Ifhesawtwotruthsthatseemedtocontradicteachother，hewouldtakethetwotruthsandthecontradictionalongwiththem。

Hisspiritualsightisstereoscopic，likehisphysicalsight：

heseestwodifferentpicturesatonceandyetseesallthebetterforthat。Thushehasalwaysbelievedthattherewassuchathingasfate，butsuchathingasfreewillalso。Thushebelievedthatchildrenwereindeedthekingdomofheaven，butneverthelessoughttobeobedienttothekingdomofearth。Headmiredyouthbecauseitwasyoungandagebecauseitwasnot。Itisexactlythisbalanceofapparentcontradictionsthathasbeenthewholebuoyancyofthehealthyman。Thewholesecretofmysticismisthis：

thatmancanunderstandeverythingbythehelpofwhathedoesnotunderstand。Themorbidlogicianseekstomakeeverythinglucid，andsucceedsinmakingeverythingmysterious。Themysticallowsonethingtobemysterious，andeverythingelsebecomeslucid。

Thedeterministmakesthetheoryofcausationquiteclear，andthenfindsthathecannotsay"ifyouplease"tothehousemaid。

TheChristianpermitsfreewilltoremainasacredmystery；butbecauseofthishisrelationswiththehousemaidbecomeofasparklingandcrystalclearness。Heputstheseedofdogmainacentraldarkness；

butitbranchesforthinalldirectionswithaboundingnaturalhealth。

Aswehavetakenthecircleasthesymbolofreasonandmadness，wemayverywelltakethecrossasthesymbolatonceofmysteryandofhealth。Buddhismiscentripetal，butChristianityiscentrifugal：

itbreaksout。Forthecircleisperfectandinfiniteinitsnature；

butitisfixedforeverinitssize；itcanneverbelargerorsmaller。Butthecross，thoughithasatitsheartacollisionandacontradiction，canextenditsfourarmsforeverwithoutalteringitsshape。Becauseithasaparadoxinitscentreitcangrowwithoutchanging。Thecirclereturnsuponitselfandisbound。

Thecrossopensitsarmstothefourwinds；itisasignpostforfreetravellers。

Symbolsaloneareofevenacloudyvalueinspeakingofthisdeepmatter；andanothersymbolfromphysicalnaturewillexpresssufficientlywelltherealplaceofmysticismbeforemankind。

Theonecreatedthingwhichwecannotlookatistheonethinginthelightofwhichwelookateverything。Likethesunatnoonday，mysticismexplainseverythingelsebytheblazeofitsownvictoriousinvisibility。Detachedintellectualismis（intheexactsenseofapopularphrase）allmoonshine；foritislightwithoutheat，anditissecondarylight，reflectedfromadeadworld。

ButtheGreekswererightwhentheymadeApollothegodbothofimaginationandofsanity；forhewasboththepatronofpoetryandthepatronofhealing。OfnecessarydogmasandaspecialcreedIshallspeaklater。Butthattranscendentalismbywhichallmenlivehasprimarilymuchthepositionofthesuninthesky。

Weareconsciousofitasofakindofsplendidconfusion；

itissomethingbothshiningandshapeless，atonceablazeandablur。Butthecircleofthemoonisasclearandunmistakable，asrecurrentandinevitable，asthecircleofEuclidonablackboard。

Forthemoonisutterlyreasonable；andthemoonisthemotheroflunaticsandhasgiventothemallhername。

IIITHESUICIDEOFTHOUGHT

Thephrasesofthestreetarenotonlyforciblebutsubtle：

forafigureofspeechcanoftengetintoacracktoosmallforadefinition。Phraseslike"putout"or"offcolour"mighthavebeencoinedbyMr。HenryJamesinanagonyofverbalprecision。

Andthereisnomoresubtletruththanthatoftheeverydayphraseaboutamanhaving"hisheartintherightplace。"Itinvolvestheideaofnormalproportion；notonlydoesacertainfunctionexist，butitisrightlyrelatedtootherfunctions。Indeed，thenegationofthisphrasewoulddescribewithpeculiaraccuracythesomewhatmorbidmercyandperversetendernessofthemostrepresentativemoderns。

If，forinstance，IhadtodescribewithfairnessthecharacterofMr。BernardShaw，Icouldnotexpressmyselfmoreexactlythanbysayingthathehasaheroicallylargeandgenerousheart；

butnotaheartintherightplace。Andthisissoofthetypicalsocietyofourtime。

Themodernworldisnotevil；insomewaysthemodernworldisfartoogood。Itisfullofwildandwastedvirtues。

Whenareligiousschemeisshattered（asChristianitywasshatteredattheReformation），itisnotmerelythevicesthatareletloose。

Thevicesare，indeed，letloose，andtheywanderanddodamage。

Butthevirtuesareletloosealso；andthevirtueswandermorewildly，andthevirtuesdomoreterribledamage。ThemodernworldisfulloftheoldChristianvirtuesgonemad。Thevirtueshavegonemadbecausetheyhavebeenisolatedfromeachotherandarewanderingalone。Thussomescientistscarefortruth；

andtheirtruthispitiless。Thussomehumanitariansonlycareforpity；andtheirpity（Iamsorrytosay）isoftenuntruthful。

Forexample，Mr。BlatchfordattacksChristianitybecauseheismadononeChristianvirtue：themerelymysticalandalmostirrationalvirtueofcharity。Hehasastrangeideathathewillmakeiteasiertoforgivesinsbysayingthattherearenosinstoforgive。

Mr。BlatchfordisnotonlyanearlyChristian，heistheonlyearlyChristianwhooughtreallytohavebeeneatenbylions。

Forinhiscasethepaganaccusationisreallytrue：hismercywouldmeanmereanarchy。Hereallyistheenemyofthehumanrace——

becauseheissohuman。Astheotherextreme，wemaytaketheacridrealist，whohasdeliberatelykilledinhimselfallhumanpleasureinhappytalesorinthehealingoftheheart。

Torquemadatorturedpeoplephysicallyforthesakeofmoraltruth。

Zolatorturedpeoplemorallyforthesakeofphysicaltruth。

ButinTorquemada’stimetherewasatleastasystemthatcouldtosomeextentmakerighteousnessandpeacekisseachother。

Nowtheydonotevenbow。Butamuchstrongercasethanthesetwooftruthandpitycanbefoundintheremarkablecaseofthedislocationofhumility。

Itisonlywithoneaspectofhumilitythatwearehereconcerned。

Humilitywaslargelymeantasarestraintuponthearroganceandinfinityoftheappetiteofman。Hewasalwaysoutstrippinghismercieswithhisownnewlyinventedneeds。Hisverypowerofenjoymentdestroyedhalfhisjoys。Byaskingforpleasure，helostthechiefpleasure；forthechiefpleasureissurprise。

Henceitbecameevidentthatifamanwouldmakehisworldlarge，hemustbealwaysmakinghimselfsmall。Eventhehaughtyvisions，thetallcities，andthetopplingpinnaclesarethecreationsofhumility。Giantsthattreaddownforestslikegrassarethecreationsofhumility。Towersthatvanishupwardsabovethelonelieststararethecreationsofhumility。Fortowersarenottallunlesswelookupatthem；andgiantsarenotgiantsunlesstheyarelargerthanwe。Allthisgigantesqueimagination，whichis，perhaps，themightiestofthepleasuresofman，isatbottomentirelyhumble。Itisimpossiblewithouthumilitytoenjoyanything——

evenpride。

Butwhatwesufferfromto-dayishumilityinthewrongplace。

Modestyhasmovedfromtheorganofambition。Modestyhassettledupontheorganofconviction；whereitwasnevermeanttobe。

Amanwasmeanttobedoubtfulabouthimself，butundoubtingaboutthetruth；thishasbeenexactlyreversed。Nowadaysthepartofamanthatamandoesassertisexactlythepartheoughtnottoassert——himself。Theparthedoubtsisexactlythepartheoughtnottodoubt——theDivineReason。HuxleypreachedahumilitycontenttolearnfromNature。Butthenewscepticissohumblethathedoubtsifhecanevenlearn。Thusweshouldbewrongifwehadsaidhastilythatthereisnohumilitytypicalofourtime。

Thetruthisthatthereisarealhumilitytypicalofourtime；

butitsohappensthatitispracticallyamorepoisonoushumilitythanthewildestprostrationsoftheascetic。Theoldhumilitywasaspurthatpreventedamanfromstopping；notanailinhisbootthatpreventedhimfromgoingon。Fortheoldhumilitymadeamandoubtfulabouthisefforts，whichmightmakehimworkharder。

Butthenewhumilitymakesamandoubtfulabouthisaims，whichwillmakehimstopworkingaltogether。

Atanystreetcornerwemaymeetamanwhouttersthefranticandblasphemousstatementthathemaybewrong。Everydayonecomesacrosssomebodywhosaysthatofcoursehisviewmaynotbetherightone。Ofcoursehisviewmustbetherightone，oritisnothisview。Weareontheroadtoproducingaraceofmentoomentallymodesttobelieveinthemultiplicationtable。

Weareindangerofseeingphilosopherswhodoubtthelawofgravityasbeingamerefancyoftheirown。Scoffersofoldtimeweretooproudtobeconvinced；butthesearetoohumbletobeconvinced。

Themeekdoinherittheearth；butthemodernscepticsaretoomeekeventoclaimtheirinheritance。Itisexactlythisintellectualhelplessnesswhichisoursecondproblem。

Thelastchapterhasbeenconcernedonlywithafactofobservation：

thatwhatperilofmorbiditythereisformancomesratherfromhisreasonthanhisimagination。Itwasnotmeanttoattacktheauthorityofreason；ratheritistheultimatepurposetodefendit。

Foritneedsdefence。Thewholemodernworldisatwarwithreason；

andthetoweralreadyreels。

Thesages，itisoftensaid，canseenoanswertotheriddleofreligion。Butthetroublewithoursagesisnotthattheycannotseetheanswer；itisthattheycannotevenseetheriddle。

Theyarelikechildrensostupidastonoticenothingparadoxicalintheplayfulassertionthatadoorisnotadoor。Themodernlatitudinariansspeak，forinstance，aboutauthorityinreligionnotonlyasiftherewerenoreasoninit，butasiftherehadneverbeenanyreasonforit。Apartfromseeingitsphilosophicalbasis，theycannotevenseeitshistoricalcause。Religiousauthorityhasoften，doubtless，beenoppressiveorunreasonable；justaseverylegalsystem（andespeciallyourpresentone）hasbeencallousandfullofacruelapathy。Itisrationaltoattackthepolice；nay，itisglorious。Butthemoderncriticsofreligiousauthorityarelikemenwhoshouldattackthepolicewithouteverhavingheardofburglars。Forthereisagreatandpossibleperiltothehumanmind：aperilaspracticalasburglary。Againstitreligiousauthoritywasreared，rightlyorwrongly，asabarrier。

Andagainstitsomethingcertainlymustberearedasabarrier，ifourraceistoavoidruin。

Thatperilisthatthehumanintellectisfreetodestroyitself。

Justasonegenerationcouldpreventtheveryexistenceofthenextgeneration，byallenteringamonasteryorjumpingintothesea，soonesetofthinkerscaninsomedegreepreventfurtherthinkingbyteachingthenextgenerationthatthereisnovalidityinanyhumanthought。

Itisidletotalkalwaysofthealternativeofreasonandfaith。

Reasonisitselfamatteroffaith。Itisanactoffaithtoassertthatourthoughtshaveanyrelationtorealityatall。Ifyouaremerelyasceptic，youmustsoonerorlateraskyourselfthequestion，"WhyshouldANYTHINGgoright；evenobservationanddeduction？

Whyshouldnotgoodlogicbeasmisleadingasbadlogic？

Theyarebothmovementsinthebrainofabewilderedape？"

Theyoungscepticsays，"Ihavearighttothinkformyself。"

Buttheoldsceptic，thecompletesceptic，says，"Ihavenorighttothinkformyself。Ihavenorighttothinkatall。"

Thereisathoughtthatstopsthought。Thatistheonlythoughtthatoughttobestopped。Thatistheultimateevilagainstwhichallreligiousauthoritywasaimed。Itonlyappearsattheendofdecadentageslikeourown：andalreadyMr。H。G。Wellshasraiseditsruinousbanner；hehaswrittenadelicatepieceofscepticismcalled"DoubtsoftheInstrument。"Inthishequestionsthebrainitself，andendeavourstoremoveallrealityfromallhisownassertions，past，present，andtocome。Butitwasagainstthisremoteruinthatallthemilitarysystemsinreligionwereoriginallyrankedandruled。Thecreedsandthecrusades，thehierarchiesandthehorriblepersecutionswerenotorganized，asisignorantlysaid，forthesuppressionofreason。Theywereorganizedforthedifficultdefenceofreason。Man，byablindinstinct，knewthatifoncethingswerewildlyquestioned，reasoncouldbequestionedfirst。

Theauthorityofprieststoabsolve，theauthorityofpopestodefinetheauthority，evenofinquisitorstoterrify：thesewereallonlydarkdefenceserectedroundonecentralauthority，moreundemonstrable，moresupernaturalthanall——theauthorityofamantothink。

Weknownowthatthisisso；wehavenoexcusefornotknowingit。

Forwecanhearscepticismcrashingthroughtheoldringofauthorities，andatthesamemomentwecanseereasonswayinguponherthrone。

Insofarasreligionisgone，reasonisgoing。Fortheyarebothofthesameprimaryandauthoritativekind。Theyarebothmethodsofproofwhichcannotthemselvesbeproved。AndintheactofdestroyingtheideaofDivineauthoritywehavelargelydestroyedtheideaofthathumanauthoritybywhichwedoalong-divisionsum。

Withalongandsustainedtugwehaveattemptedtopullthemitreoffpontificalman；andhisheadhascomeoffwithit。

Lestthisshouldbecalledlooseassertion，itisperhapsdesirable，thoughdull，torunrapidlythroughthechiefmodernfashionsofthoughtwhichhavethiseffectofstoppingthoughtitself。

Materialismandtheviewofeverythingasapersonalillusionhavesomesucheffect；forifthemindismechanical，thoughtcannotbeveryexciting，andifthecosmosisunreal，thereisnothingtothinkabout。Butinthesecasestheeffectisindirectanddoubtful。Insomecasesitisdirectandclear；

notablyinthecaseofwhatisgenerallycalledevolution。

Evolutionisagoodexampleofthatmodernintelligencewhich，ifitdestroysanything，destroysitself。Evolutioniseitheraninnocentscientificdescriptionofhowcertainearthlythingscameabout；or，ifitisanythingmorethanthis，itisanattackuponthoughtitself。Ifevolutiondestroysanything，itdoesnotdestroyreligionbutrationalism。Ifevolutionsimplymeansthatapositivethingcalledanapeturnedveryslowlyintoapositivethingcalledaman，thenitisstinglessforthemostorthodox；

forapersonalGodmightjustaswelldothingsslowlyasquickly，especiallyif，liketheChristianGod，hewereoutsidetime。

Butifitmeansanythingmore，itmeansthatthereisnosuchthingasanapetochange，andnosuchthingasamanforhimtochangeinto。Itmeansthatthereisnosuchthingasathing。

Atbest，thereisonlyonething，andthatisafluxofeverythingandanything。Thisisanattacknotuponthefaith，butuponthemind；youcannotthinkiftherearenothingstothinkabout。

Youcannotthinkifyouarenotseparatefromthesubjectofthought。

Descartessaid，"Ithink；thereforeIam。"Thephilosophicevolutionistreversesandnegativestheepigram。Hesays，"Iamnot；thereforeI

cannotthink。"

Thenthereistheoppositeattackonthought：thaturgedbyMr。H。G。Wellswhenheinsiststhateveryseparatethingis"unique，"

andtherearenocategoriesatall。Thisalsoismerelydestructive。

Thinkingmeansconnectingthings，andstopsiftheycannotbeconnected。

Itneedhardlybesaidthatthisscepticismforbiddingthoughtnecessarilyforbidsspeech；amancannotopenhismouthwithoutcontradictingit。ThuswhenMr。Wellssays（ashedidsomewhere），"Allchairsarequitedifferent，"heuttersnotmerelyamisstatement，butacontradictioninterms。Ifallchairswerequitedifferent，youcouldnotcallthem"allchairs。"

Akintotheseisthefalsetheoryofprogress，whichmaintainsthatwealterthetestinsteadoftryingtopassthetest。

Weoftenhearitsaid，forinstance，"Whatisrightinoneageiswronginanother。"Thisisquitereasonable，ifitmeansthatthereisafixedaim，andthatcertainmethodsattainatcertaintimesandnotatothertimes。Ifwomen，say，desiretobeelegant，itmaybethattheyareimprovedatonetimebygrowingfatterandatanothertimebygrowingthinner。Butyoucannotsaythattheyareimprovedbyceasingtowishtobeelegantandbeginningtowishtobeoblong。Ifthestandardchanges，howcantherebeimprovement，whichimpliesastandard？Nietzschestartedanonsensicalideathatmenhadoncesoughtasgoodwhatwenowcallevil；ifitwereso，wecouldnottalkofsurpassingorevenfallingshortofthem。

HowcanyouovertakeJonesifyouwalkintheotherdirection？

Youcannotdiscusswhetheronepeoplehassucceededmoreinbeingmiserablethananothersucceededinbeinghappy。ItwouldbelikediscussingwhetherMiltonwasmorepuritanicalthanapigisfat。

Itistruethataman（asillyman）mightmakechangeitselfhisobjectorideal。Butasanideal，changeitselfbecomesunchangeable。

Ifthechange-worshipperwishestoestimatehisownprogress，hemustbesternlyloyaltotheidealofchange；hemustnotbegintoflirtgailywiththeidealofmonotony。Progressitselfcannotprogress。

Itisworthremark，inpassing，thatwhenTennyson，inawildandratherweakmanner，welcomedtheideaofinfinitealterationinsociety，heinstinctivelytookametaphorwhichsuggestsanimprisonedtedium。

Hewrote——

"Letthegreatworldspinforeverdowntheringinggroovesofchange。"

Hethoughtofchangeitselfasanunchangeablegroove；andsoitis。

Changeisaboutthenarrowestandhardestgroovethatamancangetinto。

Themainpointhere，however，isthatthisideaofafundamentalalterationinthestandardisoneofthethingsthatmakethoughtaboutthepastorfuturesimplyimpossible。Thetheoryofacompletechangeofstandardsinhumanhistorydoesnotmerelydepriveusofthepleasureofhonouringourfathers；itdeprivesusevenofthemoremodernandaristocraticpleasureofdespisingthem。

Thisbaldsummaryofthethought-destroyingforcesofourtimewouldnotbecompletewithoutsomereferencetopragmatism；

forthoughIhavehereusedandshouldeverywheredefendthepragmatistmethodasapreliminaryguidetotruth，thereisanextremeapplicationofitwhichinvolvestheabsenceofalltruthwhatever。

Mymeaningcanbeputshortlythus。Iagreewiththepragmatiststhatapparentobjectivetruthisnotthewholematter；thatthereisanauthoritativeneedtobelievethethingsthatarenecessarytothehumanmind。ButIsaythatoneofthosenecessitiespreciselyisabeliefinobjectivetruth。ThepragmatisttellsamantothinkwhathemustthinkandnevermindtheAbsolute。

ButpreciselyoneofthethingsthathemustthinkistheAbsolute。

Thisphilosophy，indeed，isakindofverbalparadox。Pragmatismisamatterofhumanneeds；andoneofthefirstofhumanneedsistobesomethingmorethanapragmatist。Extremepragmatismisjustasinhumanasthedeterminismitsopowerfullyattacks。

Thedeterminist（who，todohimjustice，doesnotpretendtobeahumanbeing）makesnonsenseofthehumansenseofactualchoice。

Thepragmatist，whoprofessestobespeciallyhuman，makesnonsenseofthehumansenseofactualfact。

Tosumupourcontentionsofar，wemaysaythatthemostcharacteristiccurrentphilosophieshavenotonlyatouchofmania，butatouchofsuicidalmania。Themerequestionerhasknockedhisheadagainstthelimitsofhumanthought；andcrackedit。

Thisiswhatmakessofutilethewarningsoftheorthodoxandtheboastsoftheadvancedaboutthedangerousboyhoodoffreethought。

Whatwearelookingatisnottheboyhoodoffreethought；itistheoldageandultimatedissolutionoffreethought。Itisvainforbishopsandpiousbigwigstodiscusswhatdreadfulthingswillhappenifwildscepticismrunsitscourse。Ithasrunitscourse。

Itisvainforeloquentatheiststotalkofthegreattruthsthatwillberevealedifonceweseefreethoughtbegin。Wehaveseenitend。Ithasnomorequestionstoask；ithasquestioneditself。

Youcannotcallupanywildervisionthanacityinwhichmenaskthemselvesiftheyhaveanyselves。Youcannotfancyamorescepticalworldthanthatinwhichmendoubtifthereisaworld。

ItmightcertainlyhavereacheditsbankruptcymorequicklyandcleanlyifithadnotbeenfeeblyhamperedbytheapplicationofindefensiblelawsofblasphemyorbytheabsurdpretencethatmodernEnglandisChristian。Butitwouldhavereachedthebankruptcyanyhow。Militantatheistsarestillunjustlypersecuted；

butratherbecausetheyareanoldminoritythanbecausetheyareanewone。Freethoughthasexhausteditsownfreedom。

Itiswearyofitsownsuccess。Ifanyeagerfreethinkernowhailsphilosophicfreedomasthedawn，heisonlylikethemaninMarkTwainwhocameoutwrappedinblanketstoseethesunriseandwasjustintimetoseeitset。Ifanyfrightenedcuratestillsaysthatitwillbeawfulifthedarknessoffreethoughtshouldspread，wecanonlyanswerhiminthehighandpowerfulwordsofMr。Belloc，"Donot，Ibeseechyou，betroubledabouttheincreaseofforcesalreadyindissolution。Youhavemistakenthehourofthenight：

itisalreadymorning。"Wehavenomorequestionslefttoask。

Wehavelookedforquestionsinthedarkestcornersandonthewildestpeaks。Wehavefoundallthequestionsthatcanbefound。

Itistimewegaveuplookingforquestionsandbeganlookingforanswers。

Butonemorewordmustbeadded。AtthebeginningofthispreliminarynegativesketchIsaidthatourmentalruinhasbeenwroughtbywildreason，notbywildimagination。Amandoesnotgomadbecausehemakesastatueamilehigh，buthemaygomadbythinkingitoutinsquareinches。Now，oneschoolofthinkershasseenthisandjumpedatitasawayofrenewingthepaganhealthoftheworld。Theyseethatreasondestroys；

butWill，theysay，creates。Theultimateauthority，theysay，isinwill，notinreason。Thesupremepointisnotwhyamandemandsathing，butthefactthathedoesdemandit。

IhavenospacetotraceorexpoundthisphilosophyofWill。

Itcame，Isuppose，throughNietzsche，whopreachedsomethingthatiscalledegoism。That，indeed，wassimplemindedenough；

forNietzschedeniedegoismsimplybypreachingit。Topreachanythingistogiveitaway。First，theegoistcallslifeawarwithoutmercy，andthenhetakesthegreatestpossibletroubletodrillhisenemiesinwar。Topreachegoismistopractisealtruism。

Buthoweveritbegan，theviewiscommonenoughincurrentliterature。

Themaindefenceofthesethinkersisthattheyarenotthinkers；

theyaremakers。Theysaythatchoiceisitselfthedivinething。

ThusMr。BernardShawhasattackedtheoldideathatmen’sactsaretobejudgedbythestandardofthedesireofhappiness。

Hesaysthatamandoesnotactforhishappiness，butfromhiswill。

Hedoesnotsay，"Jamwillmakemehappy，"but"Iwantjam。"

Andinallthisothersfollowhimwithyetgreaterenthusiasm。

Mr。JohnDavidson，aremarkablepoet，issopassionatelyexcitedaboutitthatheisobligedtowriteprose。Hepublishesashortplaywithseverallongprefaces。ThisisnaturalenoughinMr。Shaw，forallhisplaysareprefaces：Mr。Shawis（Isuspect）theonlymanonearthwhohasneverwrittenanypoetry。ButthatMr。Davidson（whocanwriteexcellentpoetry）shouldwriteinsteadlaboriousmetaphysicsindefenceofthisdoctrineofwill，doesshowthatthedoctrineofwillhastakenholdofmen。EvenMr。H。G。Wellshashalfspokeninitslanguage；sayingthatoneshouldtestactsnotlikeathinker，butlikeanartist，saying，"IFEELthiscurveisright，"or"thatlineSHALLgothus。"Theyareallexcited；andwelltheymaybe。

Forbythisdoctrineofthedivineauthorityofwill，theythinktheycanbreakoutofthedoomedfortressofrationalism。Theythinktheycanescape。

Buttheycannotescape。Thispurepraiseofvolitionendsinthesamebreakupandblankasthemerepursuitoflogic。

Exactlyascompletefreethoughtinvolvesthedoubtingofthoughtitself，sotheacceptationofmere"willing"reallyparalyzesthewill。

Mr。BernardShawhasnotperceivedtherealdifferencebetweentheoldutilitariantestofpleasure（clumsy，ofcourse，andeasilymisstated）

andthatwhichhepropounds。Therealdifferencebetweenthetestofhappinessandthetestofwillissimplythatthetestofhappinessisatestandtheotherisn’t。Youcandiscusswhetheraman’sactinjumpingoveracliffwasdirectedtowardshappiness；

youcannotdiscusswhetheritwasderivedfromwill。Ofcourseitwas。Youcanpraiseanactionbysayingthatitiscalculatedtobringpleasureorpaintodiscovertruthortosavethesoul。

Butyoucannotpraiseanactionbecauseitshowswill；fortosaythatismerelytosaythatitisanaction。Bythispraiseofwillyoucannotreallychooseonecourseasbetterthananother。Andyetchoosingonecourseasbetterthananotheristheverydefinitionofthewillyouarepraising。

Theworshipofwillisthenegationofwill。Toadmiremerechoiceistorefusetochoose。IfMr。BernardShawcomesuptomeandsays，"Willsomething，"thatistantamounttosaying，"Idonotmindwhatyouwill，"andthatistantamounttosaying，"Ihavenowillinthematter。"Youcannotadmirewillingeneral，becausetheessenceofwillisthatitisparticular。

AbrilliantanarchistlikeMr。JohnDavidsonfeelsanirritationagainstordinarymorality，andthereforeheinvokeswill——

willtoanything。Heonlywantshumanitytowantsomething。

Buthumanitydoeswantsomething。Itwantsordinarymorality。

Herebelsagainstthelawandtellsustowillsomethingoranything。

Butwehavewilledsomething。Wehavewilledthelawagainstwhichherebels。

Allthewill-worshippers，fromNietzschetoMr。Davidson，arereallyquiteemptyofvolition。Theycannotwill，theycanhardlywish。Andifanyonewantsaproofofthis，itcanbefoundquiteeasily。Itcanbefoundinthisfact：thattheyalwaystalkofwillassomethingthatexpandsandbreaksout。Butitisquitetheopposite。Everyactofwillisanactofself-limitation。Todesireactionistodesirelimitation。Inthatsenseeveryactisanactofself-sacrifice。Whenyouchooseanything，yourejecteverythingelse。Thatobjection，whichmenofthisschoolusedtomaketotheactofmarriage，isreallyanobjectiontoeveryact。

Everyactisanirrevocableselectionandexclusion。Justaswhenyoumarryonewomanyougiveupalltheothers，sowhenyoutakeonecourseofactionyougiveupalltheothercourses。IfyoubecomeKingofEngland，yougiveupthepostofBeadleinBrompton。

IfyougotoRome，yousacrificearichsuggestivelifeinWimbledon。

Itistheexistenceofthisnegativeorlimitingsideofwillthatmakesmostofthetalkoftheanarchicwill-worshipperslittlebetterthannonsense。Forinstance，Mr。JohnDavidsontellsustohavenothingtodowith"Thoushaltnot"；butitissurelyobviousthat"Thoushaltnot"isonlyoneofthenecessarycorollariesof"Iwill。""IwillgototheLordMayor’sShow，andthoushaltnotstopme。"Anarchismadjuresustobeboldcreativeartists，andcarefornolawsorlimits。Butitisimpossibletobeanartistandnotcareforlawsandlimits。Artislimitation；

theessenceofeverypictureistheframe。Ifyoudrawagiraffe，youmustdrawhimwithalongneck。If，inyourboldcreativeway，youholdyourselffreetodrawagiraffewithashortneck，youwillreallyfindthatyouarenotfreetodrawagiraffe。

Themomentyoustepintotheworldoffacts，youstepintoaworldoflimits。Youcanfreethingsfromalienoraccidentallaws，butnotfromthelawsoftheirownnature。Youmay，ifyoulike，freeatigerfromhisbars；butdonotfreehimfromhisstripes。

Donotfreeacameloftheburdenofhishump：youmaybefreeinghimfrombeingacamel。Donotgoaboutasademagogue，encouragingtrianglestobreakoutoftheprisonoftheirthreesides。Ifatrianglebreaksoutofitsthreesides，itslifecomestoalamentableend。

Somebodywroteaworkcalled"TheLovesoftheTriangles"；

Ineverreadit，butIamsurethatiftriangleseverwereloved，theywerelovedforbeingtriangular。Thisiscertainlythecasewithallartisticcreation，whichisinsomewaysthemostdecisiveexampleofpurewill。Theartistloveshislimitations：

theyconstitutetheTHINGheisdoing。Thepainterisgladthatthecanvasisflat。Thesculptorisgladthattheclayiscolourless。

Incasethepointisnotclear，anhistoricexamplemayillustrateit。TheFrenchRevolutionwasreallyanheroicanddecisivething，becausetheJacobinswilledsomethingdefiniteandlimited。

Theydesiredthefreedomsofdemocracy，butalsoallthevetoesofdemocracy。TheywishedtohavevotesandNOTtohavetitles。

RepublicanismhadanasceticsideinFranklinorRobespierreaswellasanexpansivesideinDantonorWilkes。Thereforetheyhavecreatedsomethingwithasolidsubstanceandshape，thesquaresocialequalityandpeasantwealthofFrance。ButsincethentherevolutionaryorspeculativemindofEuropehasbeenweakenedbyshrinkingfromanyproposalbecauseofthelimitsofthatproposal。

Liberalismhasbeendegradedintoliberality。Menhavetriedtoturn"revolutionise"fromatransitivetoanintransitiveverb。

TheJacobincouldtellyounotonlythesystemhewouldrebelagainst，but（whatwasmoreimportant）thesystemhewouldNOTrebelagainst，thesystemhewouldtrust。ButthenewrebelisaSceptic，andwillnotentirelytrustanything。Hehasnoloyalty；thereforehecanneverbereallyarevolutionist。Andthefactthathedoubtseverythingreallygetsinhiswaywhenhewantstodenounceanything。

Foralldenunciationimpliesamoraldoctrineofsomekind；andthemodernrevolutionistdoubtsnotonlytheinstitutionhedenounces，butthedoctrinebywhichhedenouncesit。Thushewritesonebookcomplainingthatimperialoppressioninsultsthepurityofwomen，andthenhewritesanotherbook（aboutthesexproblem）inwhichheinsultsithimself。HecursestheSultanbecauseChristiangirlslosetheirvirginity，andthencursesMrs。Grundybecausetheykeepit。

Asapolitician，hewillcryoutthatwarisawasteoflife，andthen，asaphilosopher，thatalllifeiswasteoftime。

ARussianpessimistwilldenounceapolicemanforkillingapeasant，andthenprovebythehighestphilosophicalprinciplesthatthepeasantoughttohavekilledhimself。Amandenouncesmarriageasalie，andthendenouncesaristocraticprofligatesfortreatingitasalie。Hecallsaflagabauble，andthenblamestheoppressorsofPolandorIrelandbecausetheytakeawaythatbauble。

Themanofthisschoolgoesfirsttoapoliticalmeeting，wherehecomplainsthatsavagesaretreatedasiftheywerebeasts；thenhetakeshishatandumbrellaandgoesontoascientificmeeting，whereheprovesthattheypracticallyarebeasts。Inshort，themodernrevolutionist，beinganinfinitesceptic，isalwaysengagedinundermininghisownmines。Inhisbookonpoliticsheattacksmenfortramplingonmorality；inhisbookonethicsheattacksmoralityfortramplingonmen。Thereforethemodernmaninrevolthasbecomepracticallyuselessforallpurposesofrevolt。

Byrebellingagainsteverythinghehaslosthisrighttorebelagainstanything。

Itmaybeaddedthatthesameblankandbankruptcycanbeobservedinallfierceandterribletypesofliterature，especiallyinsatire。

Satiremaybemadandanarchic，butitpresupposesanadmittedsuperiorityincertainthingsoverothers；itpresupposesastandard。

Whenlittleboysinthestreetlaughatthefatnessofsomedistinguishedjournalist，theyareunconsciouslyassumingastandardofGreeksculpture。TheyareappealingtothemarbleApollo。

Andthecuriousdisappearanceofsatirefromourliteratureisaninstanceofthefiercethingsfadingforwantofanyprincipletobefierceabout。Nietzschehadsomenaturaltalentforsarcasm：

hecouldsneer，thoughhecouldnotlaugh；butthereisalwayssomethingbodilessandwithoutweightinhissatire，simplybecauseithasnotanymassofcommonmoralitybehindit。Heishimselfmorepreposterousthananythinghedenounces。But，indeed，Nietzschewillstandverywellasthetypeofthewholeofthisfailureofabstractviolence。

Thesofteningofthebrainwhichultimatelyovertookhimwasnotaphysicalaccident。IfNietzschehadnotendedinimbecility，Nietzscheismwouldendinimbecility。Thinkinginisolationandwithprideendsinbeinganidiot。Everymanwhowillnothavesofteningoftheheartmustatlasthavesofteningofthebrain。

Thislastattempttoevadeintellectualismendsinintellectualism，andthereforeindeath。Thesortiehasfailed。Thewildworshipoflawlessnessandthematerialistworshipoflawendinthesamevoid。

Nietzschescalesstaggeringmountains，butheturnsupultimatelyinTibet。HesitsdownbesideTolstoyinthelandofnothingandNirvana。Theyarebothhelpless——onebecausehemustnotgraspanything，andtheotherbecausehemustnotletgoofanything。

TheTolstoyan’swillisfrozenbyaBuddhistinstinctthatallspecialactionsareevil。ButtheNietzscheite’swillisquiteequallyfrozenbyhisviewthatallspecialactionsaregood；

forifallspecialactionsaregood，noneofthemarespecial。

Theystandatthecrossroads，andonehatesalltheroadsandtheotherlikesalltheroads。Theresultis——well，somethingsarenothardtocalculate。Theystandatthecross-roads。

HereIend（thankGod）thefirstanddullestbusinessofthisbook——theroughreviewofrecentthought。AfterthisI

begintosketchaviewoflifewhichmaynotinterestmyreader，butwhich，atanyrate，interestsme。Infrontofme，asIclosethispage，isapileofmodernbooksthatIhavebeenturningoverforthepurpose——apileofingenuity，apileoffutility。

Bytheaccidentofmypresentdetachment，IcanseetheinevitablesmashofthephilosophiesofSchopenhauerandTolstoy，NietzscheandShaw，asclearlyasaninevitablerailwaysmashcouldbeseenfromaballoon。Theyareallontheroadtotheemptinessoftheasylum。

Formadnessmaybedefinedasusingmentalactivitysoastoreachmentalhelplessness；andtheyhavenearlyreachedit。Hewhothinksheismadeofglass，thinkstothedestructionofthought；

forglasscannotthink。Sohewhowillstorejectnothing，willsthedestructionofwill；forwillisnotonlythechoiceofsomething，buttherejectionofalmosteverything。AndasI

turnandtumbleovertheclever，wonderful，tiresome，anduselessmodernbooks，thetitleofoneofthemrivetsmyeye。Itiscalled"Jeanned’Arc，"byAnatoleFrance。Ihaveonlyglancedatit，butaglancewasenoughtoremindmeofRenan’s"ViedeJesus。"

Ithasthesamestrangemethodofthereverentsceptic。Itdiscreditssupernaturalstoriesthathavesomefoundation，simplybytellingnaturalstoriesthathavenofoundation。Becausewecannotbelieveinwhatasaintdid，wearetopretendthatweknowexactlywhathefelt。ButIdonotmentioneitherbookinordertocriticiseit，butbecausetheaccidentalcombinationofthenamescalleduptwostartlingimagesofSanitywhichblastedallthebooksbeforeme。

JoanofArcwasnotstuckatthecross-roads，eitherbyrejectingallthepathslikeTolstoy，orbyacceptingthemalllikeNietzsche。

Shechoseapath，andwentdownitlikeathunderbolt。YetJoan，whenIcametothinkofher，hadinherallthatwastrueeitherinTolstoyorNietzsche，allthatwaseventolerableineitherofthem。

IthoughtofallthatisnobleinTolstoy，thepleasureinplainthings，especiallyinplainpity，theactualitiesoftheearth，thereverenceforthepoor，thedignityofthebowedback。

JoanofArchadallthatandwiththisgreataddition，thatsheenduredpovertyaswellasadmiringit；whereasTolstoyisonlyatypicalaristocrattryingtofindoutitssecret。AndthenIthoughtofallthatwasbraveandproudandpatheticinpoorNietzsche，andhismutinyagainsttheemptinessandtimidityofourtime。

Ithoughtofhiscryfortheecstaticequilibriumofdanger，hishungerfortherushofgreathorses，hiscrytoarms。Well，JoanofArchadallthat，andagainwiththisdifference，thatshedidnotpraisefighting，butfought。WeKNOWthatshewasnotafraidofanarmy，whileNietzsche，forallweknow，wasafraidofacow。

Tolstoyonlypraisedthepeasant；shewasthepeasant。Nietzscheonlypraisedthewarrior；shewasthewarrior。Shebeatthembothattheirownantagonisticideals；shewasmoregentlethantheone，moreviolentthantheother。Yetshewasaperfectlypracticalpersonwhodidsomething，whiletheyarewildspeculatorswhodonothing。

Itwasimpossiblethatthethoughtshouldnotcrossmymindthatsheandherfaithhadperhapssomesecretofmoralunityandutilitythathasbeenlost。Andwiththatthoughtcamealargerone，andthecolossalfigureofherMasterhadalsocrossedthetheatreofmythoughts。Thesamemoderndifficultywhichdarkenedthesubject-matterofAnatoleFrancealsodarkenedthatofErnestRenan。

Renanalsodividedhishero’spityfromhishero’spugnacity。

RenanevenrepresentedtherighteousangeratJerusalemasamerenervousbreakdownaftertheidyllicexpectationsofGalilee。

Asiftherewereanyinconsistencybetweenhavingaloveforhumanityandhavingahatredforinhumanity！Altruists，withthin，weakvoices，denounceChristasanegoist。Egoists（witheventhinnerandweakervoices）denounceHimasanaltruist。

Inourpresentatmospheresuchcavilsarecomprehensibleenough。

Theloveofaheroismoreterriblethanthehatredofatyrant。

Thehatredofaheroismoregenerousthantheloveofaphilanthropist。

Thereisahugeandheroicsanityofwhichmodernscanonlycollectthefragments。Thereisagiantofwhomweseeonlytheloppedarmsandlegswalkingabout。TheyhavetornthesoulofChristintosillystrips，labelledegoismandaltruism，andtheyareequallypuzzledbyHisinsanemagnificenceandHisinsanemeekness。

TheyhavepartedHisgarmentsamongthem，andforHisvesturetheyhavecastlots；thoughthecoatwaswithoutseamwovenfromthetopthroughout。

IVTHEETHICSOFELFLAND

Whenthebusinessmanrebukestheidealismofhisoffice-boy，itiscommonlyinsomesuchspeechasthis："Ah，yes，whenoneisyoung，onehastheseidealsintheabstractandthesecastlesintheair；

butinmiddleagetheyallbreakuplikeclouds，andonecomesdowntoabeliefinpracticalpolitics，tousingthemachineryonehasandgettingonwiththeworldasitis。"Thus，atleast，venerableandphilanthropicoldmennowintheirhonouredgravesusedtotalktomewhenIwasaboy。ButsincethenIhavegrownupandhavediscoveredthatthesephilanthropicoldmenweretellinglies。Whathasreallyhappenedisexactlytheoppositeofwhattheysaidwouldhappen。

TheysaidthatIshouldlosemyidealsandbegintobelieveinthemethodsofpracticalpoliticians。Now，Ihavenotlostmyidealsintheleast；myfaithinfundamentalsisexactlywhatitalwayswas。

WhatIhavelostismyoldchildlikefaithinpracticalpolitics。

IamstillasmuchconcernedaseverabouttheBattleofArmageddon；

butIamnotsomuchconcernedabouttheGeneralElection。

AsababeIleaptuponmymother’skneeatthemerementionofit。No；thevisionisalwayssolidandreliable。Thevisionisalwaysafact。Itistherealitythatisoftenafraud。

AsmuchasIeverdid，morethanIeverdid，IbelieveinLiberalism。

ButtherewasarosytimeofinnocencewhenIbelievedinLiberals。

Itakethisinstanceofoneoftheenduringfaithsbecause，havingnowtotracetherootsofmypersonalspeculation，thismaybecounted，Ithink，astheonlypositivebias。

IwasbroughtupaLiberal，andhavealwaysbelievedindemocracy，intheelementaryliberaldoctrineofaself-governinghumanity。

Ifanyonefindsthephrasevagueorthreadbare，Icanonlypauseforamomenttoexplainthattheprincipleofdemocracy，asI

meanit，canbestatedintwopropositions。Thefirstisthis：

thatthethingscommontoallmenaremoreimportantthanthethingspeculiartoanymen。Ordinarythingsaremorevaluablethanextraordinarythings；nay，theyaremoreextraordinary。

Manissomethingmoreawfulthanmen；somethingmorestrange。

Thesenseofthemiracleofhumanityitselfshouldbealwaysmorevividtousthananymarvelsofpower，intellect，art，orcivilization。

Themeremanontwolegs，assuch，shouldbefeltassomethingmoreheartbreakingthananymusicandmorestartlingthananycaricature。

Deathismoretragiceventhandeathbystarvation。HavinganoseismorecomiceventhanhavingaNormannose。

Thisisthefirstprincipleofdemocracy：thattheessentialthingsinmenarethethingstheyholdincommon，notthethingstheyholdseparately。Andthesecondprincipleismerelythis：

thatthepoliticalinstinctordesireisoneofthesethingswhichtheyholdincommon。Fallinginloveismorepoeticalthandroppingintopoetry。Thedemocraticcontentionisthatgovernment（helpingtorulethetribe）isathinglikefallinginlove，andnotathinglikedroppingintopoetry。Itisnotsomethinganalogoustoplayingthechurchorgan，paintingonvellum，discoveringtheNorthPole（thatinsidioushabit），loopingtheloop，beingAstronomerRoyal，andsoon。Forthesethingswedonotwishamantodoatallunlesshedoesthemwell。Itis，onthecontrary，athinganalogoustowritingone’sownlove-lettersorblowingone’sownnose。Thesethingswewantamantodoforhimself，evenifhedoesthembadly。Iamnotherearguingthetruthofanyoftheseconceptions；Iknowthatsomemodernsareaskingtohavetheirwiveschosenbyscientists，andtheymaysoonbeasking，forallIknow，tohavetheirnosesblownbynurses。Imerelysaythatmankinddoesrecognizetheseuniversalhumanfunctions，andthatdemocracyclassesgovernmentamongthem。Inshort，thedemocraticfaithisthis：thatthemostterriblyimportantthingsmustbelefttoordinarymenthemselves——thematingofthesexes，therearingoftheyoung，thelawsofthestate。Thisisdemocracy；

andinthisIhavealwaysbelieved。

ButthereisonethingthatIhaveneverfrommyyouthupbeenabletounderstand。Ihaveneverbeenabletounderstandwherepeoplegottheideathatdemocracywasinsomewayopposedtotradition。

Itisobviousthattraditionisonlydemocracyextendedthroughtime。

【推荐阅读】幽幽深宫，醒来一梦似千年，重生于下堂妃身躯中的她，将如何手刃仇人? 点击阅读