthekingandparliament。

Agraduatedscaleofranks，especiallywhenitsgradationsaredeterminedbymerit，anddependuponactualservice，isanexcellentinstitution。Itcreatesanewsourceofhappiness，bymeansofataxuponhonour，almostimperceptibletothosebywhomitispaid：

itaugmentsthesumofhumanenjoyment；itincreasesthepowerofgovernment，byclothingitsauthoritywithbenignity；itopensnewsourcesfortheexerciseofhope，themostpreciousofallpossessions；anditnourishesemulation，themostpowerfulofallincentivestovirtuousactions。Suchagraduatedscaleofrankshasatalltimesbeeninuseinthemilitarybranchofthepublicservice。Butinthiscase，theprincipalobjectisnothonourbutpower：———superiorityinrankisinvariablyaccompaniedbysuperiorityincommand。Thehonourwhichaccompaniesthepowerisbutanaccidentalappendage。

CatherineII。extendedtheapplicationofhisarrangementtothecivilservice。Shedistributedallthepublicofficersinthecivildepartmentintodistinctandevennumericalclasses，correspondingwiththedistributionofrankinthearmy：———secretaries，judges，musicians，academicians，allthecivilfunctionaries，beingadvancedbysteps，aperpetualstateofemulationandofhopestimulatedtheirlaboursthroughoutthewholecourseoftheircareer。Itwasaninventioninpolitics，whichmatchesthemostingeniousdiscoverynartthatthepresentcenturyhaswitnessed。

Atonestroke，withoutviolenceorinjustice，hereditarynobilitywasdeprivedofthegreaterpartofitsinjuriousprerogatives。Theforemostinrankandwealthbeganhiscareerattheloweststep：hisascentthrougheachgradationdependingupontheappointmentofthesovereign，ifwithoutmerit，hewasleftbehind，whilemenofthemostobscurebirthtookprecedenceofhim。Thisenginewasthemorepowerful，fromthegentlenesswithwhichitoperated———thesimplenon—collationofrewardperformingtheofficeofpunishment。

Anotheradvantagegainedbythetransferenceofthedenominationsofthemilitaryranksintothecivilserviceis，thattherespectbornebythemilitarytothecivilfunctionariesisthusinnosmalldegreeincreased。Itisaningeniousartificeforconqueringthebarbarousandabsurdcontemptforcivilfunctionswhichprevailsinallmilitarygovernments。Theassimilationofranksnaturallyleadstotheassimilationofrespect。Fromthetimethatthisarrangementwasmade，thenobilitywereseeneagerlytoengageinoffices，whichbeforetheyhadregardedwithdisdain。

Ordersofknighthoodappearlikefloatingfragmentsdetachedfromsomesuchregularsystemofhonoraryrewards。

Insomestates，anorderofknighthoodbasbeenestablishedunderthetitleof``TheOrderofMerit’’。Itmightbesupposedthatthisorderhadbeenestablishedasajest，bywayofsatireuponallotherorders。Notso，however：whateverridiculetheremaybe，fallsexclusivelyuponthosewhoaremembersofthisorder：ofallordersitistheleastdistinguished；thenobilityarenotcandidatesforadmission———theyconsideritderogatorytotheirbirth。Itisthereward———itmaybepurchasedby，service。

Thehigherranksofknighthood，aretheytobeconsideredasrewards？———aretheypublicrewards？Tothisquestionitappearsdifficulttogiveadecisiveanswer。Theyarebestowedforsogreatavarietyofreasons，thattogiveanydescriptionofthem，whichshallbeapplicabletoallcases，isimpossible。Theyaresometimesgivenfortheperformanceofdistinguishedservices；butmuchmoregenerallytocourtiersandmenofrank，whoarethecompanionsofthesovereign，toincreasethesplendourofhiscourt。Inthesecases，themeritprovedis，thattheindividualhasmadehimselfagreeabletothesovereign。Butifpersonsthusdecoratedclaimdistinctionsnotbelongingtoothermembersofthecommunity，———ifeveryonemustyieldthemprecedence，oughtnotsomepublicreasontobegivenforcreatingthissuperiority———forthiscomparativedegradationofthelargestportionofthecommunity？Oughtsuchdraftsupontherespectofthepublictobedrawninfavourofanindividual，tillithasbeenshownthathehasrenderedservicestoentitlehimtothisspecialhomage？

Whenthusconferred，isnotaresourcethatmightyieldimportantfruitsemployedwithbadeconomy？Weshallreturntothissubject。

3。Power。———Theprincipleswhichoughttoregulatethedistributionofthisgreatobjectofhumandesire，belongtotheheadofconstitutionallaw，ratherthantoourpresentsubject。

Poweriscreatedforapurposealtogetherdifferentfromthatofservingasmatterofreward。Meritisnottheonlyconsiderationbywhichitsdistributionmustbegoverned。

Underamonarchicalgovernment，forexample，theinconveniencesattendingtheelectionofakingmaybesoserious，thatthesupremepoweroughttobeattachedtosomequalificationmoremanifestandindispensablethanthepersonalmeritofanindividual。Inamixedgovernment，also，inwhichthereisachiefmagistrate，andabodyofhereditarynoblesinvestedwithcertainpowers，itmaybethoughtproperthatthisbodyshouldbecomposedofmanymembers：butthemorenumerous，thelesssusceptibleisitofthatsortofselectionwhichsupposesineachindividualdistinguishedmerit。

Thusfar，however，wemaydetermineingeneral，viz。thatpower，whereveritcanbeemployedwithoutinconvenienceasmatterofreward，oughttobesoemployed。

Inthususingit，thedifficultyistoselectanyactoreventthatshallserveasevidenceofthecapacityofindividua]sforexercisingthepowerwithwhichtheymaycometobeinvested。Inpublicemployments，forexample，howvariousarethetalentsrequired，forthepossessionofwhichnosingleactcanbeconsideredassatisfactoryevidence！

Werethisnotthecase，thegreaternumberofpublicemploymentsmightbeconferredasrewardsfortheperformanceofsomedeterminateservice，respectivelyrelatingtothem。

IntheGazette，noticesmightbegiven，couchedinthefollowingterms：———``Whoeverproducesthemostperfectdie，shallbeplacedattheheadoftheMint。’’———``Whoeverproducesamodelofthemostserviceablepieceofartillery，shallbeplacedattheheadoftheOrdnance。’’———``Hewhoconstructstheswiftestsailingvessel，unitedwiththemostperfectmeansofattackanddefence，shallbeplacedattheheadofthenavalarchitecture。’’———``Theauthorwhowritesthebesttreatiseuponcommerce，finances，ortheartofwar，shallbeplacedattheheadoftheBoardofTrade，shallbefirstLordoftheTreasury，orCommander—in—Chief，respectively。Hewhowritesthebesttreatiseonthelaws，shallbemadeChancellor。’’

Atfirstview，nothingcanbemorecaptivatingthansuchaplan；butupontheslightestexamination，itwillbefoundmorespeciousthansolid。Why？Becauseitisbynomeansuncommonforamanwhoisinaneminentdegreeendowedwithoneofthequalitiesrequisite，tobealtogetherdestituteofotherequallyindispensable。

Thereare，besides，casesinwhicheventhisimperfectmodeofproofisaltogetherwanting。Duringalongperiodoftranquillity，bywhatdescribableservicecanamilitarymandisplayhistalentsforcommand？Amongthequalitiesmostessentialforsuchaduty，arepresenceofmind，enlargedviews，foresight，activity，courage，perseverance，personalinfluence，&amp；c。&amp；c。Bywhatspecificactcananofficerwhohasseennoservice，showhimselftobepossessedofanyofthesequalifications？

Wearereduced，then，tomereconjecture。Thebestfoundedopinionsaredrawnfromhishabitsoflife，hisattachmenttohisprofession，andabovealltheconfidencereposedinhimbythosewhoareengagedinthesameprofession，whoseopinionisfoundeduponamultiplicityofacts，whichintheaggregateconstitutehischaracter。

Discernment，ortheartofjudgingofindividualcapacity，isararequality，whoseuseitisimpossibletosupersedebygeneralrules。

Aslightadvancemightperhapsbemadeinthisdifficultart，didwepossessacatalogueoftheindicationsoftalentsorcapacity，asapplicabletothevariousdepartmentsofstate。

4。Exemptions。———Thelegislatorcreatestwosortsofevils：heappointspunishmentforoffences；heimposesburthensomedutiesuponthevariousmembersofthecommunity。Henceexemptionsmaybeoftwokinds：exemptionsfrompunishmenta1readyincurred；exemptionsfromcivilburthens。

Anexemptionfrompunishmentalreadyincurred，isapardon。Pardonshaveoftenbeengiveninthewayofreward，thatis，inconsiderationofformerservices。Suchactscannotbeforeseenandprovidedforbyanticipation：theyaretheresultofthediscretionentrustedonthisbehalftothesovereign。

UndertheEnglishlaw，however，thereareinstancesinwhich，byanticipation，exemptionfrompunishmentisgranted；thatistosay，beforethepunishmentisinflicted。Thus，fromthepolicyorweaknessofthetemporalsovereign，theEnglishclergyobtainedintimesofbarbarismanexemptioninallcasesfromcapitalandseveralotherkindsofpunishment：anexemptionwhichbeingbystatutelawconfined，inregardtocausesontheonehand，whilebycommonlawitwasextended，withregardtopersonsontheother，hasleftthispartofthepenalbranchofthelawintheconfusionunderwhichitstilllabours。[3]

Thenobilityfollowedtheexampleoftheclergy。

InalmosteverycountryofEuropetheyhavefoundthemselvesinvestedwithexemptionsofthisnature。AncientRomesettheexample。Nocitizencouldbeputtodeath：Verres，convictedofthemostatrociouscrimes，atonedforthembyenjoyingatdistancefromRomethefruitsofhisplunder。

WhenCatherineII。，empressofRussia，convenedtogetherdeputiesfromalltheprovincesofthatimmenseempire，underthepretenceoftheirassistingherintheformationofacodeoflaws（asortofparodyofthelegislativeassembliesoffreestates，whichwasnothoweverwithoutitsuse，insofarasitcontributedtothespreadofenlightenedideas，）sheconferreduponthem，amongstotherprivileges，anexemptionfromallcorporalpunishment，casesofhightreasonexcepted。

Thisspeciesofdistinction，whichasarewardforlegislators，couldscarcelybeimaginedinanyotherstatethanonejustemergingfromastateofbarbarism，haddoubtlessforitsobjecttheincreasingtheirselfimportance，andtheconferringuponthemasortofrankwhichshouldlastbeyondthedurationoftheirduties。

Asamanmaybepunishedinhisperson，hisreputation，hisproperty，———inlikemanner，throughnecessity，andwiththeviewofpunishinghim，hemaybeburthened。Anexemptionfromaburthenisanexemptionfromtheobligationofrenderingservice：servicesareeitherservicesofsubmission，intherenderingofwhichthewillofthepartyhasnoshare———orservicesofbehaviour。

Ofexemptionfromservicesofsubmission，notexactedinthewayofpunishment，weshallnotfindagreatvarietyofexamples。

InGreatBritain，membersoftheupperhouseofParliamentandotherpeersconstantly，andmembersofthelowerhouseatcertainperiods，areexemptedfromarrests：thisprivilegetheymaybeconsideredasenjoyingpartlyonthegroundsofsatisfaction，partlythattheymaynothedivertedfromtheexerciseoftheirfunctions，andpartlybecause，beingmembersofthesovereignbody，theywouldhaveitso。

Amongservicesperformedbyaction，aresomewhichmaybestyledservicesofrespect。ItisaserviceofrespectexactedbyusageineverykingdominEuropenottowearahat，orwhatisequivalent，inthepresenceoftheking。InSpain，somefamiliesamongthenobilityenjoytheprivilegeofremainingcoveredinthepresenceoftheking。InIreland，theheadofonefamily（thefamilyoftheDeCourcys，earlsofKinsale）enjoysthelikeexemption，usarewardforsomeservicerenderedbyanancestor。

ByaBritishstatute，hewhoapprehendsandprosecutestoconvictionacriminalofacertaindescription，receivedamongstotherrewardsanexemptionfromparishoffices，togetherwiththeprivilegeoftransferring1gthatexemptiontoanother。

ByotherBritishstatutes，personswhohavebornearmsforacertainlengthoftimeintheserviceofthestate，wereexemptedfromtheobligationofthoselawswhich，lestindustryshouldbetoocommon，forbadeamanfromworkingforhisownbenefitatatradeatwhichhehadnotworkedsevenyearsforthebenefitofanother。

Therearevariousotherexemptionsofthesamenature：butastheobjecthereisnottogiveanexhaustiveviewoftheseseveralexemptions，butmerelyafewinstancestoservobywayofexample，theabovespecimensmaysuffice。

Onegeneralobservationappliestoallcasesofexemptionsfromgeneralobligationsimposedbylaw：itis———thatthemoreseverethelaw，themoreabundant，asdrawnfromthissource，isthefundofreward。Itmaybecreatedbyamereactofrestitutionbytherenderingofjustice：tosomemaybegivenwhatoughttobeleftforall：conditionsmaybeannexedtowhatoughttobegivengratuitously。Thegreaterthemassofinjusticeinflicted，thegreatertheopportunityforgenerosityindetail。Theoppressivegovernmentofonesovereignisamineofgoldtohissuccessor。Inthechurch，itisthegoodworksoftheirpredecessors———inthestate，itistheirbadworks，thatincreasethetreasureoftheirsuccessorsInRussiaandinPoland，emancipationisaverydistinguishedreward。A

tyrantmayrewardbydoinglessmischief。

Onewordonthelast，articleofreward———Pleasures。

Punishmentmaybeappliedinallshapestoallpersons。Pleasure，however，inthehandsofthelegislator，isnotequallymanageable：pleasurecanbegivenonlybygivingthemeansbywhichitispurchased———thatistosay，thematterofwealthwhicheveryonemayemployinhisownway。

Amongcertainbarbarousorhalf—civilisednations，theservicesoftheirwarriorshavebeenrewardedbythefavoursofwomen。Helvetiusappearstosmilewithapprobationatthismodeofexcitingbravery。ItwasperhapsMontesquieuthatledhimintothiserror。InspeakingoftheSamnites，amongwhomtheyoungmandeclaredthemostworthyselectedwhomsoeverhepleasedforhiswife，headds，thatthiscustomwascalculatedtoproducemostbeneficialeffects。

Philosophersdistinguishedfortheirhumanity———bothofthemgoodhusbandsandgoodfathers，bothofthemeloquentagainstslavery，howcouldtheyspeakinpraiseofalawwhichsupposestheslaveryofthebesthalfofthehumanspecies？———howcouldtheyhaveforgottenthatfavoursnotprecededbyanuncontrouledchoice，andwhichtheheartperhapsrepelledwithdisgust，affordedthespectacleratherofthedegradationofwomanthantherewardingahero？Thewarrior，surroundedbypalmsofhonour，couldhedescendtoactthepartofaravisher？Andifhedisdainedthisbarbarousright，wasnothisgenerosityasatireonthelaw？

Voltairerelateswithgreatsimplicity，thatatthefirstrepresentationofoneofhistragedies，theaudience，whosawtheauthorinaboxwithanextremelybeautifulyoungduchess，requiredthatsheshouldgivehimakiss，bywayofacknowledgingthepublicgratitude。

Thevictim，apartakerinthegeneralenthusiasm，feltapparentlynorepugnancetomakingthesacrifice：and，withouttheinterventionofthemagistrate，wemaytrusttotheenthusiasmofthesex，andtheirpassionfordistinction，forpreferencesthatmayanimatecourageandgeniusintheircareer。

RRBook1Chapter3TheRationaleofRewardBookIOfRewardsinGeneralChapterIIIREWARDANDPUNISHMENTSCOMBINEDTherearesomecasesinwhichitwouldbeimpropertoemployeitherrewardorpunishmentalone。Theyarethoseinwhichthetwoforcesmaywithadvantagebeunited———inwhichthelegis1atorsaystothecitizen，obey，andyoushallreceiveacertainreward；disobey，audyoushallsufferacertainpunishment。

Thetwomodesmaybeproperlyunitedwhentheservicerequiredbythelawdependsforitsperformanceuponasmallnumberofpersons，inavirtueofthepeculiarcircumstancesinwhichtheyhappenedtobeplaced。If，forexample，theobjectbethesecuringadelinquentatthemomentthatheisabouttocommitanoffence，toinformagainsthimortoprosecutehim———itwillbefoundexpedient，inordertoensuretherenderingofsuchservices，tocombinewitharewardfortheirperformance，punishmentfortheiromission。

Insuchcases，punishmentisusefulintwoways：

besidetheeffectproducedbyitsownforce，italsosustainsthevalueofthereward。Thereisaverystrongprejudiceinthepublicmindagainstpersonswhoacceptpecuniaryrewardfortheperformanceofsuchservices；

butwhenapenalmotiveisadded，thepublicresentmentisabated，ifnotaltogetherremoved。Theprosecutionofacriminalforthesakeofthepecuniarybenefitderivablefromit，isgenerallyregardedasdiscreditable；buthewhoundertakestheprosecutiontoavoidbeinghimselfpunishedwillbeconsideredatleastasexcusable。Thedesireofself—preservationiscalledanaturalpropensity；thatistosay，isregardedwithapprobation。

Thedesireofgainisapropensitynotlessnatural；butinthiscase，althoughmoreuseful，itisnotregardedwiththesameapprobationThisisamischievousprejudice：butitexists，anditisthereforenecessarytocombatitsinfluence。Wemusttreatopinionsaswefindthem，andnotactasthoughtheywerewhattheyoughttobe。Thisisnottheonlyinstanceinwhichitisnecessarytoputaconstraintuponmen’sinclinations，thattheymaybeatlibertytofollowthem。

Aninstanceofthejudiciousmixtureofrewardandpunishmentisfurnishedbythepracticepursuedinmanyschools，calledchallenging。Allthescholarsinthesameclasshavingrangedthemselvesaroundthemaster，hewhostandsattheheadoftheclassbeginstheexercise：

doeshemakeamistake，thenexttohiminsuccessioncorrectshimandtakeshisplace；doesthesecondnotperceivethemistake，orisheunabletocorrectit，theprivilegedevolvesuponthethird；andsooftherest；———thepossessionofthefirstplaceentitlingtheholdertocertainflatteringmarksofdistinction。

Thetwoincitementsareinthiscasemostcarefullycombined：punishmentforthemistake，lossofrank；rewardfortheinformer，acquisitionofthatsamerank；punishmentfornotinforming，lossofrankthesameasfortheoffenceitself。

If，undertheordinarydisciplineofschools，inthecasewherethescholarhasnonaturalinterestwhichshouldinducehimtopointoutthemistakesofhisassociate，itwereattemptedtoproducethesechallengesbytheforceofrewardalone，theopinionwhichthegeneralinterestwouldcreatewouldopposeanobstacletothereceptionofthereward，mostdifficulttobeovercome：butwhentheyoungcompetitorshavetosayintheirdefence，thattheyhavedepressedtheirneighbourmerelytoavoidbeingdepressedthemselves，theyarerelievedfromallpretenceforreproach；everyonewithouthesitationabandonshimselftothesuggestionsofhisambition，and，underthesanctionofthelaw，honourcombatswithunrestrainedimpetuosity。

Thisingeniousexpedientforexcitingemulationisoneamongtheotheradvantagesofanumerousclass。Intheprivateplanofeducation，thereareseldomactorsinsufficientnumberfortheperformanceofthiscomedy。Themostfavourableopportunitiesforlegislationarethoseinwhichthetwomethodsaresocombined，thatthepunishmentimmediatelyfollowstheomissionoftheduty，andtherewarditsperformanceThisarrangementpresentstheideaofabsoluteperfection。Why？Becausetoalltheforceofthepunishmentisunitedalltheattractivenessandcertaintyofthereward。

Ihavesaidcertainty：butthisrequirestobeexplained。Denounceapunishmentforsuchorsuchacts：theonlyindividualwhocannotfailtoknowwhetherornothehasincurredthepunishment，isinterestedinconcealinghishavingincurredit。Ontheotherhand，offerareward，andthesameindividualfindshimselfinterestedinproducingthenecessaryproofsforestablishinghistitletoit。Thusavarietyofcausescontributetothefailureofpunishment———theartificesofthepersoninterested，theprejudicesagainstinformers，thelossorfailureofevidence，thefallibilityormistakenhumanityofjudges———whiletotheattainmentofrewardnosuchobstaclesoccur：itoperates，then，uponalloccasions，withthewholeofitsforceandcertainty。

Beforeacelebratedlaw，whichweowetoMr。Burke，thelordsofthetreasurywerecharged，astheystillare，withthepaymentofthesalariesofcertainofthepublicservants。Justicerequiredthatallshouldbepaidinthesameproportionasfundsforthatpurposewerereceived。Butnolawwasasyetinforcetosupportthisprinciple。Asmightnaturallybeexpected，allsortsofpreferenceshadplace：theypaidtheirfriendsfirst，anditcannotbesupposedtheyforgotthemselves。

Whenthefundssetaparttothisservicewereinsufficient，thelessfavouredclasssuffered。Thedelaysofpaymentoccasionedcontinualcomplaints。

Howwouldanordinarylegislatorhaveacted？Hewouldhaveenactedthateveryoneshouldbepaidinproportiontothereceipts；andthathisregulationsmightnotbewantinginform，hewouldhaveaddedadirectpunishmentforitsbreach，withoutinquiringifitwereeasytobeeludedornot。Mr。

Burkeacteddifferently：hearrangedthedifferentofficersinclasses；

hepreparedatableofpreference，inwhichtheorderistheinverseofthecreditwhichtheymightbesupposedtopossess。Thenoblelords，withtheprimeministerattheirhead，bringuptherear，andareprohibitedfromtouchingasingleshillingoftheirpay，tillthelowestscullionhasreceivedeverypennyofhis。

Hadhepermittedthesegreatofficerstopaythemselves，andprescribedhistableofpreferencefortherest，underthepenaltyoflosingapartoftheirsalaries，whatembarrassment，whatdifficulties，whatdelays！——Whowouldundertaketheodioustaskofinformer？Howmanypretencesofjustificationwouldtheynothavehad？Whowouldharedaredtoattacktheministers？InthisarrangementofMr。Burke，tilltheyhavefulfilledtheirduty，theylosetheenjoymentofalltheirsalary；theyloseitwithoutinquiryandwithoutembarrassment。Thusrenderedconditional，theirsalarybecomesinrealitytherecompenceoftheirregularityinpayingtheothers。

Theadvantagesofthisinventionmaybethussummedup。Theirsalary，dependsupontheperformanceoftheservice，isnolongerabarrengratification，butareallyproductivereward。Themotivehasalltheforcebelongingtopunishment：bythesuspensionofpayment，itoperatesasafine。Itpossessesallthecertaintyofareward：

therighttoreceivefollowsthecompletionoftheservice，withoutanyjudicialprocedure。

RRBook1Chapter4TheRationaleofRewardBookIOfRewardsinGeneralChapterIVTHEUNIONOFINTERESTWITHDUTY，ANDOFSELF—EXECUTINGLAWSWhathasbeensaidintheprecedingchapterwillservetoelucidatethemeaningoftheabovetwoexpressions，which，thoughinfamiliarusewithpoliticalwriters，haveneveryetbeencompletelyexplained。

Thelegislatorshould，saythey，endeavourtouniteinterestwithduty：thisaccomplished，theyconsiderperfectionasattained。

Buthowisthisuniontobebroughtabout？———whatconstitutesit？Tocreateadutyandaffixapunishmenttotheviolationofit，istouniteaman’sinterestwithhisduty，andeventouniteitmorestronglythanbyanyprospectofreward。Butthisisnotuniversallyatleastwhattheymean；

forifpunishmentaloneweresufficientfortheestablishmentofthedesiredconnexionbetweeninterestandduty，whatlegislatoristherewhowouldfailinitsaccomplishment？———whatwouldtherebetoboastofinacontrivancewhichsurpassesnottheingenuityofthemostclumsypolitician？

Inthisphrase，bythewordinterest，pleasureorprofitisunderstood：theideadesignedtobeexpressedis，theexistenceofsuchaprovisioninthelaw，asthatconformitytoitshallbeproductiveofcertainbenefitswhichwillceaseofthemselvessosoonasthelawceasestobeobserved。

Inaword，theunioninquestionisproducedwheneversuchaspeciesofinterestcanbeformedasshallcombinetheforcewhichispeculiartopunishmentwiththecertaintywhichispeculiartoreward。

Thisconnexionbetweendutyandinterestistoahighdegreeattainedinthecaseofpensionsandplacesheldduringpleasure。

Letussuppose，forexample，thatthecontinuanceofthepensionismadetodependupontheholder’spayingatalltimesabsoluteobediencetothewillofhissuperior。Thepensionerceasestogivesatisfaction；thepensionceases。Therearenoneoftheembarrassmentsanduncertaintiesattendantonordinaryprocedure；therearenocomplaintsofdisobediencemadeagainstpersonsthuscircumstanced。Itisagainsttheextremeefficacyofthisplan，ratherthanagainstitsweakness，thatcomplaintsareheard。

Insomecountries，bytherevenuelaws，andparticularlyinthecaseofthecustomhouseduties，itisnotuncommontoallowtheofficers，asarewardaportionofthegoodsseizedbythemintheactofbeingsmuggledThisistheonlymodethathasappearedeffectuallytocombatthetemptationstowhichtheyareperpetuallyexposed。Thepricewhichitwouldbeworthwhileforindividualstooffertotheofficersforconnivance，canscarcelyequal，uponanaveragetheadvantagetheyderivefromtheperformanceoftheirduty。Sofarfromtherebeinganyapprehensionoftheirbeingremissinitsdischarge，wheneveryinstanceofneglectisfollowedbyimmediatepunishment，thedangeris，lesttheyshouldbeledtoexceedtheirduty，andtheinnocentshouldbeexposedtosuspicionandvexation。

Thelegislatorshouldenactlawswhichwillexecutethemselves。Whatistobeunderstoodbythis？Speakingwithprecision，nolawcanexecuteitselfInastateofinsulation，alawisinoperative：toproduceitsdesiredeffects，itmustbesupportedandenforcedbysomeotherlaw，which，initsturn，requiresforitssupporttheassistanceofotherlaws。Itisthusthatabodyoflawsformsagroup，orratheracircle，inwhicheachisreciprocallysupportedandsupports。Whenitissaid，therefore，thatthelawexecutesitself，itisnotmeantthatitcansubsistwithouttheassistanceofotherlaws，butthatitsprovisionsaresoarrangedthatpunishmentimmediatelyfollowsitsviolation，unaidedbyanyformofprocedure；thattooneoffence，anothermoreeasilysusceptibleofproof，ormoreseverelypunished，issubstituted。

Mr。Burke’slaw，whichhasalreadybeenmentioned，isjustlyentitledtoberankedunderthishead。Theclausewhichforbidstheministersandtreasurerstopaythemselvestillallotherpersonshavebeenpaid，possessesineffectthepropertiesofapunishmentannexedtoanyretardationofpayments———apunishmentwhichcommenceswiththeoffence，whichlastsaslongastheoffence，whichisinflictedwithoutneedofprocedure；inaword，apunishment，theimpositionofwhichdoesnotrequiretheinterventionofanythirdperson。

Beforethepassingofthislaw，largearrearsonthecivillistwereallowedtoaccumulate：theiraccumulationborethecharactermerelyofasimpleactofomission，whichcouldnotbeclassedunderanyparticularheadofoffence，andtheevilofwhichmightmoreoverbepalliatedbyathousandpretexts。Afterthepassingofthislaw，theministers，itistrue，mightstill，inspiteofthelaw，continuetogivetothemselvesapreferenceovertheothercreditorsonthecivillist———thereisnophysicalforceotherthanexistedbeforetopreventthem：butinvirtueofthislaw，anysuchpreferencewouldbeapalpableoffence———aspeciesofpeculationwhichwouldbestronglyreprobatedbypublicopinion。

Anotherexampleisfurnishedbythelawsrespectingthepaymentofstampduties———Theselawsarerepresentedasamongthenumberofthosewhichexecutethemselves，andarepanegyrizedaccordingly。Thisistruewithregardtosomuchofthesetaxesasislevieduponcontractsandlawproceedings。Letusexplaintheirmechanism。Thesanctiongiventoprivatecontracts，andtheprotectionaffordedbythelawtopersonandproperty，areserviceswhichthepublicreceivesatthehandsoftheministersofjustice。Themethodinwhichtheseduties，then，arelevied，isthis：theseservicesareatfirstrefusedtoallpersonswithoutexception；

theyarethenofferedtoallpersonswhoatthepricesetuponthem，havethemeansandinclinationtobecomepurchasers。Thusaprotection，whichmightbeconsideredasadebtduefromthestatetoallitssubjects，isconvertedintoareward，bymeansoftheprecedentconditionannexedtoit。Thisisnotthetimeforexaminingwhetherthisduty，whichpalpablyamountstothesellingofjustice，isajudicioustax：allthatisherenecessarytobeobservedis，thatthepaymentisinsuredbythesecurityitaffords，andthedangerwithwhichtheomissionisaccompanied。

Torangeoverthewholefieldoflegislation，inordertoascertainthedifferenteasesinwhichthisspeciesofpoliticalmechanismhasbeenemployed，orinwhichitmightbeintroducedwithadvantage，doesnotbelongtoourpresentsubject：———generaldirectionsmighteasilybeframedfortheconstructionofself—executinglaws，andtheirapplicationmightoccupyaplacein``Therecreationsoflegislation’’。

RRBook1Chapter5TheRationaleofRewardBookIOfRewardsinGeneralChapterVMATTEROFREWARD———REASONSFORHUSBANDINGIfitbepropertobefrugalinthedistributionofpunishment，itisnolesspropertobesointhedistributionofreward。

Evilisinflictedinbothcases。Thedifferenceis，thatpunishmentisaneviltohimtowhomitisapplied———reward，tohimatwhoseexpenseitisapplied。Thematterofreward，andthematterofpunishment，springfromthesameroot。Ismoneybestowedasareward？Suchmoneycanonlyarisefromtaxes，ororiginalrevenue———canonlybebestowedatthepublicexpense：———truthssoobvious，thatproofisunnecessary；butwhichoughtonalloccasionstoberecollected，since，allothercircumstancesbeingequal，topayataxtoagivenamountisagreaterevilthantoreceiveitisgood。

Rewards，consistinginhonour，itiscommonlysaid，costnothing。Thisis，however，amistake。Honoursnotonlyenhancethepriceofservices；（asweshallpresentlysee，）theyalsooccasionexpensesandburthenswhichcannotbeestimatedinmoney。Thereisnohonourwithoutpre—eminence：if，then，oftwopersons，forexample，whoareequal，oneprofitsbybeingmadethehigher，theothersuffersinatleastequalproportionbybeingmadethelowerofthetwo。Withregardtohonourswhichconferrankandprivileges，therearecommonlytwosetsofpersonsatwhoseexpensehonourisconferred：thepersonsfromamongstwhomthenewdignitaryistaken，andthepersons，ifany，towhomheisaggregatedbyhiselevation。Thusthegreatertheadditionmadetothenumberofpeers，themoretheirimportanceisdiminished———thegreateristhedefalcationmadefromthevalueoftheirrank。

Thecaseissimilarwithrewardtopower。

Itisbytakingawaylibertyorsecurity，thatpowerisconferred；andtheshareofeachmanistheless，thegreaterthenumberofco—partnersinit。Thepowerconferredinanycasemustheeitherneworold：ifnew，itisconferredattheexpenseofthosewhoaresubjecttoit；ifold，attheexpenseofthosebywhomitwasformerlyexercised。

Exemptionsgiveninthewayofrewardmayappearatfirstsightbutlittleexpensive。Thismaybeonereasonwhytheyhavebeensoliberallygrantedbyshortsightedsovereigns。Itoughthowevertoberecollected，thatinthecaseofpublicburthens，theexemptionofoneincreasestheburthenontheremainder：ifitbehonourabletobeexemptedfromthem，itbecomesadisgracetobearthem，andsuchpartialexemptionsatlengthgivebirthtogeneraldiscontent。

Theexemptionfromarrestfordebt，enjoyedbymembersofparliamentsarearewardconferredattheexpenseoftheircreditors。

Exemptionsfromparishofficesandmilitaryservicesarerewardsconferredattheexpenseofthosewhoareexposedtothechanceofbearingthem。

Theburthenofexemptionsfromtaxesfallsuponthosewhocontributetotheexigenciesofthestate。

Aprivilegetocarryon，inconcurrencewithalimitednumberofotherpersons，aparticularbranchoftruce，isanexemptionfromtheexclusionwhichpersonsingeneralarelaidunderwithreferencetothattrade：thefavourisshownattheexpenseofthepersonswhoaresharersintheprivilege。

Iftherebeaninstanceinwhichanymodificationofthematterofrewardcouldbeconferredwithoutexpense，itwillbefoundamongthosewhichconsistinexemptionfrompunishment。Whenanexemptionofthissortisconferred，theexpenseofit，iftherebeany，isbornebythosewhoareinterestedintheinflictionofthepunishment；thatis，bythoseinwhosefavourthelawwasmade，whichthepunishmentwasintendedtoenforce。Butif，bytheimpunitygiven，thesanctionofthelawsbeweakened，andcrimesconsequentlymultiplied，thepardongrantedtocriminalsisdearlypaidforbytheirvictims。

Theevilofprodigalityisnotconfinedtothediminishingthefundofreward：itoperatesasalawagainstrealmerit。

Ifrewardsarcbestoweduponpretendedservices，suchpretendedservicesenterintocompetitionwithrealservices，Hesucceedsbest，whoaims，nottoentitlehimselftothegratitudeofthepeople，buttocaptivatethegoodwillofhimatwhosedisposalthefundofrewardisplaced。Obsequiousnessandcourtlyvicestriumphovervirtueandgenius。Theartofpleasingiselevatedattheexpenseoftheartofserving。

Whatistheconsequence？Realservicesarenotperformed，ortheyarepurchasedatextravagantprices。Itidnotsufficientthatthepricepaidforthembeequaltothatofthefalseservices：beyondthis，theremustbeasurplustocompensatethelabourwhichrealservicesrequire。``Ifsomuchisgiventoonewhohasdonenothing，howmuchmoreisduetome，whohavebornetheheatandtheburthenoftheday？———ifparasitesarethusrewarded，howmuchmoreisduetomytalentsandindustry？’’，Suchisthelanguagewhichwillnaturallybeemployed，andnotwithoutreason，bythemanofconsciousmerit。

Itisthusthattheamountoftheevilisperpetuallyaccumulating。Thegreatertheamountalreadylavished，thegreaterthedemandforstillfurtherprodigality；asinthecaseofpunishment，themoreprofuselyithasbeendealtout，thegreateroftentimesistheneedofemployingstillmore。

Whenbythedisplayofextraordinaryzealanddistinguishedtalents，apublicfunctionaryhasrenderedgreatservicestohiscountry，———toassociatehimwiththecrowdofordinarysubordinates，istodegradehim。

Hewillfeelinrespectofthefundofreward，inthesamemannerasthedisposerofitoughttohavefelt。Hewillconsiderhimselfinjured，notonlywhenanythingisrefusedtohim，butwhenanythingisbestoweduponthosewhohavenotdeservedit。

Aprofusedistributionofhonoursisattendedwithadoubleinconvenience：inthefirstplaceitdeterioratesthestock；andinthenext，itisproductiveofgreatpecuniaryexpense。Whenapeerage，forexample，isconferred，itisgenerallynecessarytoaddtoitapension，underthenotionofenablingthebearertosustainitsdignity。

Itisthusthattheexistenceofanhereditarynobilitytendstoincreasethepricenecessarytohepaidintheshapeofreward。Hasaplebeianrenderedsuchservicestohiscountryascannotbepassedbywithneglect，thefirstoperationistodistinguishhimfrommenofhisownrank，byplacinghimamongthenobility。Butwithoutfortune，apeerageisaburthen；tomakeitworthhaving，itmustbeaccompaniedwithpecuniaryreward：theimmediatepaymentofalargesumwouldbetooburthensome；posterityisthereforemadetobearaportionoftheburthen。

Itistrue，posterityoughttopayitsshareinthepriceofservicesofwhichitreapsashareoftheadvantage。Buttheamebenefitmightbeprocuredatalewexpense：iftherewerenohereditarynobility，personalnobilitywouldanswereverypurpose。AmongtheGreeks，abranchfromapinetree，ahandfulofbarley，———amongtheRomans，afewlaurelleaves，orearsofcorn，———weretherewardsofheroes。

FortunateAmericans！fortunateonsomanyaccounts，iftopossesshappiness，itweresufficienttopossesseverythingbywhichitisconstituted，thisadvantageisstillyours！———Preserveitforever：

bestowrewards，erectstatues，confereventitles，sothattheybepersonalalone；butneverbindthecrownofmerituponthebrowofsloth。

Suchisthelanguageofthosepassionateadmirersofmeritwhowouldgladlyseeagenerousemulationburninginullranksofthecommunity———whoconsidereverythingwastedwhichisnotemployedinitspromotion。Cananythingberepliedtothem？Iftherecan，itcanonlybebythosewho，jealousofthepublictranquillityasnecessarytotheenjoymentsofluxury，andmorealarmedatthefollywhichknowsnorestraintthanattheselfishnesswhichmaybeconstrainedtoregulateitself，wouldhave，atanyprice，aclassofpersonswhomayimposetranquillityuponthosewhocanneverbetaught。

Insomestatesthestrictestfrugalityisobservedinthedistributionofrewards：suchingeneralhasbeenthecaseunderrepublicangovernments；thoughitistrue，thatevenindemocracies，historyfurnishesinstancesofthemostextravagantprodigalityandcorruption。

Thespeciesofrewardbestowedbythepeopleupontheirfavouriteswiththeleastexamination，ispower———agiftmorepreciousanddangerousthantitlesofhonourorpecuniaryrewards。Themaxim，Woetothegratefulnation！isaltogetherdevoidofmeaning，unlessitbedesignedasawarningagainstthisdispositionofthepeopletoconferunlimitedauthorityuponthosewhoforamomentobtaintheirconfidence。

Afterhavingsaidthusmuchinfavourofeconomy，itmustnotbedeniedthatspeciouspretencesmaybeurgedinjustificationofaliberaluseofrewards。

Thatportionofthematterofrewardwhichissuperfluouslyemployeditissaid，maybeconsideredasthefundofaspeciesoflottery。

Atacomparativelysmallexpense，alargemassofexpectationiscreated，andprizesareofferedwhicheverymanmayflatterhimselfwiththehopeofobtaining。Andwhatarealltheothersourcesofenjoyment，whenputincompetitionwithhope？Butcansuchreasonsjustifytheimpositionorcontinuanceoftaxeswithnootherviewthanthatofincreasingtheamountofthodisposablefundofreward？Certainlynot。Itwouldbeabsurdthustocreatearealevil———thustopillagethemultitudeofwhattheyhaveearnedbythesweatoftheirbrow，tomultiplytheenjoymentsofthewealthy。

Inaword，whatevermaybethoughtofthislottery，wemustnotforgetthatitsprizesmustbedrawnbeforewecanobtainanyusefulservices。

Totheindividualhimself，activeismoreconducivetohishappinessthanidlehope：theonedevelopshistalents，theotherrendersthemobtuse；

thefirstisnaturallyalliedtovirtue，thesecondtovice。

InEngland，reasons，oratleastpretexts，havebeenfoundforthearbitrarydisposalofrewards，whichwouldnotexistunderanabsolutemonarchy。Theconstitutionofparliamentgivesoccasiontotheperformanceofservicesofsuchanatureascannotbeacknowledged，butwhichintheeyesofmanypoliticiansarenotthelessnecessary。A

certainquantityoftalentisrequisite，itissaid，tosavethepoliticalvesselfrombeingupsetbyanymomentaryturbulenceorwhimofthepeople。

【推荐阅读】幽幽深宫，醒来一梦似千年，重生于下堂妃身躯中的她，将如何手刃仇人? 点击阅读