CHAP。14。——HOWTHEMEANINGOFUNKNOWNWORDSANDIDIOMSISTOBEDISCOVERED。

21。Aboutambiguoussigns，however，Ishallspeakafterwards。Iamtreatingatpresentofunknownsigns，ofwhich，asfarasthewordsareconcerned，therearetwokinds，Foreitherawordoranidiom，ofwhichthereaderisignorant，bringshimtoastop。Nowifthesebelongtoforeigntongues，wemusteithermakeinquiryaboutthemfrommenwhospeakthosetongues，orifwehaveleisurewemustlearnthetonguesourselves，orwemustconsultandcompareseveraltranslators。If，however，therearewordsoridiomsinourowntonguethatweareunacquaintedwith，wegraduallycometoknowthemthroughbeingaccustomedtoreadortohearthem。Thereisnothingthatitisbettertocommittomemorythanthosekindsofwordsandphraseswhosemeaningwedonotknow，sothatwherewehappentomeeteitherwithamorelearnedmanofwhomwecaninquire，orwithapassagethatshows，eitherbytheprecedingorsucceedingcontext，orbyboth，theforceandsignificanceofthephraseweareignorantof，wecaneasilybythehelpofourmemoryturnourattentiontothematterandlearnallaboutit。Sogreat，however，istheforceofcustom，eveninregardtolearning，thatthosewhohavebeeninasortofwaynurturedandbroughtuponthestudyofHolyScripture，aresurprisedatotherformsofspeech，andthinkthemlesspureLatinthanthosewhichtheyhavelearntfromScripture，butwhicharenottobefoundinLatinauthors。Inthismatter，too，thegreatnumberofthetranslatorsprovesaverygreatassistance，iftheyareexaminedanddiscussedwithacarefulcomparisonoftheirtexts。Onlyallpositiveerrormustberemoved。Forthosewhoareanxioustoknow，theScripturesoughtinthefirstplacetousetheirskillinthecorrectionofthetexts，sothattheuncorrectedonesshouldgivewaytothecorrected，atleastwhentheyarecopiesofthesametranslation。

CHAP。15——AMONGVERSIONSAPREFERENCEISGIVENTOTHESEPTUAGINTAND

THEITALA。

22。NowamongtranslationsthemselvestheItalian（Itala）（1）istobepreferredtotheothers，foritkeepsclosertothewordswithoutprejudicetoclearnessofexpression。AndtocorrecttheLatinwemustusetheGreekversions，amongwhichtheauthorityoftheSeptuagintispre-eminentasfarastheOldTestamentisconcerned；foritisreportedthroughallthemorelearnedchurchesthattheseventytranslatorsenjoyedsomuchofthepresenceandpoweroftheHolySpiritintheirworkoftranslation，thatamongthatnumberofmentherewasbutonevoice。

Andif，asisreported，andasmanynotunworthyofconfidenceassert，（2）theywereseparatedduringtheworkoftranslation，eachmanbeinginacellbyhimself，andyetnothingwasfoundinthemanuscriptofanyoneofthemthatwasnotfoundinthesamewordsandinthesameorderofwordsinalltherest，whodaresputanythingincomparisonwithanauthoritylikethis，nottospeakofpreferringanythingtoit？Andeveniftheyconferredtogetherwiththeresultthataunanimousagreementsprangoutofthecommonlaborandjudgmentofthemall；evenso，itwouldnotberightorbecomingforanyoneman，whateverhisexperience，toaspiretocorrecttheunanimousopinionofmanyvenerableandlearnedmen。Wherefore，evenifanythingisfoundintheoriginalHebrewinadifferentformfromthatinwhichthesemenhaveexpressedit，IthinkwemustgivewaytothedispensationofProvidencewhichusedthesementobringitabout，thatbookswhichtheJewishracewereunwilling，eitherfromreligiousscrupleorfromjealousy，tomakeknowntoothernations，were，withtheassistanceofthepowerofKingPtolemy，madeknownsolongbeforehandtothenationswhichinthefutureweretobelieveintheLord。AndthusitispossiblethattheytranslatedinsuchawayastheHolySpirit，whoworkedinthemandhadgiventhemallonevoice，thoughtmostsuitablefortheGentiles。Butnevertheless，asIsaidabove，acomparisonofthosetranslatorsalsowhohavekeptmostcloselytothewords，isoftennotwithoutvalueasahelptotheclearingupofthemeaning。TheLatintexts，therefore，oftheOldTestamentare，asIwasabouttosay，tobecorrectedifnecessarybytheauthorityoftheGreeks，andespeciallybythatofthosewhothoughtheywereseventyinnumber，aresaidtohavetranslatedaswithonevoice。AstothebooksoftheNewTestament，again，ifanyperplexityarisesfromthediversitiesoftheLatintexts，wemustofcourseyieldtotheGreek，especiallythosethatarefoundinthechurchesofgreaterlearningandresearch。

CHAP。16。——THEKNOWLEDGEBOTHOFLANGUAGEANDTHINGSISHELPFULFOR

THE

UNDERSTANDINGOFFIGURATIVEEXPRESSIONS。

23。Inthecaseoffigurativesigns，again，ifignoranceofanyofthemshouldchancetobringthereadertoastand-still，theirmeaningistobetracedpartlybytheknowledgeoflanguages，partlybytheknowledgeofthings。ThepoolofSiloam，forexample，wherethemanwhoseeyesourLordhadanointedwithclaymadeoutofspittlewascommandedtowash，hasafigurativesignificance，andundoubtedlyconveysasecretsense；butyetiftheevangelisthadnotinterpretedthatname，（1）ameaningsoimportantwouldlieunnoticed。Andwecannotdoubtthat，inthesameway，manyHebrewnameswhichhavenotbeeninterpretedbythewritersofthosebooks，would，ifanyonecouldinterpretthem，beofgreatvalueandserviceinsolvingtheenigmasofScripture。AndanumberofmenskilledinthatlanguagehaveconferrednosmallbenefitonposteritybyexplainingallthesewordswithoutreferencetotheirplaceinScripture，andtellinguswhatAdammeans，whatEve，whatAbraham，whatMoses，andalsothenamesofplaces，whatJerusalemsignifies，orSion，orSinai，orLebanon，orJordan，andwhateverothernamesinthatlanguagewearenotacquaintedwith。Andwhenthesenameshavebeeninvestigatedandexplained，manyfigurativeexpressionsinScripturebecomeclear。

24。Ignoranceofthings，too，rendersfigurativeexpressionsobscure，aswhenwedonotknowthenatureoftheanimals，orminerals，orplants，whicharefrequentlyreferredtoinScripturebywayofcomparison。Thefactsowellknownabouttheserpent，forexample，thattoprotectitsheaditwillpresentitswholebodytoitsassailants——howmuchlightitthrowsuponthemeaningofourLord’scommand，thatweshouldbewiseasserpents；（2）

thatistosay，thatforthesakeofourhead，whichisChrist，weshouldwillinglyofferourbodytothepersecutors，lesttheChristianfaithshould，asitwere，bedestroyedinus，iftosavethebodywedenyourGod！Oragain，thestatementthattheserpentgetsridofitsoldskinbysqueezingitselfthroughanarrowhole，andthusacquiresnewstrength——howappropriatelyitfitsinwiththedirectiontoimitatethewisdomoftheserpent，andtoputofftheoldman，astheapostlesays，thatwemayputonthenew；（3）andtoputitoff，too，bycomingthroughanarrowplace，accordingtothesayingofourLord，"Enteryeinatthestraitgate！"（4）As，then，knowledgeofthenatureoftheserpentthrowslightuponmanymetaphorswhichScriptureisaccustomedtodrawfromthatanimal，soignoranceofotheranimals，whicharenolessfrequentlymentionedbywayofcomparison，isaverygreatdrawbacktothereader。Andsoinregardtomineralsandplants：knowledgeofthecarbuncle，forinstance，whichshinesinthedark，throwslightuponmanyofthedarkplacesinbookstoo，whereitisusedmetaphorically；andignoranceoftheberylortheadamantoftenshutsthedoorsofknowledge。Andtheonlyreasonwhywefinditeasytounderstandthatperpetualpeaceisindicatedbytheolivebranchwhichthedovebroughtwithitwhenitreturnedtotheark，（5）isthatweknowboththatthesmoothtouchofoliveoilisnoteasilyspoiledbyafluidofanotherkind，andthatthetreeitselfisanevergreen。Many，again，byreasonoftheirignoranceofhyssop，notknowingthevirtueithasincleansingthelungs，northepoweritissaidtohaveofpiercingrockswithitsroots，althoughitisasmallandinsignificantplant，cannotmakeoutwhyitissaid，"Purgemewithhyssop，andIshallbeclean。"（6）

25。Ignoranceofnumbers，too，preventsusfromunderstandingthingsthataresetdowninScriptureinafigurativeandmysticalway。Acandidmind，ifImaysospeak，cannotbutbeanxious，forexample，toascertainwhatismeantbythefactthatMosesandElijah，andourLordHimself，allfastedforfortydays。（7）Andexceptbyknowledgeofandreflectionuponthenumber，thedifficultyofexplainingthefigureinvolvedinthisactioncannotbegotover。Forthenumbercontainstenfourtimes，indicatingtheknowledgeofallthings，andthatknowledgeinterwovenwithtime。Forboththediurnalandtheannualrevolutionsareaccomplishedinperiodsnumberingfoureach；thediurnalinthehoursofthemorning，thenoontide，theevening，andthenight；

theannualinthespring，summer，autumn，andwintermonths。Nowwhileweliveintime，wemustabstainandfastfromalljoyintime，forthesakeofthateternityinwhichwewishtolive；althoughbythepassageoftimewearetaughtthisverylessonofdespisingtimeandseekingeternity。Further，thenumbertensignifiestheknowledgeoftheCreatorandthecreature，forthereisatrinityintheCreator；andthenumbersevenindicatesthecreature，becauseofthelifeandthebody。Forthelifeconsistsofthreeparts，whencealsoGodistobelovedwiththewholeheart，thewholesoul，andthewholemind；anditisveryclearthatinthebodytherearefourelementsofwhichitismadeup。Inthisnumberten，therefore，whenitisplacedbeforeusinconnectionwithtime，thatis，whenitistakenfourtimesweareadmonishedtoliveunstainedby，andnotpartakingof，anydelightintime，thatis，tofastforfortydays。OfthisweareadmonishedbythelawpersonifiedinMosesbyprophecypersonifiedinElijah，andbyourLordHimself，who，asifreceivingthewitnessbothofthelawandtheprophets，appearedonthemountbetweentheothertwo，whileHisthreediscipleslookedoninamazement。Next，wehavetoinquireinthesameway，howoutofthenumberfortyspringsthenumberfifty，whichinourreligionhasnoordinarysacrednessattachedtoitonaccountofthePentecost，andhowthisnumbertakenthriceonaccountofthethreedivisionsoftime，beforethelaw，underthelaw，andundergrace，orperhapsonaccountofthenameoftheFather，Son，andHolySpirit，andtheTrinityitselfbeingaddedoverandabove，hasreferencetothemysteryofthemostHolyChurch，andreachestothenumberoftheonehundredandfifty-threefisheswhichweretakenaftertheresurrectionofourLord，whenthenetswerecastoutontheright-handsideoftheboat。（1）

Andinthesameway，manyothernumbersandcombinationsofnumbersareusedinthesacredwritings，toconveyinstructionunderafigurativeguise，andignoranceofnumbersoftenshutsoutthereaderfromthisinstruction。

26。Notafewthings，too，areclosedagainstusandobscuredbyignoranceofmusic。Oneman，forexample，hasnotunskillfullyexplainedsomemetaphorsfromthedifferencebetweenthepsalteryandtheharp。（2）Anditisaquestionwhichitisnotoutofplaceforlearnedmentodiscuss，whetherthereisanymusicallawthatcompelsthepsalteryoftenchordstohavejustsomanystrings；orwhether，iftherebenosuchlaw，thenumberitselfisnotonthatveryaccountthemoretobeconsideredasofsacredsignificance，eitherwithreferencetothetencommandmentsofthelaw（andifagainanyquestionisraisedaboutthatnumber，wecanonlyreferittotheCreatorandthecreature），orwithreferencetothenumbertenitselfasinterpretedabove。Andthenumberofyearsthetemplewasinbuilding，whichismentionedinthegospel（3）——viz。，forty-six——hasacertainundefinablemusicalsound，andwhenreferredtothestructureofourLord’sbody，inrelationtowhichthetemplewasmentioned，compelsmanyhereticstoconfessthatourLordputon，notafalse，butatrueandhumanbody。AndinseveralplacesintheHolyScriptureswefindbothnumbersandmusicmentionedwithhonor。

CHAP。17。——ORIGINOFTHELEGENDOFTHE

NINEMUSES。

27。Forwemustnotlistentothefalsitiesofheathensuperstition，whichrepresentthenineMusesasdaughtersofJupiterandMercury。Varrorefutesthese，andIdoubtwhetheranyonecanbefoundamongthemmorecuriousormorelearnedinsuchmatters。Hesaysthatacertainstate（Idon’trecollectthename）

orderedfromeachofthreeartistsasetofstatuesoftheMuses，tobeplacedasanofferinginthetempleofApollo，intendingthatwhicheveroftheartistsproducedthemostbeautifulstatues，theyshouldselectandpurchasefromhim。Itsohappenedthattheseartistsexecutedtheirworkswithequalbeauty，thatallninepleasedthestate，andthatallwereboughttobededicatedinthetempleofApollo；andhesaysthatafterwardsHesiodthepoetgavenamestothemall。ItwasnotJupiter，therefore，thatbegatthenineMuses，butthreeartistscreatedthreeeach。Andthestatehadoriginallygiventheorderforthree，notbecauseithadseentheminvisions，norbecausetheyhadpresentedthemselvesinthatnumbertotheeyesofanyofthecitizens，butbecauseitwasobvioustoremarkthatallsound，whichisthematerialofsong，isbynatureofthreekinds。Foritiseitherproducedbythevoice，asinthecaseofthosewhosingwiththemouthwithoutaninstrument；orbyblowing，asinthecaseoftrumpetsandflutes；orbystriking，asinthecaseofharpsanddrums，andallotherinstrumentsthatgivetheirsoundwhenstruck。

CHAP。18。——NOHELPISTOBEDESPISED，EVENTHOUGHITCOMEFROMAPROFANE

SOURCE。

28。ButwhetherthefactisasVarrohasrelated，orisnotso，stillweoughtnottogiveupmusicbecauseofthesuperstitionoftheheathen，ifwecanderiveanythingfromitthatisofusefortheunderstandingofHolyScripture；nordoesitfollowthatwemustbusyourselveswiththeirtheatricaltrumperybecauseweenteruponaninvestigationaboutharpsandotherinstruments，thatmayhelpustolayholduponspiritualthings。ForweoughtnottorefusetolearnlettersbecausetheysaythatMercurydiscoveredthem；norbecausetheyhavededicatedtemplestoJusticeandVirtue，andprefertoworshipintheformofstonesthingsthatoughttohavetheirplaceintheheart，oughtweonthataccounttoforsakejusticeandvirtue。Nay，butleteverygoodandtrueChristianunderstandthatwherevertruthmaybefound，itbelongstohisMaster；andwhileherecognizesandacknowledgesthetruth，evenintheirreligiousliterature，lethimrejectthefigmentsofsuperstition，andlethimgrieveoverandavoidmenwho，"whentheyknewGod，glorifiedhimnotasGod，neitherwerethankful；butbecamevainintheirimaginations，andtheirfoolishheartwasdarkened。Professingthemselvestobewise，theybecamefools，andchangedthegloryoftheuncorruptibleGodintoanimagemadeliketocorruptibleman，andtobirds，andfour-footedbeasts，andcreepingthings。"（1）

CHAP。19。——TWOKINDSOFHEATHENKNOWLEDGE。

29。Buttoexplainmorefullythiswholetopic（foritisonethatcannotbeomitted），therearetwokindsofknowledgewhichareinvogueamongtheheathen。Oneistheknowledgeofthingsinstitutedbymen，theotherofthingswhichtheyhavenoted，eitherastransactedinthepastorasinstitutedbyGod。Theformerkind，thatwhichdealswithhumaninstitutions，ispartlysuperstitious，partlynot。

CHAP。20。——THESUPERSTITIOUSNATUREOF

HUMANINSTITUTIONS。

30。Allthearrangementsmadebymenforthemakingandworshippingofidolsaresuperstitious，pertainingastheydoeithertotheworshipofwhatiscreatedorofsomepartofitasGod，ortoconsultationsandarrangementsaboutsignsandleagueswithdevils，such，forexample，asareemployedinthemagicalarts，andwhichthepoetsareaccustomednotsomuchtoteachastocelebrate。Andtothisclassbelong，butwithabolderteachofdeception，thebooksoftheharuspicesandaugurs。Inthisclasswemustplacealsoallamuletsandcureswhichthemedicalartcondemns，whethertheseconsistinIncantations，orinmarkswhichtheycallcharacters，orinhangingortyingonorevendancinginafashioncertainarticles，notwithreferencetotheconditionofthebody，buttocertainsignshiddenormanifest；andtheseremediestheycallbythelessoffensivenameofphysica，soastoappearnottobeengagedinsuperstitiousobservances，buttobetakingadvantageoftheforcesofnature。

Examplesofthesearetheearringsonthetopofeachear，ortheringsofostrichboneonthefingers，ortellingyouwhenyouhiccuptoholdyourleftthumbinyourrighthand。

31。Tothesewemayaddthousandsofthemostfrivolouspractices，thataretobeobservedifanypartofthebodyshouldjump，orif，whenfriendsarewalkingarm-in-arm，astone，oradog，oraboy，shouldcomebetweenthem。Andthekickingofastone，asifitwereadivideroffriends，doeslessharmthantocuffaninnocentboyifhehappenstorunbetweenmenwhoarewalkingsidebyside。Butitisdelightfulthattheboysaresometimesavengedbythedogs；forfrequentlymenaresosuperstitiousastoventureuponstrikingadogwhohasrunbetweenthem，——notwithimpunityhowever，forinsteadofasuperstitiousremedy，thedogsometimesmakeshisassailantruninhothasteforarealsurgeon。Tothisclass，too，belongthefollowingrules：Totreaduponthethresholdwhenyougooutinfrontofthehouse；togobacktobedifanyoneshouldsneezewhenyouareputtingonyourslippers；toreturnhomeifyoustumblewhengoingtoaplace；whenyourclothesareeatenbymice，tobemorefrightenedattheprospectofcomingmisfortunethangrievedbyyourpresentloss。WhencethatwittysayingofCato，who，whenconsultedbyamanwhotoldhimthatthemicehadeatenhisboots，replied，"Thatisnotstrange，butitwouldhavebeenverystrangeindeedifthebootshadeatenthemice。"

CHAP。21。——SUPERSTITIONOFASTROLOGERS。

32。Norcanweexcludefromthiskindofsuperstitionthosewhowerecalledgenethliaci，onaccountoftheirattentiontobirthdays，butarenowcommonlycalledmathematici。Forthese，too，althoughtheymayseekwithpainsforthetruepositionofthestarsatthetimeofourbirth，andmaysometimesevenfinditout，yetinsofarastheyattemptthencetopredictouractions，ortheconsequencesofouractions，grievouslyerr，andsellinexperiencedmenintoamiserablebondage。Forwhenanyfreemangoestoanastrologerofthiskind，hegivesmoneythathemaycomeawaytheslaveeitherofMarsorofVenus，orrather，perhaps，ofallthestarstowhichthosewhofirstfellintothiserror，andhandeditontoposterity，havegiventhenameseitherofbeastsonaccountoftheirlikenesstobeasts，orofmenwithaviewtoconferhonoronthosemen。Andthisisnottobewonderedat，whenweconsiderthatevenintimesmorerecentandnearerourown，theRomansmadeanattempttodedicatethestarwhichwecallLucifertothenameandhonorofCaesar。

Andthiswould，perhaps，havebeendone，andthenamehandeddowntodistantages，onlythathisancestressVenushadgivenhernametothisstarbeforehim，andcouldnotbyanylawtransfertoherheirswhatshehadneverpossessed，norsoughttopossess，inlife。Forwhereaplacewasvacant，ornotheldinhonorofanyofthedeadofformertimes，theusualproceedinginsuchcaseswascarriedout。Forexample，wehavechangedthenamesofthemonthsQuintilisandSextilistoJulyandAugust，namingtheminhonorofthemenJuliusCaesarandAugustusCaesar；andfromthisinstanceanyonewhocarescaneasilyseethatthestarsspokenofaboveformerlywanderedintheheavenswithoutthenamestheynowbear。Butasthemenweredeadwhosememorypeoplewereeithercompelledbyroyalpowerorimpelledbyhumanfollytohonor，theyseemedtothinkthatinputtingtheirnamesuponthestarstheywereraisingthedeadmenthemselvestoheaven。Butwhatevertheymaybecalledbymen，stilltherearestarswhichGodhasmadeandsetinorderafterHisownpleasure，andtheyhaveafixedmovement，bywhichtheseasonsaredistinguishedandvaried。

Andwhenanyoneisborn，itiseasytoobservethepointatwhichthismovementhasarrived，byuseoftherulesdiscoveredandlaiddownbythosewhoarerebukedbyHolyWritintheseterms：

"Foriftheywereabletoknowsomuchthattheycouldweightheworld，howdidtheynotmoreeasilyfindouttheLordthereof？"（1）

CHAP。22。——THEFOLLYOFOBSERVINGTHESTARS

INORDERTOPREDICTTHEEVENTSOFALIFE。

33。Buttodesiretopredictthecharacters，theacts，andthefateofthosewhoarebornfromsuchanobservation，isagreatdelusionandgreatmadness。Andamongthoseatleastwhohaveanysortofacquaintancewithmattersofthiskind（which，indeed，areonlyfittobeunlearntagain），thissuperstitionisrefutedbeyondthereachofdoubt。Fortheobservationisofthepositionofthestars，whichtheycallconstellations，atthetimewhenthepersonwasbornaboutwhomthesewretchedmenareconsultedbytheirstillmorewretcheddupes。Nowitmayhappenthat，inthecaseoftwins，onefollowstheotheroutofthewombsocloselythatthereisnointervaloftimebetweenthemthatcanbeapprehendedandmarkedinthepositionoftheconstellations。Whenceitnecessarilyfollowsthattwinsareinmanycasesbornunderthesamestars，whiletheydonotmeetwithequalfortuneeitherinwhattheydoorwhattheysuffer，butoftenmeetwithfatessodifferentthatoneofthemhasamostfortunatelife，theotheramostunfortunate。As，forexample，wearetoldthatEsauandJacobwereborntwins，andinsuchclosesuccession，thatJacob，whowasbornlast，wasfoundtohavelaidholdwithhishandupontheheelofhisbrother，whoprecededhim。（2）Now，assuredly，thedayandhourofthebirthofthesetwocouldnotbemarkedinanywaythatwouldnotgiveboththesameconstellation。Butwhatadifferencetherewasbetweenthecharacters，theactions，thelabors，andthefortunesofthesetwo，theScripturesbearwitness，whicharenowsowidelyspreadastobeinthemouthofallnations。

34。Norisittothepointtosaythattheverysmallestandbriefestmomentoftimethatseparatesthebirthoftwins，producesgreateffectsinnature，andintheextremelyrapidmotionoftheheavenlybodies。For，althoughImaygrantthatitdoesproducethegreatesteffects，yettheastrologercannotdiscoverthisintheconstellations，anditisbylookingintothesethatheprofessestoreadthefates。If，then，hedoesnotdiscoverthedifferencewhenheexaminestheconstellations，whichmust，ofcourse，bethesamewhetherheisconsultedaboutJacoborhisbrother，whatdoesitprofithimthatthereisadifferenceintheheavens，whichherashlyandcarelesslybringsintodisrepute，whenthereisnodifferenceinhischart，whichhelooksintoanxiouslybutinvain？Andsothesenotionsalso，whichhavetheiroriginincertainsignsofthingsbeingarbitrarilyfixeduponbythepresumptionofmen，aretobereferredtothesameclassasiftheywereleaguesandcovenantswithdevils。

CHAP。23。——WHYWEREPUDIATEARTSOFDIVINATION。

35。Forinthiswayitcomestopassthatmenwholustafterevilthingsare，byasecretjudgmentofGod，deliveredovertobemockedanddeceived，asthejustrewardoftheirevildesires。Fortheyaredeludedandimposedonbythefalseangels，towhomthelowestpartoftheworldhasbeenputinsubjectionbythelawofGod’sprovidence，andinaccordancewithHismostadmirablearrangementofthings。Andtheresultofthesedelusionsanddeceptionsis，thatthroughthesesuperstitiousandbanefulmodesofdivinationmanythingsinthepastandfuturearemadeknown，andturnoutjustastheyareforetoldandinthecaseofthosewhopractisesuperstitiousobservances，manythingsturnoutagreeablytotheirobservances，andensnaredbythesesuccesses，theybecomemoreeagerlyinquisitive，andinvolvethemselvesfurtherandfurtherinalabyrinthofmostperniciouserror。Andtoouradvantage，theWordofGodisnotsilentaboutthisspeciesoffornicationofthesoul；anditdoesnotwarnthesoulagainstfollowingsuchpracticesonthegroundthatthosewhoprofessthemspeaklies，butitsays，"Evenifwhattheytellyoushouldcometopass，hearkennotuntothem。"IForthoughtheghostofthedeadSamuelforetoldthetruthtoKingSaul，（2）thatdoesnotmakesuchsacrilegiousobservancesasthosebywhichhisghostwasbroughtupthelessdetestable；andthoughtheventriloquistwoman（3）intheActsoftheApostlesboretruetestimonytotheapostlesoftheLord，theApostlePauldidnotsparetheevilspiritonthataccount，butrebukedandcastitout，andsomadethewomanclean。（4）

36。Allartsofthissort，therefore，areeithernullities，orarepartofaguiltysuperstition，springingoutofabalefulfellowshipbetweenmenanddevils，andaretobeutterlyrepudiatedandavoidedbytheChristianasthecovenantsofafalseandtreacherousfriendship。"Notasiftheidolwereanything，"saystheapostle；"butbecausethethingswhichtheysacrificetheysacrificetodevilsandnottoGod；andIwouldnotthatyeshouldhavefellowshipwithdevils。"（5）Nowwhattheapostlehassaidaboutidolsandthesacrificesofferedintheirhonor，thatweoughttofeelinregardtoallfanciedsignswhichleadeithertotheworshipofidols，ortoworshippingcreationoritspartsinsteadofGod，orwhichareconnectedwithattentiontomedicinalcharmsandotherobservancesforthesearenotappointedbyGodasthepublicmeansofpromotinglovetowardsGodandourneighbor，buttheywastetheheartsofwretchedmeninprivateandselfishstrivingsaftertemporalthings。Accordingly，inregardtoallthesebranchesofknowledge，wemustfearandshunthefellowshipofdemons，who，withtheDeviltheirprince，striveonlytoshutandbarthedooragainstourreturn。As，then，fromthestarswhichGodcreatedandordained，menhavedrawnlyingomensoftheirownfancy，soalsofromthingsthatareborn，orinanyotherwaycomeintoexIstenceunderthegovernmentofGod’sprovidence，iftherechanceonlytobesomethingunusualintheoccurrence，——aswhenamulebringsforthyoung，oranobjectisstruckbylightning，——menhavefrequentlydrawnomensbyconjecturesoftheirown，andhavecommittedthemtowriting，asiftheyhaddrawnthembyrule。

CHAP。24。——THEINTERCOURSEANDAGREEMENTWITHDEMONSWHICHSUPERSTITIOUS

OBSERVANCESMAINTAIN。

37。Andalltheseomensareofforcejustsofarashasbeenarrangedwiththedevilsbythatpreviousunderstandinginthemindwhichis，asitwere，thecommonlanguage，buttheyareallfullofhurtfulcuriosity，torturinganxiety，anddeadlyslavery。Foritwasnotbecausetheyhadmeaningthattheywereattendedto，butitwasbyattendingtoandmarkingthemthattheycametohavemeaning。Andsotheyaremadedifferentfordifferentpeople，accordingtotheirseveralnotionsandprejudices。Forthosespiritswhicharebentupondeceiving，takecaretoprovideforeachpersonthesamesortofomensastheyseehisownconjecturesandpreconceptionshavealreadyentangledhimin。For，totakeanillustration，thesamefigureoftheletterX，whichismadeintheshapeofacross，meansonethingamongtheGreeksandanotheramongtheLatins，notbynature，butbyagreementandpre-arrangementastoitssignification；andso，anyonewhoknowsbothlanguagesusesthisletterinadifferentsensewhenwritingtoaGreekfromthatinwhichheusesitwhenwritingtoaLatin。Andthesamesound，beta，whichisthenameofaletteramongtheGreeks，isthenameofavegetableamongtheLatins；andwhenIsay，lege，thesetwosyllablesmeanonethingtoaGreekandanothertoaLatin。Now，justasallthesesignsaffectthemindaccordingtothearrangementsofthecommunityinwhicheachmanlives，andaffectdifferentmen’smindsdifferently，becausethesearrangementsaredifferent；

andas，further，mendidnotagreeuponthemassignsbecausetheywerealreadysignificant，butonthecontrarytheyarenowsignificantbecausemenhaveagreeduponthem；inthesamewayalso，thosesignsbywhichtheruinousintercoursewithdevilsismaintainedhavemeaningjustinproportiontoeachman’sobservations。

Andthisappearsquiteplainlyintheritesoftheaugurs；forthey，bothbeforetheyobservetheomensandaftertheyhavecompletedtheirobservations，takepainsnottoseetheflightorhearthecriesofbirds，becausetheseomensareofnosignificanceapartfromthepreviousarrangementinthemindoftheobserver。

CHAP。25。——INHUMANINSTITUTIONSWHICHARENOTSUPERSTITIOUS，THERE

ARESOMETHINGS

SUPERFLUOUSANDSOMECONVENIENTANDNECESSARY。

38。ButwhenallthesehavebeencutawayandrootedoutofthemindoftheChristianwemustthenlookathumaninstitutionswhicharenotsuperstitious，thatis，suchasarenotsetupinassociationwithdevils，butbymeninassociationwithoneanother。

Forallarrangementsthatayeinforceamongmen，becausetheyhaveagreedamongthemselvesthattheyshouldbeinforce，arehumaninstitutions；andofthese，somearemattersofsuperfluityandluxury，someofconvenienceandnecessity。Forifthosesignswhichtheactorsmakeindancingwereofforcebynature，andnotbythearrangementandagreementofmen，thepubliccrierwouldnotinformertimeshaveannouncedtothepeopleofCarthage，whilethepantomimewasdancing，whatitwashemeanttoexpress，——athingstillrememberedbymanyoldmenfromwhomwehavefrequentlyheardit。IAndwemaywellbelievethis，becauseevennow，ifanyonewhoisunaccustomedtosuchfolliesgoesintothetheatre，unlesssomeonetellshimwhatthesemovementsmean，hewillgivehiswholeattentiontotheminvain。Yetallmenaimatacertaindegreeoflikenessintheirchoiceofsigns，thatthesignsmayasfaraspossiblebelikethethingstheysignify。Butbecauseonethingmayresembleanotherinmanyways，suchsignsarenotalwaysofthesamesignificanceamongmen，exceptwhentheyhavemutuallyagreeduponthem。

39。Butinregardtopicturesandstatues，andotherworksofthiskind，whichareintendedasrepresentationsofthings，nobodymakesamistake，especiallyiftheyareexecutedbyskilledartists，buteveryone，assoonasheseesthelikenesses，recognizesthethingstheyarelikenessesof。Andthiswholeclassaretobereckonedamongthesuperfluousdevicesofmen，unlesswhenitisamatterofimportancetoinquireinregardtoanyofthem，forwhatreason，where，when，andbywhoseauthorityitwasmade。Finally，thethousandsoffablesandfictions，inwhoseliesmentakedelight，arehumandevices，andnothingistobeconsideredmorepeculiarlyman’sownandderivedfromhimselfthananythingthatisfalseandlying。Amongtheconvenientandnecessaryarrangementsofmenwithmenaretobereckonedwhateverdifferencestheychoosetomakeinbodilydressandornamentforthepurposeofdistinguishingsexorrank；andthecountlessvarietiesofsignswithoutwhichhumanintercourseeithercouldnotbecarriedonatall，orwouldbecarriedonatgreatinconvenience；andthearrangementsastoweightsandmeasures，andthestampingandweighingofcoins，whicharepeculiartoeachstateandpeople，andotherthingsofthesamekind。Nowthese，iftheywerenotdevicesofmen，wouldnotbedifferentindifferentnations，andcouldnotbechangedamongparticularnationsatthediscretionoftheirrespectivesovereigns。

40。Thiswholeclassofhumanarrangements，whichareofconvenienceforthenecessaryintercourseoflife，theChristianisnotbyanymeanstoneglect，butonthecontraryshouldpayasufficientdegreeofattentiontothem，andkeeptheminmemory。

CHAP。26。——WHATHUMANCONTRIVANCESWEARETOADOPT，ANDWHATWEARE

TOAVOID。

Forcertaininstitutionsofmenareinasortofwayrepresentationsandlikenessesofnaturalobjects。Andofthese，suchashaverelationtofellowshipwithdevilsmust，ashasbeensaid，beutterlyrejectedandheldindetestation；those，ontheotherhand，whichrelatetothemutualintercourseofmen，are，sofarastheyarenotmattersofluxuryandsuperfluity，tobeadopted，especiallytheformsoftheletterswhicharenecessaryforreading，andthevariouslanguagesasfarasisrequired——amatterI

havespokenofabove。（2）Tothisclassalsobelongshorthandcharacters，（3）

thosewhoareacquaintedwithwhicharecalledshorthandwriters。（4）Alltheseareuseful，andthereisnothingunlawfulinlearningthem，nordotheyinvolveusinsuperstition，orenervateusbyluxury，iftheyonlyoccupyourmindssofarasnottostandinthewayofmoreimportantobjectstowhichtheyoughttobesubservientCHAP。27。——SOMEDEPARTMENTSOFKNOWLEDGE，NOTOFMEREHUMANINVENTION，AIDUSIN

INTERPRETINGSCRIPTURE。

41。But，comingtothenextpoint，wearenottoreckonamonghumaninstitutionsthosethingswhichmennavehandeddowntous，notasarrangementsoftheirown，butastheresultofinvestigationintotheoccurrencesofthepast，andintothearrangementsofGod’sprovidence。Andofthese，somepertaintothebodilysenses，sometotheintellect。Thosewhicharereachedbythebodilysensesweeitherbelieveontestimony，orperceivewhentheyarepointedouttous，orinferfromexperience。

CHAP。28。——TOWHATEXTENTHISTORYISANAID。

42。Anything，then，thatwelearnfromhistoryaboutthechronologyofpasttimesassistsusverymuchinunderstandingtheScriptures，evenifitbelearntwithoutthepaleoftheChurchasamatterofchildishinstruction。ForwefrequentlyseekinformationaboutavarietyofmattersbyuseoftheOlympiads，andthenamesoftheconsuls；andignoranceoftheconsulshipinwhichourLordwasborn，andthatinwhichHesuffered，hasledsomeintotheerrorofsupposingthatHewasforty-sixyearsofagewhenHesuffered，thatbeingthenumberofyearsHewastoldbytheJewsthetemple（whichHetookasasymbolofHisbody）wasinbuilding。（1）NowweknowontheauthorityoftheevangelistthatHewasaboutthirtyyearsofagewhenHewasbaptized；（2）ButthenumberofyearsHelivedafterwards，althoughbyputtingHisactionstogetherwecanmakeitout，yetthatnoshadowofdoubtmightarisefromanothersource，canbeascertainedmoreclearlyandmorecertainlyfromacomparisonofprofanehistorywiththegospel。Itwillstillbeevident，however，thatitwasnotwithoutapurposeitwassaidthatthetemplewasfortyandsixyearsinbuilding；sothat，asmoresecretformationofthebodywhich，foroursakes，theonly-begottenSonofGod，bywhomallthingsweremade，condescendedtoputon。（3）

43。Astotheutilityofhistory，moreover，passingovertheGreeks，whatagreatquestionourownAmbrosehassetatrest！

For，whenthereadersandadmirersofPlatodaredcalumniouslytoassertthatourLordJesusChristlearntallthosesayingsofHis，whichtheyarecompelledtoadmireandpraise，fromthebooksofPlato——because（theyurged）itcannotbedeniedthatPlatolivedlongbeforethecomingofourLord！——didnottheillustriousbishop，whenbyhisinvestigationsintoprofanehistoryhehaddiscoveredthatPlatomadeajourneyintoEgyptatthetimewhenJeremiahtheprophetwasthere，（4）showthatitismuchmorelikelythatPlatowasthroughJeremiah’smeansinitiatedintoourliterature，soastobeabletoteachandwritethoseviewsofhiswhicharesojustlypraised？FornotevenPythagorashimself，fromwhosesuccessorsthesemenassertPlatolearnttheology，livedatadatepriortothebooksofthatHebrewrace，amongwhomtheworshipofoneGodsprangup，andofwhomasconcerningthefleshourLordcame。Andthus，whenwereflectuponthedates，itbecomesmuchmoreprobablethatthosephilosopherslearntWhatevertheysaidthatwasgoodandtruefromourliterature，thanthattheLordJesusChristlearntfromthewritingsofPlato，——athingwhichitistheheightoffollytobelieve。

44。Andevenwheninthecourseofanhistoricalnarrativeformerinstitutionsofmenaredescribed，thehistoryitselfisnottobereckonedamonghumaninstitutions；becausethingsthatarepastandgoneandcannotbeundonearetobereckonedasbelongingtothecourseoftime，ofwhichGodistheauthorandgovernor。

Foritisonethingtotellwhathasbeendone，anothertoshowwhatoughttobedone。Historynarrateswhathasbeendone，faithfullyandwithadvantage；butthebooksoftheharuspices，andallwritingsofthesamekind，aimatteachingwhatoughttobedoneorobserved，usingtheboldnessofanadviser，notthefidelityofanarrator。

CHAP。29。——TOWHATEXTENTNATURALSCIENCEISANEXEGETICALAID。

45。Thereisalsoaspeciesofnarrativeresemblingdescription，inwhichnotapastbutanexistingstateofthingsismadeknowntothosewhoareignorantofit。Tothisspeciesbelongsallthathasbeenwrittenaboutthesituationofplaces，andthenatureofanimals，trees，herbs，stones，andotherbodies。AndofthisspeciesIhavetreatedabove，andhaveshownthatthiskindofknowledgeisserviceableinsolvingthedifficultiesofScripture，notthattheseobjectsaretobeusedconformablytocertainsignsasnostrumsortheinstrumentsofsuperstition；forthatkindofknowledgeIhavealreadysetasideasdistinctfromthelawfulandfreekindnowspokenof。Foritisonethingtosay：Ifyoubruisedownthisherbanddrinkit，itwillremovethepainfromyourstomach；andanothertosay：Ifyouhangthisherbroundyourneck，itwillremovethepainfromyourstomach。Intheformercasethewholesomemixtureisapprovedof，inthelatterthesuperstitiouscharmiscondemned；althoughindeed，whereincantationsandinvocationsandmarksarenotused，itisfrequentlydoubtfulwhetherthethingthatistiedorfixedinanywaytothebodytocureit，actsbyanaturalvirtue，inwhichcaseitmaybefreelyused；oractsbyasortofcharm，inwhichcaseitbecomestheChristiantoavoiditthemorecarefully，themoreefficaciousitmayseemtobe。Butwhenthereasonwhyathingisofvirtuedoesnotappear，theintentionwithwhichitisusedisofgreatimportance，atleastinhealingorintemperingbodies，whetherinmedicineorinagriculture。

46。Theknowledgeofthestars，again，isnotamatterofnarration，butofdescription。Veryfewofthese，however，arementionedinScripture。Andasthecourseofthemoon，whichisregularlyemployedinreferencetocelebratingtheanniversaryofourLord’spassion，isknowntomostpeople；sotherisingandsettingandothermovementsoftherestoftheheavenlybodiesarethoroughlyknowntoveryfew。Andthisknowledge，althoughinitselfitinvolvesnosuperstition，rendersverylittle，indeedalmostnoassistance，intheinterpretationofHolyScripture，andbyengagingtheattentionunprofitablyisahindrancerather；andasitiscloselyrelatedtotheveryperniciouserrorofthedivinersofthefates，itismoreconvenientandbecomingtoneglectit。Itinvolves，moreover，inadditiontoadescriptionofthepresentstateofthings，somethinglikeanarrativeofthepastalso；becauseonemaygobackfromthepresentpositionandmotionofthestars，andtracebyruletheirpastmovements。Itinvolvesalsoregularanticipationsofthefuture，notinthewayofforebodingsandomens，butbywayofsurecalculation；notwiththedesignofdrawinganyinformationfromthemastoourownactsandfates，intheabsurdfashionofthegenethliaci，butonlyastothemotionsoftheheavenlybodiesthemselves。For，asthemanwhocomputesthemoon’sagecantell，whenhehasfoundoutheragetoday，whatheragewasanynumberofyearsago，orwhatwillbeherageanynumberofyearshence，injustthesamewaymenwhoareskilledinsuchcomputationsareaccustomedtoanswerlikequestionsabouteveryoneoftheheavenlybodies。AndIhavestatedwhatmyviewsareaboutallthisknowledge，sofarasregardsitsutility。

CHAP。30。——WHATTHEMECHANICALARTSCONTRIBUTETOEXEGETICS。

47。Further，astotheremainingarts，whetherthosebywhichsomethingismadewhich，whentheeffortoftheworkmanisover，remainsasaresultofhiswork，as，forexample，ahouse，abench，adish，andotherthingsofthatkind；orthosewhich，sotospeak，assistGodinHisoperations，asmedicine，andagriculture，andnavigation：orthosewhosesoleresultisanaction，asdancing，andracing，andwrestling；——inalltheseartsexperienceteachesustoinferthefuturefromthepast。Fornomanwhoisskilledinanyoftheseartsmoveshislimbsinanyoperationwithoutconnectingthememoryofthepastwiththeexpectationofthefuture。Nowoftheseartsaverysuperficialandcursoryknowledgeistobeacquired，notwithaviewtopractisingthem（unlesssomedutycompelus，amatteronwhichIdonottouchatpresent），butwithaviewtoformingajudgmentaboutthem，thatwemaynotbewhollyignorantofwhatScripturemeanstoconveywhenitemploysfiguresofspeechderivedfromthesearts。

CHAP。31。——USEOFDIALECTICS。OFFALLACIES。

48。Thereremainthosebranchesofknowledgewhichpertainnottothebodilysenses，buttotheintellect，amongwhichthescienceofreasoningandthatofnumberarethechief。ThescienceofreasoningisofverygreatserviceinsearchingintoandunravellingallsortsofquestionsthatcomeupinScripture，onlyintheuseofitwemustguardagainsttheloveofwrangling，andthechildishvanityofentrappinganadversary。Fortherearemanyofwhatarecalledsolphisms，inferencesinreasoningthatarefalse，andyetsocloseanimitationofthetrue，astodeceivenotonlydullpeople，butclevermentoo，whentheyarenotontheirguard。Forexample，onemanlaysbeforeanotherwithwhomheistalking，theproposition，"WhatIam，youarenot。"Theotherassents，forthepropositionisinparttrue，theonemanbeingcunningandtheothersimple。Thenthefirstspeakeradds："Iamaman；"andwhentheotherhasgivenhisassenttothisalso，thefirstdrawshisconclusion："Thenyouarenotaman。"’Nowofthissortofensnaringarguments，Scripture，asIjudge，expressesdetestationinthatplacewhereitissaid，"Thereisonethatshowethwisdominwords，andishated；"（1）although，indeed，astyleofspeechwhichisnotintendedtoentrap，butonlyaimsatverbalornamentationmorethanisconsistentwithseriousnessofpurpose，isalsocalledsophistical。

49。Therearealsovalidprocessesofreasoningwhichleadtofalseconclusions，byfollowingouttoitslogicalconsequencestheerrorofthemanwithwhomoneisarguing；andtheseconclusionsaresometimesdrawnbyagoodandlearnedman，withtheobjectofmakingthepersonfromwhoseerrortheseconsequencesresult，feelashamedofthemandofthusleadinghimtogiveuphiserrorwhenhefindsthatifhewishestoretainhisoldopinion，hemustofnecessityalsoholdotheropinionswhichhecondemns。Forexample，theapostledidnotdrawtrueconclusionswhenhesaid，"ThenisChristnotrisen，"andagain，"Thenisourpreachingvain，andyourfaithisalsovain；"（1）andfurtherondrewotherinferenceswhichareallutterlyfalse；forChristhasrisen，thepreachingofthosewhodeclaredthisfactwasnotinvain，norwastheirfaithinvainwhohadbelievedit。Butallthesefalseinferencesfollowedlegitimatelyfromtheopinionofthosewhosaidthatthereisnoresurrectionofthedead。Theseinferences，then，beingrepudiatedasfalse，itfollowsthatsincetheywouldbetrueifthedeadrisenot，therewillbearesurrectionofthedead。As，then，validconclusionsmaybedrawnnotonlyfromtruebutfromfalsepropositions，thelawsofvalidreasoningmayeasilybelearntintheschools，outsidethepaleoftheChurch。ButthetruthofpropositionsmustbeinquiredintointhesacredbooksoftheChurch。

CHAP。32。——VALIDLOGICALSEQUENCEISNOTDEVISEDBUTONLYOBSERVEDBY

MAN。

50。Andyetthevalidityoflogicalsequencesisnotathingdevisedbymen，butisobservedandnotedbythemthattheymaybeabletolearnandteachit；foritexistseternallyinthereasonofthings，andhasitsoriginwithGod。Forasthemanwhonarratestheorderofeventsdoesnothimselfcreatethatorder；andashewhodescribesthesituationsofplaces，orthenaturesofanimals，orroots，orminerals，doesnotdescribearrangementsofman；

andashewhopointsoutthestarsandtheirmovementsdoesnotpointoutanythingthathehimselforanyothermanhasordained；——inthesameway，hewhosays，"Whentheconsequentisfalse，theantecedentmustalsobefalse，"sayswhatismosttrue；buthedoesnothimselfmakeitso，heonlypointsoutthatitisso。AnditisuponthisrulethatthereasoningIhavequotedfromtheApostlePaulproceeds。Fortheantecedentis，"Thereisnoresurrectionofthedead，"——thepositiontakenupbythosewhoseerrortheapostlewishedtooverthrow。Next，fromthisantecedent，theassertion，viz。，thatthereisnoresurrectionofthedead，thenecessaryconsequenceis，"ThenChristisnotrisen。"Butthisconsequenceisfalse，forChristhasrisen；thereforetheantecedentisalsofalse。Buttheantecedentis，thatthereisnoresurrectionofthedead。Weconclude，therefore，thatthereisaresurrectionofthedead。Nowallthisisbrieflyexpressedthus：Ifthereisnoresurrectionofthedead，thenisChristnotrisen；butChristisrisen，thereforethereisaresurrectionofthedead。Thisrule，then，thatwhentheconsequentisremoved，theantecedentmustalsoberemoved，isnotmadebyman，butonlypointedoutbyhim。Andthisrulehasreferencetothevalidityofthereasoning，nottothetruthofthestatements。

CHAP。33。——FALSEINFERENCESMAYBEDRAWNFROMVALIDREASONINGS，AND

VICEVERSA。

51。Inthispassage，however，wheretheargumentisabouttheresurrection，boththelawoftheinferenceisvalid，andtheconclusionarrivedatistrue。Butinthecaseoffalseconclusions，too，thereisavalidityofinferenceinsomesuchwayasthefollowing。Letussupposesomemantohaveadmitted：Ifasnailisananimal，ithasavoice。Thisbeingadmitted，then，whenithasbeenprovedthatthesnailhasnovoice，itfollows（sincewhentheconsequentisprovedfalse，theantecedentisalsofalse）

thatthesnailisnotananimal。Nowthisconclusionisfalse，butitisatrueandvalidinferencefromthefalseadmission。Thus，thetruthofastatementstandsonitsownmerits；thevalidityofaninferencedependsonthestatementortheadmissionofthemanwithwhomoneisarguing。Andthus，asIsaidabove，afalseinferencemaybedrawnbyavalidprocessofreasoning，inorderthathewhoseerrorwewishtocorrectmaybesorrythathehasadmittedtheantecedent，whenheseesthatitslogicalconsequencesareutterlyuntenable。Andhenceitiseasytounderstandthatastheinferencesmaybevalidwheretheopinionsarefalse，sotheinferencesmaybeunsoundwheretheopinionsaretrue。Forexample，supposethatamanpropoundsthestatement，"Ifthismanisjust，heisgood，"andweadmititstruth。

Thenheadds，"Butheisnotjust；"andwhenweadmitthistoo，hedrawstheconclusion，"Thereforeheisnotgood。"Nowalthougheveryoneofthesestatementsmaybetrue，stilltheprincipleoftheinferenceisunsound。Foritisnottruethat，aswhentheconsequentisprovedfalsetheantecedentisalsofalse，sowhentheantecedentisprovedfalsetheconsequentisfalse。Forthestatementistrue，"Ifheisanorator，heisaman。"Butifweadd，"Heisnotanorator，"theconsequencedoesnotfollow，"Heisnotaman。"

CHAP。34。——ITISONETHINGTOKNOWTHELAWSOFINFERENCE，ANOTHERTO

KNOWTHETRUTH

OFOPINIONS。

52。Thereforeitisonethingtoknowthelawsofinference，andanothertoknowthetruthofopinions。Intheformercasewelearnwhatisconsequent，whatisinconsequent，andwhatisincompatible。

Anexampleofaconsequentis，"Ifheisanorator，heisaman；"ofaninconsequent，"Ifheisaman，heisanorator；"ofanincompatible，"Ifheisaman，heisaquadruped。"Intheseinstanceswejudgeoftheconnection。Inregardtothetruthofopinions，however，wemustconsiderpropositionsastheystandbythemselves，andnotintheirconnectionwithoneanother；butwhenpropositionsthatwearenotsureaboutarejoinedbyavalidinferencetopropositionsthataretrueandcertain，theythemselves，too，necessarilybecomecertain。Nowsome，whentheyhaveascertainedthevalidityoftheinference，plumethemselvesasifthisinvolvedalsothetruthofthepropositions。Many，again，whoholdthetrueopinionshaveanunfoundedcontemptforthemselves，becausetheyareignorantofthelawsofinference；whereasthemanwhoknowsthatthereisaresurrectionofthedeadisassuredlybetterthanthemanwhoonlyknowsthatitfollowsthatifthereisnoresurrectionofthedead，thenisChristnotrisen。

CHAP。35。——THESCIENCEOFDEFINITIONISNOTFALSE，THOUGHITMAYBE

APPLIEDTO

FALSITIES。

53。Again，thescienceofdefinition，ofdivision，andofpartition，althoughitisfrequentlyappliedtofalsities，isnotitselffalse，norframedbyman’sdevice，butisevolvedfromthereasonofthings。Foralthoughpoetshaveappliedittotheirfictions，andfalsephilosophers，orevenheretics——thatis，falseChristians——totheirerroneousdoctrines，thatisnoreasonwhyitshouldbefalse，forexample，thatneitherindefinition，norindivision，norinpartition，isanythingtobeincludedthatdoesnotpertaintothematterinhand，noranythingtobeomittedthatdoes。Thisistrue，eventhoughthethingstobedefinedordividedarenottrue。

Forevenfalsehooditselfisdefinedwhenwesaythatfalsehoodisthedeclarationofastateofthingswhichisnotaswedeclareittobe；andthisdefinitionistrue，althoughfalsehooditselfcannotbetrue。Wecanalsodivideit，sayingthattherearetwokindsoffalsehood，oneinregardtothingsthatcannotbetrueatall，theotherinregardtothingsthatarenot，thoughitispossibletheymightbe，true。Forexample，themanwhosaysthatsevenandthreeareeleven，sayswhatcannotbetrueunderanycircumstances；buthewhosaysthatitrainedonthekalendsofJanuary，althoughperhapsthefactisnotso，sayswhatposssiblymighthavebeen。Thedefinitionanddivision，therefore，ofwhatisfalsemaybeperfectlytrue，althoughwhatisfalsecannot，ofcourse，itselfbetrue。

【推荐阅读】幽幽深宫，醒来一梦似千年，重生于下堂妃身躯中的她，将如何手刃仇人? 点击阅读