LectureI

TheMatrimonialCustomsandUsagesoftheRussianPeople，andtheLightTheyThrowontheEvolutionofMarriageThewidehistoricalstudiespursuedbymembersoftheUniversityofOxfordnecessarilyincludethestudyoftheSlavonicrace。Thepartwhichthisraceisbeginningtoplayintheeconomicandsocialprogressofourtime，andtheconsiderableachievementswhichithasalreadymadeinthefieldsofliteratureandsciencehaveattractedtheattentionevenofthosenationswhosepoliticalinterestsaresupposednottocoincidepreciselywiththoseoftheSlavs。TheIlchesterLectureswere，Ibelieve，foundedinordertomakeknowntoOxfordstudentsthepresentandpastofthisundoubtedlyAryanbranchofthehumanrace。Agooddealofworkhasalreadybeendonebymypredecessors。ProfessorThomson，ofCopenhagen，byhiscarefulstudyoftheNormanoriginoftheRussianState，hasgreatlycontributedtounveileventoRussiansthemysteryoftheirfar-distantpast，whileProfessorTurner，inthecourseofhisbrilliantlectureslastyear，madeyouacquaintedwithourbestmodernnovelists。Idonotknowifmyfriend，thelateMrW。R。S。Ralston，everlecturedintheTaylorinstitute，buttheaccurateandlivelyaccountshehasgivenofRussianepicpoemsandpopulartaleswereundoubtedlywrittenundertheinfluenceofthesamefeelingsasthosewhichinspiredthefounderoftheselectures。

InEnglandtheworksofRalstonwerethefirsttodealwiththevastfieldofSlavonic，andmoreespeciallyofRussian，folk-lore。HischiefendeavourwastoshowthegreatamountofinformationwhichtheunwrittenliteratureofRussiacontainsastotheearlystagesofreligiousdevelopment。ButRussianfolk-loremayinterestalawyeraswellasamythologist；itsstudymayenrichcomparativejurisprudencewithnewmaterialnotlessthancomparativemythology。ItcannodoubtunveilmorethanonemysteryconcerningtheearlystateofEuropeanfamilylaw，andthevariousmodesinwhichlandwasheldbyourremotestancestors。Thefirststagesinthehistoryofpoliticalinstitutions，andmoreparticularlythepartwhichthecommonpeoplewerecalleduponinolddaystoplayinthemanagementofpublicaffairs，canbeillustratedbythehistoryofRussianfolk-motesandRussiannationalcouncils，muchbetterthanbyreferencetotheshortnoticesleftbyCaesarorTacitusofthepopularassembliesoftheGermans。Russianserfdom，andthehistoryofitsabolition，mayalsobeinstructiveinmorethanonepoint，eventothosewhosechiefpurposeistostudytheorigin，thegrowth，andtheabolitionofpersonalservitudeinEngland，France，orGermany。

WhenIlooktothegreatimportanceofthemoderncustomsandancientlawsofRussiaasregardsthecomparativehistoryofinstitutions，Iconfidentlyhopetomeetonyourpartwiththeindulgencewhichthelecturerneedswhoaddresseshisaudienceinaforeigntongue。IthinkthatthestudyofRussianlegalantiquitiesmaytoacertainextentbeconsideredasanecessaryappendageofthoseexhaustiveinquiriesinIndianandoldCelticinstitutionsforwhichweareindebtedtooneofyourmostcelebratedwriters，thelateSirHenryMaine。Ifeelthemorepleasureinmentioninghisname，asitwasbyhimthatmyfirstworksinthefieldofcomparativejurisprudencewereinspired。

Hislectureshavefoundreadersintheremotestpartsoftheworld，andhavesuggestedtomorethanoneforeignscholartheideaofre-writingthelegalhistoryofhisowncountry。

AlthoughrecognisinginhimthechiefrepresentativeofthelegalschooltowhichIbelong，Ishallmorethanonceputforwardtheorieswhicharealtogetheropposedtohis：suchanoccasionpresentsitselfatonceinthestudyofearlyRussianfamilylaw。

Thisstudywill，Ihavenodoubt，throwaclearlightontheearliestperiodintheevolutionofmarriage——thatofthematriarchate。IinsistthemoreonthispointbecauseinEnglandanopinionhasbeenexpressedthatthecustomarylawofRussiamightbeexpectedtogiveanotherillustrationofthegeneralprevalenceofthepatriarchalfamilyeveninthefirststagesofsocialdevelopment。SirHenryMainehasmorethanonce（1*）

expressedthisopinion，andhasfoundconfirmationforitincertainquotationsmadechieflyfromthewell-knownworksofHaxthausenandMackenzieWallace。Boththeseauthors，makingalargeuseoftherichethnographicalliteratureofRussia，havecorrectlydescribedtheprevailingsystemofRussianjointfamilies，orhousecommunities，andtheiraccountmaybetakengenerallyasagoodillustrationoftheoldpatriarchalfamilyoftheGermansandCelts。Butneitherofthemhadanyopportunityofstudyingindetailthenumeroussurvivalswhichwestillfindofastateofthingswhichhadnothingincommonwithagnatism，orevenwithafirmlyestablished"patriapotestas。"Suchwasnot，afterall，thepurposethattheyhadinview。TheirswasthestudyofcontemporarylifeinRussiansociety，andthequestionoftheprimitivestateoffamilyrelationsinRussiacannotbesettledbyreferencetoworkswhichdonotdealwiththesubject。

SirHenryMainewasalsomisledinhissurveyofSlavonicfamilylawbythewell-knownBohemianorCzechpoem，"TheTrialofthePrincessLiuhouscha。"Thispoemhequotesatgreatlength，andhestatesthatitleavesnodoubtastotheexistenceofasortofundividedfamilyorhouse-communityinthemostremoteperiodofBohemianhistory。Unfortunately，thepoemonwhichhebuildshisconclusionisnowunanimouslydeclaredbothbySlavonicandGermanscholarstobeaforgerybythewell-knownBohemianphilologist，Hanka。Itisclear，therefore，thatthewholeofhistheory，sofarasitdealswithSlavoniclawandusage，isbasedeitheronfactswhichconcernmoderntimesalone，andhavenothingtodowithancienttimes，orondocumentsmanifestlyfalse。

NowletusseewhatevidencewepossessastothecharacterofearlySlavonicfamilylaw。Weshallfirstgiveourauthorities，andthenproceedtodrawourgeneralconclusions。

TheearliestevidencewhichwepossessastothesocialrelationsoftheEasternSlavs，whoseconfederacywasthebeginningoftheRussianState，iscontainedintheso-calledChronicleofNestor。NestorissupposedtohavebeenaRussianmonkoftheeleventhcentury。

ContrastingthemodeoflifeofthemostcivilisedSlavonicnation，thePolians，whowereestablishedonthebanksoftheDnieper，withthatofthemorebarbaroustribesofRussia，Nestor，orperhapsitisbettertosay，theunknownauthoroftheChroniclewhichbearsthisname，statesasfollows（Itranslateliterally）："Eachtribehaditsowncustoms，andthelawsofitsforefathersanditsowntraditions，eachitsownmanneroflife（nrav）。ThePolianshadthecustomsoftheirfathers，customsmildandpeaceful（tichi）；theyshowedakindofreserve（stidenie）towardsthedaughtersoftheirsonsandtowardstheirsisters，towardstheirmothersandtheirparents，towardsthemothersoftheirwives，andtowardsthebrothersoftheirhusbands；toallofthepersonsnamedtheyshowedgreatreserve。

Amongstthemthebridegroomdidnotgotoseekhisbride；shewastakentohimintheevening，andthefollowingmorningtheybroughtwhatwasgivenforher。"

"AnotherSlavonictribe，theDrevlians，accordingtothesamechronicler，livedlikebeasts；theykilledoneanother，theyfedonthingsunclean；nomarriagetookplaceamongstthem，buttheycapturedyounggirlsonthebanksofrivers。"

ThesameauthornarratesthatthreeotherSlavonictribes，theRadimich，theViatich，andtheSever，hadthesamecustoms；

theylived"inforests，likeotherwildanimals，theyateeverythingunclean，andshamefulthingsoccurredamongstthembetweenfathersanddaughters-in-law。Marriageswereunknowntothem，butgameswereheldintheoutskirtsofvillages；theymetatthesegamesfordancingandeverykindofdiabolicamusement，andtheretheycapturedtheirwives，eachmantheonehehadcovenantedwith。Theyhadgenerallytwoorthreewives。"

IhavetriedtogiveyouthenearestpossibletranslationofthisoldRussiantext，theinterpretationofwhich，however，givesrisetocertaindifficultiesnotyetquitesettled。Iwillnowclassify，tothebestofmypower，thevariousfactswhichwecaninferfromthistext。Firstofall，itestablishesthefactthatmarriageinthesenseofaconstantunionbetweenhusbandandwife，wasnotageneralinstitutionamongtheEasternSlavs。

WiththeexceptionofthemorecivilisedPolians，noothertribeisstatedtohaveanynotionofit。Ofcoursethisdoesnotmeanthatallalikewereentirelyignorantofthemeaningoffamilylife。Itonlyweansthattheirmodeofconstitutingafamilydidnotcorrespondtotheideawhichtheauthor，who，aswehavesaid，wasamonk，entertainedastomatrimonialrelations。TheRadimich，Viatich，andSevercapturedtheirwivesafterhavingpreviouslycometoanagreementwiththem。ThiscertainlyisamethodwhichcannotmeetwiththeapprovalofaChristian，butneverthelessitismarriage。Wehavebeforeusanexampleofwhatethnologistshavenamed"marriagebycapture。"

TheDrevlianswereevenlessadvancedasregardstheintercoursebetweenthesexes。Theyalsohadgamesatwhichwomenwerecaptured；butnotawordissaidaboutanycovenantenteredintobythecaptorandhissupposedvictim。Neitherisanymentionmadeofthesegamesbeingheldontheboundariesoroutskirtsofvillages，afactwhichwouldpointtotheexistenceofasortofexogamyforbiddingunionsbetweenpersonsofthesamegens。InthedescriptionwhichthechroniclergivesoftheDrevlianswehaveaninstanceofanalmostunlimitedlicence，whilstinthatoftheRadimich，ViatichandSeverwefindapictureofanexogamouspeople；contractingmarriagebycapture，andyetretainingfromtheperiodofalmostunlimitedlicenceasortoffamilycommunismwhichappearsintherelationsbetweenfathersanddaughters-in-law。

NotraceofthiseitherlimitedorunlimitedpromiscuousnessistobefoundamongthePolians，whoaccordingtoouroldChronicler，"conductedthemselveswithmuchreserve"towardsdaughters-in-law，andsisters-in-law，towardsmothersandfathers，towardsfathers-in-lawandbrothers-in-law。TheyseemtohavebeenanexogamoustribeliketheRadimich，ViatichandSever，theirwivesbeingbroughttothemfromoutsidetheirowngens。Unlikethetribesjustmentionedtheydidnot，however，procurethembycapture。Itwasnotthecustomforthebridegroomstogoinsearchoftheirwives；theyreceivedthemfromthehandsoftheparentsofthewomen，andtheythenpaidthesumofmoneypreviouslyagreedupon。Thismeansthattheirmodeofconstitutingmarriagewasbybuyingtheirwives。ThewordsoftheChroniclerconcerningthesepaymentsisfarfrombeingclear，andRussianscholarshavetriedtointerprettheminthesenseof"dower"broughtbytherelativesofthewife。Butithasbeenrecentlyprovedthatnomentionof"dower"istobefoundinRussianchartersbeforethefifteenthcentury，andthatthewordvenousedinmediaevalRussiantodesignatethepaymentmadeonmarriage，hasnoothermeaningthanthatofpretiumnuptiale，orpaymentmadebythebridegroomtothefamilyofthebride。（2*）ThewordsofTacitusconcerningthedospaidamongsttheGermantribesbythefuturehusbandtohiswife’sfathergivepreciselythemeaningoftheoldRussianveno，andthrowalightonthesortofpaymentwhichthechronicleofNestorhadinview，whenspeakingofthematrimonialcustomsofthePolians。

ThetestimonyofouroldestChronicleconcerningthedifferentformsofmatrimonyamongtheeasternSlavsdeservesourclosestattention，becauseitis，inallpoints，confirmedbythestudyoftherestofouroldwrittenliterature，ofourepicpoems，ofourwedding-songs，andofthematrimonialusagesandcustomsstillorlatelyinexistenceincertainremotedistrictsofRussia。TheDrevliansarenottheonlySlavonictribetowhichthemediaevalchroniclesascribealowstateofmorality。ThesameisassertedoftheoldBohemiansorCzechsintheaccountgivenoftheirmannersandcustomsbyCosmasofPrague，aLatinannalistoftheeleventhcentury，whosays：Connubiaerantilliscommunia。Nammorepecudumsingulasadnoctesnovosprobanthymenaeos，etsurgenteaurora……ferreaamorisrumpuntvincula。"

Thismeans："Theypractisedcommunalmarriage。For，likeanimals，theycontractedeachnightafreshmarriage，andassoonasthedawnappearedtheybroketheironbondsoflove。"

Thisstatementisdirectlyconfirmedbythatofanothermedievalauthor，theunknownbiographerofSt。Adalbert。ThiswriterascribestheanimosityoftheBohemianpeopletowardsthesainttothefactofhisstrongoppositiontotheshamefulpromiscuitywhichinhistimeprevailedinBohemia。Itisconfirmed，also，bythemonkoftheRussianAbbeyofEleasar，knownbythenameofPamphil，wholivedinthesixteenthcentury。

Bothspeakoftheexistenceofcertainyearlyfestivalsatwhichgreatlicenceprevailed。Accordingtothelast-namedauthor，suchmeetingswereregularlyheldonthebordersoftheStateofNovgorodonthebanksofrivers，resembling，inthatparticular，theannualfestivalsmentionedbyNestor。Notlaterthanthebeginningofthesixteenthcentury，theywerecomplainedofbytheclergyoftheStateofPscov。ItwasatthattimethatPamphildrewuphislettertotheGovernoroftheState，admonishinghimtoputanendtotheseannualgatherings，sincetheironlyresultwasthecorruptionoftheyoungwomenandgirls。Accordingtotheauthorjustcited，themeetingstookplace，asarule，thedaybeforethefestivalofSt。JohntheBaptist，which，inpagantimes，wasthatofadivinityknownbythenameofJarilo，correspondingtothePriapusoftheGreeks。

Halfacenturylaterthenewecclesiasticalcode，compiledbyanassemblyofdivinesconvenedinMoscowbytheCzarIvantheTerrible，tookeffectualmeasuresforabolishingeveryvestigeofpaganism；amongstthem，theyearlyfestivalsheldonChristmasDay，onthedayofthebaptismofourLord，andonSt。JohntheBaptist，commonlycalledMidsummerDay。Ageneralfeatureofallthesefestivals，accordingtothecode，wastheprevalenceofthepromiscuousintercourseofthesexes。Howfartheclergysucceededinsuppressingtheseyearlymeetings，whichhadbeenregularlyheldforcenturiesbeforeonthebanksofrivers，wecannotpreciselysay，althoughthefactoftheiroccasionaloccurrence，eveninmoderntimes，doesnottendtoprovetheircompleteabolition。MorethanoncehaveIhadanopportunityofbeingpresentatthesenightlymeetings，heldattheendofJune，incommemorationofaheathendivinity。Theyusuallytakeplaceclosetoariverorpond；largefiresarelighted，andoverthemyoungcouples，bachelorsandunmarriedgirls，jumpbarefoot。I

haveneverfoundanytraceoflicentiousness；butthereisnodoubtthatcasesoflicencedooccur，thoughseldominourtime。

Thatafewcenturiesagotheywereveryfrequenthasbeenlatelyprovedbysomecuriousdocumentspreservedinthearchivesofsomeoftheprovincialecclesiasticalcouncils，particularlyinthoseexistingintheGovernmentofKharkov。Accordingtothesedocuments，thelocalclergywereengagedinconstantwarfarewiththeshamefullicentiousnesswhichprevailedattheeveningassemblesofthepeasants，andmorethanoncetheclergysucceededininducingtheauthoritiesofthevillagetodissolvetheassembliesbyforce。Thepriestswereoftenwounded，andobligedtoseekrefugeinthehousesofthevillageeldersfromthestoneswithwhichtheywerepelted。TheseeveningassembliesareknowntothepeopleofGreatRussiaunderthenameofPosidelki，andtotheLittleRussiansbythatofVechernitzi。

ThelicentiousnesswhichformedthecharacteristicfeatureofthesemeetingsthrowslightonthemotiveswhichinducethepeasantsofcertainGreatRussiancommunestoattachbutsmallimportancetovirginity。Russianethnographershavenotinfrequentlymentionedthefactofyoungmenlivingopenlywithunmarriedwomen，and，evenincaseofmarriage，ofgivingpreferencetothosewhowereknowntohavealreadybeenmothers。

Howeverpeculiarallthesefactsmayseem，theyareveryoftenmetwithamongpeopleofquiteadistinctrace。TheAllemanicpopulationsoftheGrisons，nolongeragothanthesixteenthcentury，heldregularmeetingswhichwerenotlessshamefulthanthoseoftheCossacks。TheKilbenenwereabolished，bylaw（3*）butanothercustom，indirectantagonismtomorality，continuedtoexistalloverthenortherncantonsofSwitzerlandandinthesouthernprovincesofWurtembergandofBaden。ImeanthecustomknownunderthenameofKirchgangorDorfgehen，which，accordingtothepopularsongs，consistedinnothingelsethantherightofabachelortobecometheloverofsomeyounggirl，andthatquiteopenly，andwiththeimpliedconsentoftheparentsofhissweetheart。MayIalsomentionasimilarcustomamongsttheWelsh，knownas"bundling"？Iamnotwellenoughinformedastothecharacterofthiscustomtoinsistonitsresemblancetothosealreadymentioned。ThelittleIhavesaidontheGermansurvivalsofearlylicencemaysufficetoestablishthisgeneralconclusion：thatthecomparativeimmoralityofRussianpeasantshasnoothercausethanthesurvivalamongstthemofnumerousvestigesoftheearlyformsofmarriage。

Anotherfeatureofthematriarchalfamily，thelackofanyprohibitionastomarriagesbetweenpersonswhoaresprungfromthesamefatherorgrandfather，isalsomentionedmorethanoncebyearlySlavonicwriters。SuchmarriageswerenotprohibitedbycustomamongtheoldBohemiansorCzechs。"Populusmiscebaturcumcognatis，"saysthebiographerofSt。Adalbert。Theyarealsofrequentlymentionedintheepicpoemsofourpeasants，theso-calledbilini，ofwhichthelateW。R。S。RalstonhasgiventoEnglishreadersanaccurateandprofoundanalysis。Iwillquotecertainpassagesfromthesepoemstogiveyouthefactsonwhichmytheoryisbased。

Oneofthemostcelebratedheroesofourpopularballads，IliaMourometz。encountersonedayafreebooternamedNightingale（SoloveiRazboinik）。"Why，"asksthehero，"doallthychildrenlookalike？"Nightingalegivesthefollowinganswer："Because，whenmysonisgrownup，Imarryhimtomydaughter；andwhenmydaughterisoldenough，Igivehermysonforahusband，andIdosoinorderthatmyracemaynotdieout。"Anotherpopularballad，representingtheevilcustomsofformerdays，describestheminthefollowingmanner：

Brothermadewaruponbrother，Brothertooksistertowife。

EndogamousmarriagesstilloccurinafewveryremotepartsofRussia。SuchisthecaseincertainvillagesinthedistrictofOnega，andespeciallyinthatofLiamika，wherethepeasantsdotheirbesttoinfringethecanonicalprescriptionswhichdisallowmarriagebetweenbloodrelationstothefourthdegreeinclusively。ThesamehasalsobeennoticedincertainpartsoftheGovernmentofArchangel，quiteontheshoresoftheWhiteSea，wherethepeasantsareinthehabitofsayingthatmarriagesbetweenbloodrelationswillbeblessedwithamorerapidincreaseof"cattle"-theword"cattle"standinginthiscaseforchildren。InsomeprovincesofSiberiaandinthedistrictofVetlouga，whichbelongstotheGovernmentofNijniNovgorod，endogamousmarriages，thoughcontrarytotheprevailingcustomarelookeduponwithafavourableeye。（4*）

Anotherfact，whichdeservestheattentionofallpartisansofthetheoryofthematriarchate，firstpromulgatedbyMcLennan，is，thelargeindependenceenjoyedbytheSlavonicwomenofolddays。LetmefirstquotethewordsofCosmasofPrague，whichrelatetothissubject，andthenshowyouwhatillustrationtheyfindbothinwrittenliterature，andinpopularballadsandsongs。

Nonvirginesviri，sedipsoemetviros，quosetquandovoluerunt，accipiebant。

SuchisthestatementofCosmasPragensis，（ch。xxi）。Thismeans："Itisnotthemenwhochoosethemaids，butthemaidsthemselveswhotakethehusbandstheylike，andwhentheylike。"

ThisfreedomoftheBohemiangirlstodisposeoftheirheartsaccordingtotheirownwishshowsthecomparativeindependenceoftheBohemianwomenatthatperiod。

Theoldestlegalcodeofthispeople，thesniem，seemstofavourthisindependencebyrecognisingtherightofthewomentobefreefromanywork，exceptthatwhichisconnectedwiththemaintenanceofthehousehold。（5*）

Confrontedwiththefactsjustbroughtforward，thepopularlegend，reportedbyCosmasinhischronicle，ofakindofBohemianAmazons，whotookanactivepartinthewarsofthetime，appearsinitstruelight。Freeastheywerefromthebondsofmarriage，notrelyingonhusbandsforthedefenceoftheirpersonsandestates，theoldBohemianAmazonswereprobablyverysimilartothosewarlikewomenwhostillappearintheKingofDahomey’sarmy，andwhointhetimeofPompeywereknowntoexistamongcertainautochthonictribesoftheCaucasus。AfactwellworthnoticeisthatthememoryofthesebellicosewomenisstillpreservedinthetraditionsoftheTcherkess，whocallthembythenameof"emcheck。"Giantesses，wanderingbythemselvesthroughthecountryandfightingtheheroestheymeetontheirway，arealsomentionedmorethanonceinourpopularballads，orbilini。Thenameunderwhichtheyareknownisthatofpolinitzi，thewordpolemeaningthefieldandinasecondarysensethebattle-field。

LiketheBohemiangirlsdescribedbyCosmasofPrague，theseRussianAmazonschosetheirloversastheyliked。

"Isthyheartinclinedtoamuseitselfwithme？"suchisthequestionaddressedtoIliaMourometzbyoneoftheseAmazons，theso-calledBeautifulPrincess。"BemyhusbandandIwillbethywife，"saysanotherofthesepolinitzi，AnastasiatheBeautiful，tothepaladin，TheodorTougariu。ItisnotthefreebooterNightingalewhochooseshiswife，northepaladinDobriniawhoisgoinginsearchofabride；botharerepresentedasacceptingtheoffersofbetrothalmadetothembytheRussianAmazons，ZapravaandMarina。（6*）

EvidenceofstillgreaterimportanceisthatoftheFrenchwriter，Beauplan，who，speakingofthemannersandcustomsoftheinhabitantsofLittleRussiaduringhistime，thelatterhalfoftheseventeenthcentury，statesasfollows：

"IntheUkraine，contrarytothecustomofallothernations，thehusbandsdonotchoosetheirwives，butarethemselveschosenbytheirfutureconsorts。"

IhopeIhavenowgivenanamountofinformationsufficienttoanswerthepurposeIhaveinview；whichisnoother，thantoshowthat，inalowstateofmorality，communalmarriagebetweennearrelationsandendogamywenthandinhandamongsttheearlySlavswithaconsiderabledegreeofindependenceamongtheweakersex。

Toallthesecharacteristicfeaturesofthematriarchatewemayaddthisveryimportantone，that，accordingtotheoldRussianlaw，thetiewhichunitesamantohissisterandthechildrenshehasbroughtintotheworld，wasconsideredtobecloserthanthatwhichunitestwobrothersortheuncleandhisnephew。Inasocietyorganisedontheprincipleofagnatism，thesonofasisterhasnoreasontointerfereinthepursuitofthemurdererofhisuncle。Thebrotherbelongsaltogethertoanotherclan，andthedutyofvengeancefallsexclusivelyonthepersonsofthatclan。ButsuchisbynomeansthepointofviewoftheoldRussianlaw，recognising，asitdoes，therightofthesister’ssontoavengethedeathofhisuncle。

"Incaseamanshallhekilledbyaman，"decreesthefirstarticleofthePravdaofYaroslav（thelexbarborumoftheRussians），"vengeancemaybetakenbyason，incasehisfatherhasbeenkilled；bythefather，whenthesonfallsavictim；bythebrother’ssonandbythesonofasister。"TheselastwordsareomittedinthelaterversionsofthePravda，afactwhichshowstheincreaseofagnaticorganisation，buttheyarefoundintheversiongenerallyrecognisedasthemostancient。

Thisclosetiebetweenbrotherandsister，betweentheuncleandthesister’schildren，stillexistsamongtheSouthernSlavs。

ProfessorBogisic。andafterhimMrKrauss，haveillustratedthisfactbytheepicsongsoftheServianpeople。TheyspeakofthecustomgenerallyinuseamongtheSouthernSlavsofsecuringfromapersontruthfulnessinisstatementsbytheinvocationofthenameofthesister。Theymention，too，thatpeculiarrelationofartificialbrotherhoodandsisterhood，intowhichyoungmenandyoungwomenbelongingtodifferentkindredsfrequentlyenter，inordertosecuretotheweakersexprotectionandhelp。

IhardlyneedinsistontheimportancewhichallthesefactshavewithregardtothetheoryofanearlymatiarchateamongtheSlavs，themoresobecausethishasalreadybeendoneinEnglandbyMrMcLennan，inhiswell-knownstudyonthePatriarchaltheory，andinGermanybyBachofeninoneofhisAntiquarianLetters。（7*）ButIshallcompletetheinformationwhichthesescholarshavegivenbycitingcertainpeculiarcustomsstillinuseamongRussianpeasants。

Whilstthefatherisconsideredtobetheproperpersontodisposeofthehandofthebride，thebrother，accordingtotheweddingritual，appearsasthechiefprotectorofhervirginity。

InmorethanoneprovinceofRussiathebrotherplaysanimportantpartinthatpotionofthenuptialceremonywhichmaybecalledbytheLatinnameofindomusdeductio。Assoonasthebridegroomhasmadehisappearanceinthecourt-yardofthefamilytowhichhisbridebelongs，thebrother，inaccordancewithanoldcustom，takeshisseatnextthebridewithanakedsword，oratleastastick，inhishand。Thebridegroom，orthegroomsman，askingtobeallowedtotakehisseat，receivesasanswer，thatthebrotheristheretokeepwardoverhissister，andthathewillnotconsenttoleavehisseatunlesshebepaidforit。"Dearbrother，don’tgivemeawayfornothing。Askahundredroublesforme，fortheveilwhichcoversmyheadathousandroubles。Askformybeauty——Godaloneknowshowmuch。"

Suchisthetenorofthesongcomposedfortheoccasion。"Thebrother，atrueTartar，"wereadinthetextofanothernuptialsong，"hassoldhissisterforathaler，andherfairtressesforfiftycopecks。"

InLittleRussiathedrawnswordwhichthebrotherholdsinhishandontheoccasionisornamentedwiththeredberriesoftheguelderrose，redbeingtheemblemofmaidenhoodamongSlavonicpeoples。Otheremblemsarethebindingofthebride’stresses，andtheveilwhichcoversherhead。Thebridegroomisnotallowedtoremovetheveil，nortounbindthetressesofhisfuturewife，unlessheconsentstopayasmallsumofmoneytoherbother。

Hithertowehaveconsideredthedifferentaspectsoftheearliestperiodintheevolutionofthefamily——thatwhichisknownbythetermofthematriarchate。Thevariousfeatureswhichcharacterisedtheloweststateoftherelationsbetweenthesexesdidnotvanishallatonce。Theincestuousrelationsbetweenpersonsofthesamebloodseemtohavebeenthefirsttodisappear。NofurthermentionoftheseoccursinNestor’sdescriptionoftheEasterntribes——theRadimich，Viatich，andSever。Thogtheypractisecommunalmarriagesofarthatfathersandsonshavewivesincommon，neverthelessfathersanddaughters，brothersandsisters，darenolongercohabitwitheachother，andiflicencestilloccursatsomeannualfestivities，itiskeptundersomecheck。

Thebilini，orpoplarballads，asalsotheoldlegendsandfolktales，oftenrepresentthattransientperiodofsocialevolution，whenendogamywasgraduallygivingwaytoexogamy，andrelationsbetweenpersonsofthesamekinwereforbidden。A

popularhero，knownbythenameofMichailoKasarinov，andbelongingtoalaterseriesofRussianpaladins，inoneoftheseballadsliberatesayoungRussiangirlfromtheyokeoftheTartars，andisonthepointofbecomingherlover，whenshedisclosestohimthesecretofherbirth，andprovesthatsheishissister。Thepaladinimmediatelyabandonshispurpose。Inanotherpopulartale，insertedbyAfanasievinhiscollectionofthesecuriousmonumentsofourunwrittenliterature，abotherisrepresentedasinsistingonmarryinghissister，andthelatterasstronglyprotestingagainsthisdesire。"Whatdoyouproposetodo？"sheasks。"BethinkyouofGodandofthesin？Isitrightthatabrothershouldespousehisownsister？"Thebrotherpersists，andthecoupleareonthepointofretiringwhentheearthopens，andthesister，unharmed，disappearsfromview。（8*）

Inanotherpopularlegend，ahusband，havingdiscoveredthathiswifeishisownsister，findsnomeansofescapebutthatofundertakingapilgrimageinordertoexpiatehissins。（9*）

Theprohibitionisgraduallyextendedtoallpersonsofthesamekin。Asong（10*）inVogueamongthepeasantryofLittleRussiaspeaksofabirdwishingtomarry，andfindingnobrideathisbirthplace，allthefemalesbeinghisrelations，thereremainsnothingforhimtodobuttocrossthesea，andseekabrideofanotherkinthanhisown。

ThecompletediscomfitureofendogamyinitslongstrugglewithexogamousprescriptionsisshowninthefactthatinsomepartsofRussia，asforinstanceinthegovernmentofSimbirsk，incertainvillagesofthegovernmentofOlonizk，andofthedistrictofSchadrinsk，inhabitedbytheCosacksoftheDon，thebrideisalwaystakenfromanothervillagethanthebridegroom’s。

Eveninprovincesinwhichnosimilarcustomisknowntoexist，theremembranceofthetimewhenexogamywasconsideredaduty，ispreservedinthefactthatthebridegroomisconstantlyspokenofasaforeigner（choujoy，choujaninin），andhisfriendsandattendantsarerepresentedascomingwithhimfromadistantcountry，inordertotakeawaythefuturespouse。

Theoriginofexogamyhasbeensoughtforinthefactofthegeneralprevalence，atacertainperiodofsocialdevelopment，ofthecustomofcapturingwives。Theco-existenceofbothcustomshasbeenalreadynoticedbytheoldRussianchroniclerinhisdescriptionofthemannersandcustomsoftheRadimich，Viatich，andSever。Histestimonyiscorroboratedbythatofthenuptialsongs，andoftheceremoniesstillinuseatcountryweddings。

Theinformationwhichisderivedfromthesesourcesastothegeneralprevalenceinpasttimesofmarriagebycapture，IhavesummedupinaworkpublishedinRussianunderthetitleof"ThefirstPeriodsintheEvolutionofLaw。"Ishalltakethelibertyofbringingforwardto-daythefactstheresummarised。TheyconcerntheEasternaswellastheSouthernSlavs。

AmongsttheSouthernSlavs，marriagebycapturewasstillinexistencenolongeragothanthebeginningofthepresentcentury。Awell-knownServianwriter，VoukKaradjich，givesthefollowingdetailsaboutthispeculiarcustom，knownunderthenameofotmitza。"TheCaptureofgirlsinordertomarrythemisstillpractisedamongtheServians。Youngmenveryfrequentlyhaverecoursetothismodeofprocuringawife。Onsuchoccasionstheyareequippedandarmedasiftheyweregoingouttodobattle。Theyconcealthemselves，andquietlyawaitthemomenttillthegirlpassesnearthemonherwaytolookafterthecattle。Sometimestheymakeadirectattackonthehomesteadsheinhabits。Ineithercaseherresistancehasnootherresultthanadirectappealtophysicalforce。Theyoungmenseizeherbyherlongplaitedtresses，dragandpushheralong，andsometimesuseawhiporasticktoquickenherpace。ThesamecustomprevailednotlongagoinMontenegro。ItexistedalsoforcenturiesinCroatia，asmaybeseenfromthementionmadeofitinthestatuteofPolitza，alegalcodepublishedin1605。InBosniaandHerzegovinaabductionsstilloccur，but，asarule，withthepreviousconsentofthesupposedvictim，andwiththedeclaredintentionofavoidingtheexpensesofaregularbetrothal。"

SomuchasregardsmarriageamongtheSouthernSlavs。

AstotheEasternSlavs，theearlydevelopmentofastronggovernment，andofapowerfulclergy，preventedthepossibilityofalongcontinuanceofthiswildmethodofconstitutingafamily。Anexceptionmust，however，bemadeasregardstheCosacksofLittleRussiaandtheUkraine；who，accordingtothestatementofBeauplan，continuedtocapturetheirwivesnolongeragothantheseventeenthcentury。Buttheexistence，probablyinPagantimes，ofmarriagebycaptureinRussia，aswellasinPoland，isstillrevealedbytheoldballads，theweddingceremoniesofthecountrypeople，andthesongsinuseontheoccasionofabetrothal。

ThebilinimorethanoncementionthecasesofpaladinslikeIliaMourometzhavingapersonalencounterwiththeAmazonstheymeetontheirway。AssoonasthepaladinshavesucceededinvanquishingtheAmazons，theyforcethemtobecometheirwives。

Amongthedifferentceremoniesstillinuseatacountrywedding，oneparticularlydeservesourattention，onaccountofthesymbolicalrepresentationofthemeanstowhichthefamilyofthebrideoncehadrecoursetopreventanabduction。Onthedayfixedfortheweddingthedoorsleadingtothehomesteadofthebridearecloselyshut。Sometimesatemporarywoodenwalliserectedtopreservethefamilyfromintrusion。Thewedding-songsstillinuseintheGovernmentofToulaspeakofthenecessityofdefendingtheapproachtothebride’sresidencebyoaktrees，cutdowntoblockuptheroad，andbyshieldsarrangedbeforetheprincipalentranceofthehomestead。

Thebridegroomandhisfriendswearawarlikedress；theyaremountedonhorseback，andcarrygunsandpistols。Such，atleast，isthecustominthewesternprovincesofRussia，whilstinthesouthernthewhip，carriedbythebridegroom’sbestman，appearstobetheonlyweaponinuse。Thewedding-songsspeakofarrows，shotinthedirectionofthebride’shome，andofstonewallsbrokendown，inordertotakepossessionofher。Thebridegroomandhisfollowersareregularlymetlikefoes。IntheGovernmentofPermitisthecustomforthefatherofthebridetofireapistolovertheirheads，ofcourseapistolchargedonlywithpowder。ThesamecustomisalsoinuseincertainpartsoftheGovernmentofArchangel。Thewedding-songspeaksofthebridegroom’straininthefollowingterms：

Theywillcometothemaiden’sfatherWithwar。

Theywillrobhim，Andimprisonthemother。

TheywilltaketheyounggirlawayToastrangeland。

Butcapture，aswehavealreadyseen，wasnottheonlymodeofcontractingmarriageamongtheSlavs，evenintheearliestperiod。AccordingtothechronicleofNestor，thePoliansneverhadrecoursetoit。Insteadofcarryingoffhisbridebyforce，thePolianbridegroompreferredtopaytoherfather，orherfamily，asortofpretiumnuptiale，orbride-price。ThiscustomofthePoliansgraduallybecamethegeneralusageamongallSlavonictribes。InServia，accordingtoVoukKaradjich，thesumsofmoneypaidtothebride’sfatherbythebridegroom’sfamilyweresoexorbitantthatGeorgiustheBlackissuedaproclamationdeclaringittobeillegaltoaskfromthebridegroommorethanasingleducat。Inourdays，saysBogisic，wives，asarule，cannotbeboughtbytheirfuturehusbands，butareminiscenceofthisoldcustomisstillpreservedinthefactthatthebride’sfatherreceivesfromthebridegroomagiftinmoney，varyingfromonetosixducats，accordingtothefortuneofthegiver。

WiveswerealsoboughtandsoldamongtheSlavonictribesofAustria。AccordingtoanoldusageoftheLoujichan，aSlavonicpeopleinhabitingcertaindistrictsofHungary，thebridegroom，onenteringthehomesteadofhisbride，apostrophisedthefatherthus："Praydotellmeifyouhaveacowtosell？"ABohemianwedding-songputsintothemouthofthebridegroom’sbestmanthefollowingsentence："Pleasedelivertomethebride。Iwillgiveyouagoodpriceforher。TheonlyreasonIhaveforbeinghereisthatImaypayyouinheavythalers。"Nolongeragothanthebeginningofthelastcentury，youngmenwishingtomarrywereinthehabitofgoingtothefairatKrasniBrod，whereunmarriedwomenandwidows，surroundedbytheirrelations，awaitedtheircoming。Eachchosethewomanhelikedbest，covenantedwithherparentsastotheamountofmoneytobepaidforher，andproceededtotheceremonyofmarriage。Polishwedding-songsalsomentionthecustomofbuyingwives。

InPosnauthefollowingceremonyisstillobservedontheoccasionofabetrothal：Thebridegroomputsasmallpieceofmoneyontheshoesofhisbride，anotheronherknee，athirdonhershoulder，afourthonherhead。Itisonlywhenthisceremonyhasbeenperformedthatthefatherdeliversthemaidenintothehandsofherfuturehusband。

IhavealreadymentionedthefactthatthePaymentmadeinOldRussiabythebridegroomwasknownunderthenameofveno。

ThetruemeaningofthiswordisrevealedbytheusewhichismadeofitbythetranslatorsoftheScriptures。InaSlavonicversionofthewordsaddressedbyJacobtoLaban，whenheaskedhimforthehandofhisdaughterRachel，thetranslatorswriteasfollows：IncreasethesumofthevenoasmuchasyoulikeandI

willpayittoyou，andyoushallgivemethismaidentowife。（11*）

Inmoderntimesthevenoismentionedonlyincertainweddingsongs。Anotherterm，kladka，hasreplaceditinmostpartsofGreatRussia。Thispayment，amountingincertainpartsofRussiatothesumofonehundred，andevenoftwoorthreehundredroubles，ismadetothefatherofthebride。Asarule，thefatherdisposesofthemoneyinfavourofhisdaughter，forhegivesherasdowryalargerorsmallersum，accordingtowhathehasreceivedfromthebridegroom。Butthisfactcannotbebroughtforwardasaproofthatthekladkabelongsbyrighttothebride。

InmorethanonecommuneofthegovernmentofTamboy，Riasan，Vladimir，Moscow，SamaraandSaratov，nomentionismadeofthedowrygivenbythebride’sfather，whilstthekladkaisregularlypaidtotheheadofthefamilytowhichthebridebelongs。（12*）Wemustthereforeconsiderthesetwopayments，thatmadebythebridegroom，andthatmadebythebride’sfather，asquitedifferentinstitutions。Theonepaymentprovestheexistence，atleastincertainpartsofmodernRussia，ofamodeofmarriagesimilartothatoftheIndianAsura，theothershowsthewayinwhichthepretiumemptionis，toemployatermofRomanjurisprudence，passedintothedosordowry。ThecustomwasthesameasthatfollowedbytheGermanictribes。InsayingthisI

haveparticularlyinviewTacitus’sstatementaboutthepaymentmadebythebridegroomatamarriage，andthemorerecentfactoftheconversionofthispaymentintoadowrygivenbythebride’sfather。

ThatinformerdaysinRussiawiveswereregularlyboughtfromtheirparentsisplainlyrecognisedbythewedding-songsstillinuseamongourpeasants。

Theboyars，atermbywhichpeopledesignatethecompanionsorfollowersofthebridegroom，whoonhispartiscalled"theduke，"kniaz，theboyars，saysawedding-songoftheGovernmentofSaratov，"surroundtheyardofthebride’shouseonallsides；

theybargainforourDouniascha。"

"Theboyarshavecoveredthegroundwithgold，"singthecountrypeopleofWhiteRussia。

ThebridegroomisveryoftenmentionedinthesongsofthepeasantsofGreatRussiaasthe"merchant，"whistthebrideisspokenofas"merchandise。"IntheGovernmentofJaroslav，forinstance，thebride，followinganancientusage，complainsofthetreatmenttowhichshewillbesubjected，sayingthat"unknownmerchantswilltakeherawayfromherfatherandherdearmother。"（13*）

Nowthatwehavecarefullypassedinreviewthedifferentaspectsunderwhichmatrimonialrelationshavebeenviewed，orstillareviewed，bythecountrypeopleofRussia，wemaybeallowedtosay，thatRussianethnographyquitecorroboratesthetheoryastotheevolutionofmarriagewhichEnglishscholarswerethefirsttoestablish。Theauthorof"PrimitiveCulture，"

aswellasthegreatandpowerfulgeniuswhohassomarvellouslycontinuedtheworkofAugusteComte，andlastlythenumerousfollowersoftheman，whosestudiesinancienthistoryhaveunveiledforusthemysteriesoftheearlyfamilywill，Ihavenodoubt，bepleasedtoseetheirviewsconfirmedbytheearlylawandthestilllivingcustomofoneoftheprincipalbranchesoftheAryanrace。Nothingmore，itseemstome，iswantingtothemoderntheoryofthematriarchatethanasolidbaseofhistoricalfacts。Solongasobscuremythsandthemoreorlesssuperficialobservationsofmissionariesandtouristsconstitutedthematerialsforatheorywhosechiefpurposeistoshowusthesocialstateofourmostremoteancestors，objectionslikethoseofSirHenryMaineorMrStarckefoundareadyear。ThefactthatamongtheKamilaroiandtheKuruaitherightofthehusbandisignored，doesnotnecessarilyimplythatourancestorshadnonotionofmarriageandthepatriapotestas；andthenumerousGreekmythsonwhichBachofenhasestablishedhishypothesisofanyearlyGreekgyneocracymaypossiblybelongtothenumberofthosewanderinglegendsonwhichitisverydifficulttofoundanopinionastothesocialstateofthisorthatparticularpeople。

Consultthe"Sociology"ofHerbertSpencer，andespeciallythechaptersinwhichhetreatsoftheearlyformsofmarriage，andyouwill，Iamsure，besurprisedatthediscoverythatscarcelyanymentionismadeofthelegalantiquitiesofpeoplesbelongingtotheAryanrace。Thisisaseriousdefect，andthesooneritisremediedthebetter。SomemeasureshavealreadybeentakentothisendbythemodernschoolofGermanjuristswho，undertheableguidanceofProfessorKohler，publishamostinterestingperiodicalcalledtheZeitschriftfurdievergleichendeRechtswissenschaft。ItiswithanobjectsimilartotheirsthatIhaveundertakenmyresearchesinthevastfieldofSlavoniclawandcustom。WhatIhavesaidaboutitinthislecture，littlethoughithasbeen，may，perchance，inducesomeofyoutoundertakefreshstudiesinthisregionwhichisstillsolittleexplored。Icanpromiseallwhowillventure，themostabundantandhappyresults。

NOTES：

1。ThelasttimeinanarticleonthepatriarchalfamilypublishedintheQuarterlyReview。

2。CompareLange，"OntheMutualRights，accordingtoOldRussianLaw，ofHusbandandWifeasregardsFortune。"Petersburg，1886。

3。"DasLandrechtvonKloster。"（XVIc。）ed。byMohr。

4。Smirnov，"SketchesofFamilyRelationsaccordingtotheCustomaryLawoftheRussians"（Moscow，1877）pp。105，106。

5。Ivanischev，"DissertationontheRightsoftheIndividualaccordingtotheOldLawsoftheBohemians。"CompleteWorks，p。

92。

6。Ribnikov，"TheSongsoftheRussianPeople。"vol。i，p。64。

KirschaDanilov，"OldRussianPoems"pp。9and70。Afanasiev，"TalesoftheRussianPeople。"vol。i，p。484。

7。"AntiquarischeBriefe，"1880，p。167。McLennan，"ThePatriarchalTheory，"ch。vi。p。71。

8。Afanasiev"Folk-tales"vol。i，pp。211，212。

9。Schein，"SongsoftheWhiteRussians。"

10。Tereschenko，"SocialLifeoftheRussians，：vol。iv，p。280。

11。Genesis，xxix。

12。Lange，p。86。

13。Titov，"CustomaryVillageLaw。"NicolaPerevosintheDistrictofRostov（Jaroslav，1888），AppendixN。5。

ModernCustomsandAncientLawsofRussiabyMaximeKovalevskyLectureII

TheStateoftheModernRussianFamily，andParticularlythatoftheJointorHouseholdCommunityofGreatRussiaWebelievethatthetheoryofthematriarchatefindsasolidbasisinthepasthistoryoftheRussianfamily。Thepresentconditionofthelatterseemstoprovethatthenextstageinitsevolutionwasthehouseholdcommunity，composedofpersonsunitedbydescentfromacommonforefatherandaccompaniedbythatworshipofancestorswhichusuallyresultedfromit。Thecompletesubjectionofthewifetothehusband，andofthechildrentothefather；communityofgoodsandthecommonenjoymentoftheirproducebytherelativeslivingunderthesameroof；theacknowledgedsuperiorityofoldageandofdirectdescentfromthecommonancestor；thetotalabsenceoftestamentarydispositionsofproperty，andevenofthatmodeoflegalsuccessionwhichsupposespartition，andtheexclusionofthemoreremotebythenearerkin；theeliminationofwomenfromparticipationinthefamilyestatebecausemarriagemakesthemaliens；allthesefeaturesofthepatriarchalfamilysoablyillustratedintheworksofSirHenryMaine，reappearinthemodernconstitutionoftheRussianfamily。Imean，ofcourse，thatofthecountrypeople，themiddleandhigherclasseshavingalreadyadoptedEuropeanmannersandcustoms，andbeingonthataccountsubjectedtoalegislationwhich，onmorethanonepoint，isindirectoppositiontocustomarylaw。

Letusstudyonebyonethecharacteristicfeaturesofthisfamilyconstitutionofthepeasant，aconstitutionmorelikethatoftheearlyCeltsandGermansthanthatofanyofthemodernnationsofEurope。

ThegreatimportancestillattachedbytheRussianpeasanttoagnatism，thatistorelationshiponthefather’sside，isshownbythepartwhichancestorworshipplaysevennowatthecelebrationofacountrywedding。Beforebecomingamemberofherhusband’sfamily，thebridemustseverallthetieswhichhavehithertoboundhertothehouse-spiritsunderwhoseprotectionshehaspassedheryouth，andmustsolemnlyadopttheworshipofthoseofthefamilyintowhichsheisabouttoenter。ThispublicmanifestationofachangeofworshipismostclearlyseenintheweddingceremoniesoftheSouthernSlavs。ItisnotsodistinctlypreservedinthoseoftheEasternSlavs。Boththeseracesbeingidenticalastotheiroriginandnature，Iwillbeginbyfirststatingthereligiouscustoms，customsofanundoubtedlypaganorigin——stillinuseatBulgarianbetrothals。"InLika，"saysM。Bogisic，"thebride，beforeleavingherfather’shouse，goesthreetimesroundthehearth，prostratingherself。eachtime，asiftoimploreforgiveness。"Asyouareawareoftheintimateconnectionwhichhasexistedbetweentheworshipofthehearthandthatofthefamilyancestors，IneednottellyouthattheactperformedbytheBulgarianbridebeforeleavingherparent’shousehasnoothermeaningthanthatofalastinvocationofthehouse-spiritswhoseworshipsheisonthepointofabandoning。

Thespiritsaresupposedtobehurtbythedecisionshehastakentowithdrawtoherhusband’shomestead，andtobeappeasedbyanactofhumiliationonherpart。Whensheisonceinthebridegroom’shousethemaidenisobligedtoperformanotherceremony；shemustseatherselfclosetothehearth，inordertokeepupforashorttimethefireburningthereonbypiecesofwoodthrownontoitwithherownhands。Thesymbolicalcharacterofthisceremonymayeasilybeperceived。Theyoungwifeisonthepointofbecomingamemberofthehousecommunityofherhusband，andassuch，aparticipantinitsfamilyworship。Heracquiescencemustbeexpressedbyasymbol，andherkeepingupthefireonthehearthispreciselysuchasymbol。ThecustomjustdescribedexistsalloverBulgariaandhasbeenmorethanoncealludedtobymodernethnographers，M。Bogisic，Mr。Krauss，andothers。

LetusnowexaminethecorrespondingcustomsoftheRussianpeasantry。InlittleRussiathebride，whileherfatherisdiscussingthequestionofhermarriagewiththepersonsentbythebridegroom，isobligedbycustomtoremainnearthehearth，towardswhichshestretchesoutherhand。Bysodoingsheexpressesherdesirestilltoremainundertheprotectionofthehouse-spiritsofherfamily，theso-called"domovoi。"Acenturyago，accordingtothestatementofKalinovsky，thedayonwhichthebridewastakentothehouseofherfuturehusband，agreatfirewaslightedintheyardbeforeit，andtheyoungcouplewereobligedtocrossitsittingintheircarriage。ThiscustomisstillobservedincertainpartsoftheGovernmentofKiev，butonlyinthosecasesinwhichthebrideisknowntohavemisbehavedbeforemarriage。Heapsofstrawarekindledonsuchoccasionsintheyardbeforethebridegroom’shouse，andthebridewhohaspassedsafelyoverthesefiresisconsideredtobepurified。Butthisdoesnotpreventher，assoonasshehasenteredthehouseofherhusband，fromseekingrefugeatthehearth，whereshestandsforawhilesingingacarol，themeaningofwhichisthatshelamentsherpastbadconductandpromisestobeagoodwife。

Ibegyoutoobservethatthefiresarelightedintheyardofthebridegroom’shouseandthattheyaretobeconsideredasbeingindirectrelationwiththehouse-communitytowhichhebelongs。Noteveryfirehasthepowerofpurification，onlythatwhichrepresentsthefamilyhearth。Itistothishearththattheyoungwifeappealsforprotection，shouldshehaveanyreasontofearanyill-treatmentfromherhusband’sfamily，onaccountofherformerconduct；itisbeforethishearththatsheconfessesandrepentsandpromisestobeagoodandfaithfulwife。

Inasociety，inwhichtheinterestsofthefamilyconstantlyprevailoverthoseoftheindividual（andsuchiscertainlythecaseinallpatriarchalsocieties，andamongstthemtheRussian），thereisnoroomformarriagescontractedbythemutualconsentoftheyoungpeople。IdonotmeantosaythatRussianparents，whosedutyitistofindsuitablematchesfortheirsonsanddaughters，nevertakeintoaccountthefeelingsofthosetheyintendtounite。Iwishonlytoimpressonyoutheideathattheyarenotobligedtodosobycustom。OnmorethanoneoccasionRussiancustomarycourtshaveplainlyexpressedtheopinionthatamarriagecontractconcludedbythebride’sfatherwiththatofthefuturehusbandisalegalact，fortheinfringementofwhichamendsoughttobemadebytherestitutiontothepartywrongedofthelossheorshemayhavesustained。

【推荐阅读】幽幽深宫，醒来一梦似千年，重生于下堂妃身躯中的她，将如何手刃仇人? 点击阅读