Itmaybequestionedwhetheritistruethatnosubstanceisrelative，asseemstobethecase，orwhetherexceptionistobemadeinthecaseofcertainsecondarysubstances。Withregardtoprimarysubstances，itisquitetruethatthereisnosuchpossibility，forneitherwholesnorpartsofprimarysubstancesarerelative。Theindividualmanoroxisnotdefinedwithreferencetosomethingexternal。Similarlywiththeparts：aparticularhandorheadisnotdefinedasaparticularhandorheadofaparticularperson，butasthehandorheadofaparticularperson。Itistruealso，forthemostpartatleast，inthecaseofsecondarysubstances；

thespecies'man'andthespecies'ox'arenotdefinedwithreferencetoanythingoutsidethemselves。Wood，again，isonlyrelativeinsofarasitissomeone'sproperty，notinsofarasitiswood。Itisplain，then，thatinthecasesmentionedsubstanceisnotrelative。Butwithregardtosomesecondarysubstancesthereisadifferenceofopinion；thus，suchtermsas'head'and'hand'aredefinedwithreferencetothatofwhichthethingsindicatedareapart，andsoitcomesaboutthattheseappeartohavearelativecharacter。Indeed，ifourdefinitionofthatwhichisrelativewascomplete，itisverydifficult，ifnotimpossible，toprovethatnosubstanceisrelative。If，however，ourdefinitionwasnotcomplete，ifthosethingsonlyareproperlycalledrelativeinthecaseofwhichrelationtoanexternalobjectisanecessaryconditionofexistence，perhapssomeexplanationofthedilemmamaybefound。

Theformerdefinitiondoesindeedapplytoallrelatives，butthefactthatathingisexplainedwithreferencetosomethingelsedoesnotmakeitessentiallyrelative。

Fromthisitisplainthat，ifamandefinitelyapprehendsarelativething，hewillalsodefinitelyapprehendthattowhichitisrelative。Indeedthisisself-evident：forifamanknowsthatsomeparticularthingisrelative，assumingthatwecallthatarelativeinthecaseofwhichrelationtosomethingisanecessaryconditionofexistence，heknowsthatalsotowhichitisrelated。Forifhedoesnotknowatallthattowhichitisrelated，hewillnotknowwhetherornotitisrelative。Thisisclear，moreover，inparticularinstances。Ifamanknowsdefinitelythatsuchandsuchathingis'double'，hewillalsoforthwithknowdefinitelythatofwhichitisthedouble。Forifthereisnothingdefiniteofwhichheknowsittobethedouble，hedoesnotknowatallthatitisdouble。Again，ifheknowsthatathingismorebeautiful，itfollowsnecessarilythathewillforthwithdefinitelyknowthatalsothanwhichitismorebeautiful。Hewillnotmerelyknowindefinitelythatitismorebeautifulthansomethingwhichislessbeautiful，forthiswouldbesupposition，notknowledge。Forifhedoesnotknowdefinitelythatthanwhichitismorebeautiful，hecannolongerclaimtoknowdefinitelythatitismorebeautifulthansomethingelsewhichislessbeautiful：foritmightbethatnothingwaslessbeautiful。Itis，therefore，evidentthatifamanapprehendssomerelativethingdefinitely，henecessarilyknowsthatalsodefinitelytowhichitisrelated。

Nowthehead，thehand，andsuchthingsaresubstances，anditispossibletoknowtheiressentialcharacterdefinitely，butitdoesnotnecessarilyfollowthatweshouldknowthattowhichtheyarerelated。

Itisnotpossibletoknowforthwithwhoseheadorhandismeant。Thusthesearenotrelatives，and，thisbeingthecase，itwouldbetruetosaythatnosubstanceisrelativeincharacter。Itisperhapsadifficultmatter，insuchcases，tomakeapositivestatementwithoutmoreexhaustiveexamination，buttohaveraisedquestionswithregardtodetailsisnotwithoutadvantage。

8

By'quality'Imeanthatinvirtueofwhichpeoplearesaidtobesuchandsuch。

Qualityisatermthatisusedinmanysenses。Onesortofqualityletuscall'habit'or'disposition'。Habitdiffersfromdispositioninbeingmorelastingandmorefirmlyestablished。Thevariouskindsofknowledgeandofvirtuearehabits，forknowledge，evenwhenacquiredonlyinamoderatedegree，is，itisagreed，abidinginitscharacteranddifficulttodisplace，unlesssomegreatmentalupheavaltakesplace，throughdiseaseoranysuchcause。Thevirtues，also，suchasjustice，self-restraint，andsoon，arenoteasilydislodgedordismissed，soastogiveplacetovice。

Byadisposition，ontheotherhand，wemeanaconditionthatiseasilychangedandquicklygivesplacetoitsopposite。Thus，heat，cold，disease，health，andsoonaredispositions。Foramanisdisposedinonewayoranotherwithreferencetothese，butquicklychanges，becomingcoldinsteadofwarm，illinsteadofwell。Soitiswithallotherdispositionsalso，unlessthroughlapseoftimeadispositionhasitselfbecomeinveterateandalmostimpossibletodislodge：inwhichcaseweshouldperhapsgosofarastocallitahabit。

Itisevidentthatmeninclinetocallthoseconditionshabitswhichareofamoreorlesspermanenttypeanddifficulttodisplace；forthosewhoarenotretentiveofknowledge，butvolatile，arenotsaidtohavesuchandsucha'habit'asregardsknowledge，yettheyaredisposed，wemaysay，eitherbetterorworse，towardsknowledge。

Thushabitdiffersfromdispositioninthis，thatwhilethelatterinephemeral，theformerispermanentanddifficulttoalter。

Habitsareatthesametimedispositions，butdispositionsarenotnecessarilyhabits。Forthosewhohavesomespecifichabitmaybesaidalso，invirtueofthathabit，tobethusorthusdisposed；butthosewhoaredisposedinsomespecificwayhavenotinallcasesthecorrespondinghabit。

Anothersortofqualityisthatinvirtueofwhich，forexample，wecallmengoodboxersorrunners，orhealthyorsickly：infactitincludesallthosetermswhichrefertoinborncapacityorincapacity。

Suchthingsarenotpredicatedofapersoninvirtueofhisdisposition，butinvirtueofhisinborncapacityorincapacitytodosomethingwitheaseortoavoiddefeatofanykind。Personsarecalledgoodboxersorgoodrunners，notinvirtueofsuchandsuchadisposition，butinvirtueofaninborncapacitytoaccomplishsomethingwithease。Menarecalledhealthyinvirtueoftheinborncapacityofeasyresistancetothoseunhealthyinfluencesthatmayordinarilyarise；unhealthy，invirtueofthelackofthiscapacity。

Similarlywithregardtosoftnessandhardness。Hardnessispredicatedofathingbecauseithasthatcapacityofresistancewhichenablesittowithstanddisintegration；softness，again，ispredicatedofathingbyreasonofthelackofthatcapacity。

Athirdclasswithinthiscategoryisthatofaffectivequalitiesandaffections。Sweetness，bitterness，sourness，areexamplesofthissortofquality，togetherwithallthatisakintothese；heat，moreover，andcold，whiteness，andblacknessareaffectivequalities。Itisevidentthatthesearequalities，forthosethingsthatpossessthemarethemselvessaidtobesuchandsuchbyreasonoftheirpresence。Honeyiscalledsweetbecauseitcontainssweetness；

thebodyiscalledwhitebecauseitcontainswhiteness；andsoinallothercases。

Theterm'affectivequality'isnotusedasindicatingthatthosethingswhichadmitthesequalitiesareaffectedinanyway。Honeyisnotcalledsweetbecauseitisaffectedinaspecificway，noristhiswhatismeantinanyotherinstance。Similarlyheatandcoldarecalledaffectivequalities，notbecausethosethingswhichadmitthemareaffected。Whatismeantisthatthesesaidqualitiesarecapableofproducingan'affection'inthewayofperception。Forsweetnesshasthepowerofaffectingthesenseoftaste；heat，thatoftouch；andsoitiswiththerestofthesequalities。

Whitenessandblackness，however，andtheothercolours，arenotsaidtobeaffectivequalitiesinthissense，but-becausetheythemselvesaretheresultsofanaffection。Itisplainthatmanychangesofcolourtakeplacebecauseofaffections。Whenamanisashamed，heblushes；whenheisafraid，hebecomespale，andsoon。Sotrueisthis，thatwhenamanisbynatureliabletosuchaffections，arisingfromsomeconcomitanceofelementsinhisconstitution，itisaprobableinferencethathehasthecorrespondingcomplexionofskin。Forthesamedispositionofbodilyelements，whichintheformerinstancewasmomentarilypresentinthecaseofanaccessofshame，mightbearesultofaman'snaturaltemperament，soastoproducethecorrespondingcolouringalsoasanaturalcharacteristic。Allconditions，therefore，ofthiskind，ifcausedbycertainpermanentandlastingaffections，arecalledaffectivequalities。Forpallorandduskinessofcomplexionarecalledqualities，inasmuchaswearesaidtobesuchandsuchinvirtueofthem，notonlyiftheyoriginateinnaturalconstitution，butalsoiftheycomeaboutthroughlongdiseaseorsunburn，andaredifficulttoremove，orindeedremainthroughoutlife。Forinthesamewaywearesaidtobesuchandsuchbecauseofthese。

Thoseconditions，however，whicharisefromcauseswhichmayeasilyberenderedineffectiveorspeedilyremoved，arecalled，notqualities，butaffections：forwearenotsaidtobesuchvirtueofthem。Themanwhoblushesthroughshameisnotsaidtobeaconstitutionalblusher，noristhemanwhobecomespalethroughfearsaidtobeconstitutionallypale。Heissaidrathertohavebeenaffected。

Thussuchconditionsarecalledaffections，notqualities。

Inlikemannerthereareaffectivequalitiesandaffectionsofthesoul。Thattemperwithwhichamanisbornandwhichhasitsoriginincertaindeep-seatedaffectionsiscalledaquality。Imeansuchconditionsasinsanity，irascibility，andsoon：forpeoplearesaidtobemadorirascibleinvirtueofthese。Similarlythoseabnormalpsychicstateswhicharenotinborn，butarisefromtheconcomitanceofcertainotherelements，andaredifficulttoremove，oraltogetherpermanent，arecalledqualities，forinvirtueofthemmenaresaidtobesuchandsuch。

Those，however，whicharisefromcauseseasilyrenderedineffectivearecalledaffections，notqualities。Supposethatamanisirritablewhenvexed：heisnotevenspokenofasabad-temperedman，wheninsuchcircumstancesheloseshistempersomewhat，butratherissaidtobeaffected。Suchconditionsarethereforetermed，notqualities，butaffections。

Thefourthsortofqualityisfigureandtheshapethatbelongstoathing；andbesidesthis，straightnessandcurvednessandanyotherqualitiesofthistype；eachofthesedefinesathingasbeingsuchandsuch。Becauseitistriangularorquadrangularathingissaidtohaveaspecificcharacter，oragainbecauseitisstraightorcurved；infactathing'sshapeineverycasegivesrisetoaqualificationofit。

Rarityanddensity，roughnessandsmoothness，seemtobetermsindicatingquality：yetthese，itwouldappear，reallybelongtoaclassdifferentfromthatofquality。Foritisratheracertainrelativepositionofthepartscomposingthethingthusqualifiedwhich，itappears，isindicatedbyeachoftheseterms。Athingisdense，owingtothefactthatitspartsarecloselycombinedwithoneanother；rare，becausethereareintersticesbetweentheparts；

smooth，becauseitspartslie，sotospeak，evenly；rough，becausesomepartsprojectbeyondothers。

Theremaybeothersortsofquality，butthosethataremostproperlysocalledhave，wemaysafelysay，beenenumerated。

These，then，arequalities，andthethingsthattaketheirnamefromthemasderivatives，orareinsomeotherwaydependentonthem，aresaidtobequalifiedinsomespecificway。Inmost，indeedinalmostallcases，thenameofthatwhichisqualifiedisderivedfromthatofthequality。Thustheterms'whiteness'，'grammar'，'justice'，giveustheadjectives'white'，'grammatical'，'just'，andsoon。

Therearesomecases，however，inwhich，asthequalityunderconsiderationhasnoname，itisimpossiblethatthosepossessedofitshouldhaveanamethatisderivative。Forinstance，thenamegiventotherunnerorboxer，whoissocalledinvirtueofaninborncapacity，isnotderivedfromthatofanyquality；forlobthosecapacitieshavenonameassignedtothem。Inthis，theinborncapacityisdistinctfromthescience，withreferencetowhichmenarecalled，e。g。

boxersorwrestlers。Suchascienceisclassedasadisposition；ithasaname，andiscalled'boxing'or'wrestling'asthecasemaybe，andthenamegiventothosedisposedinthiswayisderivedfromthatofthescience。Sometimes，eventhoughanameexistsforthequality，thatwhichtakesitscharacterfromthequalityhasanamethatisnotaderivative。Forinstance，theuprightmantakeshischaracterfromthepossessionofthequalityofintegrity，butthenamegivenhimisnotderivedfromtheword'integrity'。Yetthisdoesnotoccuroften。

Wemaythereforestatethatthosethingsaresaidtobepossessedofsomespecificqualitywhichhaveanamederivedfromthatoftheaforesaidquality，orwhichareinsomeotherwaydependentonit。

Onequalitymaybethecontraryofanother；thusjusticeisthecontraryofinjustice，whitenessofblackness，andsoon。Thethings，also，whicharesaidtobesuchandsuchinvirtueofthesequalities，maybecontrarytheonetotheother；forthatwhichisunjustiscontrarytothatwhichisjust，thatwhichiswhitetothatwhichisblack。This，however，isnotalwaysthecase。Red，yellow，andsuchcolours，thoughqualities，havenocontraries。

Ifoneoftwocontrariesisaquality，theotherwillalsobeaquality。Thiswillbeevidentfromparticularinstances，ifweapplythenamesusedtodenotetheothercategories；forinstance，grantedthatjusticeisthecontraryofinjusticeandjusticeisaquality，injusticewillalsobeaquality：neitherquantity，norrelation，norplace，norindeedanyothercategorybutthatofquality，willbeapplicableproperlytoinjustice。Soitiswithallothercontrariesfallingunderthecategoryofquality。

Qualitiesadmitofvariationofdegree。Whitenessispredicatedofonethinginagreaterorlessdegreethanofanother。Thisisalsothecasewithreferencetojustice。Moreover，oneandthesamethingmayexhibitaqualityinagreaterdegreethanitdidbefore：ifathingiswhite，itmaybecomewhiter。

Thoughthisisgenerallythecase，thereareexceptions。Forifweshouldsaythatjusticeadmittedofvariationofdegree，difficultiesmightensue，andthisistruewithregardtoallthosequalitieswhicharedispositions。Therearesome，indeed，whodisputethepossibilityofvariationhere。Theymaintainthatjusticeandhealthcannotverywelladmitofvariationofdegreethemselves，butthatpeoplevaryinthedegreeinwhichtheypossessthesequalities，andthatthisisthecasewithgrammaticallearningandallthosequalitieswhichareclassedasdispositions。Howeverthatmaybe，itisanincontrovertiblefactthatthethingswhichinvirtueofthesequalitiesaresaidtobewhattheyarevaryinthedegreeinwhichtheypossessthem；foronemanissaidtobebetterversedingrammar，ormorehealthyorjust，thananother，andsoon。

Thequalitiesexpressedbytheterms'triangular'and'quadrangular'

donotappeartoadmitofvariationofdegree，norindeeddoanythathavetodowithfigure。Forthosethingstowhichthedefinitionofthetriangleorcircleisapplicableareallequallytriangularorcircular。Those，ontheotherhand，towhichthesamedefinitionisnotapplicable，cannotbesaidtodifferfromoneanotherindegree；thesquareisnomoreacirclethantherectangle，fortoneitheristhedefinitionofthecircleappropriate。

Inshort，ifthedefinitionofthetermproposedisnotapplicabletobothobjects，theycannotbecompared。Thusitisnotallqualitieswhichadmitofvariationofdegree。

WhereasnoneofthecharacteristicsIhavementionedarepeculiartoquality，thefactthatlikenessandunlikenesscanbepredicatedwithreferencetoqualityonly，givestothatcategoryitsdistinctivefeature。Onethingislikeanotheronlywithreferencetothatinvirtueofwhichitissuchandsuch；thusthisformsthepeculiarmarkofquality。

Wemustnotbedisturbedbecauseitmaybearguedthat，thoughproposingtodiscussthecategoryofquality，wehaveincludedinitmanyrelativeterms。Wedidsaythathabitsanddispositionswererelative。Inpracticallyallsuchcasesthegenusisrelative，theindividualnot。Thusknowledge，asagenus，isexplainedbyreferencetosomethingelse，forwemeanaknowledgeofsomething。Butparticularbranchesofknowledgearenotthusexplained。Theknowledgeofgrammarisnotrelativetoanythingexternal，noristheknowledgeofmusic，butthese，ifrelativeatall，arerelativeonlyinvirtueoftheirgenera；thusgrammarissaidbetheknowledgeofsomething，notthegrammarofsomething；similarlymusicistheknowledgeofsomething，notthemusicofsomething。

Thusindividualbranchesofknowledgearenotrelative。Anditisbecausewepossesstheseindividualbranchesofknowledgethatwearesaidtobesuchandsuch。Itisthesethatweactuallypossess：wearecalledexpertsbecausewepossessknowledgeinsomeparticularbranch。Thoseparticularbranches，therefore，ofknowledge，invirtueofwhichwearesometimessaidtobesuchandsuch，arethemselvesqualities，andarenotrelative。Further，ifanythingshouldhappentofallwithinboththecategoryofqualityandthatofrelation，therewouldbenothingextraordinaryinclassingitunderboththeseheads。

9

Actionandaffectionbothadmitofcontrariesandalsoofvariationofdegree。Heatingisthecontraryofcooling，beingheatedofbeingcooled，beinggladofbeingvexed。Thustheyadmitofcontraries。Theyalsoadmitofvariationofdegree：foritispossibletoheatinagreaterorlessdegree；alsotobeheatedinagreaterorlessdegree。Thusactionandaffectionalsoadmitofvariationofdegree。Somuch，then，isstatedwithregardtothesecategories。

Wespoke，moreover，ofthecategoryofpositionwhenweweredealingwiththatofrelation，andstatedthatsuchtermsderivedtheirnamesfromthoseofthecorrespondingattitudes。

Asfortherest，time，place，state，sincetheyareeasilyintelligible，Isaynomoreaboutthemthanwassaidatthebeginning，thatinthecategoryofstateareincludedsuchstatesas'shod'，'armed'，inthatofplace'intheLyceum'andsoon，aswasexplainedbefore。

10

Theproposedcategorieshave，then，beenadequatelydealtwith。

Wemustnextexplainthevarioussensesinwhichtheterm'opposite'

isused。Thingsaresaidtobeopposedinfoursenses：（i）ascorrelativestooneanother，（ii）ascontrariestooneanother，（iii）asprivativestopositives，（iv）asaffirmativestonegatives。

Letmesketchmymeaninginoutline。Aninstanceoftheuseoftheword'opposite'withreferencetocorrelativesisaffordedbytheexpressions'double'and'half'；withreferencetocontrariesby'bad'

and'good'。Oppositesinthesenseof'privatives'and'positives'

are'blindness'and'sight'；inthesenseofaffirmativesandnegatives，thepropositions'hesits'，'hedoesnotsit'。

（i）Pairsofoppositeswhichfallunderthecategoryofrelationareexplainedbyareferenceoftheonetotheother，thereferencebeingindicatedbythepreposition'of'orbysomeotherpreposition。Thus，doubleisarelativeterm，forthatwhichisdoubleisexplainedasthedoubleofsomething。Knowledge，again，istheoppositeofthethingknown，inthesamesense；andthethingknownalsoisexplainedbyitsrelationtoitsopposite，knowledge。Forthethingknownisexplainedasthatwhichisknownbysomething，thatis，byknowledge。Suchthings，then，asareoppositetheonetotheotherinthesenseofbeingcorrelativesareexplainedbyareferenceoftheonetotheother。

（ii）Pairsofoppositeswhicharecontrariesarenotinanywayinterdependent，butarecontrarytheonetotheother。Thegoodisnotspokenofasthegoodofthehad，butasthecontraryofthebad，noriswhitespokenofasthewhiteoftheblack，butasthecontraryoftheblack。Thesetwotypesofoppositionarethereforedistinct。Thosecontrarieswhicharesuchthatthesubjectsinwhichtheyarenaturallypresent，orofwhichtheyarepredicated，mustnecessarilycontaineithertheoneortheotherofthem，havenointermediate，butthoseinthecaseofwhichnosuchnecessityobtains，alwayshaveanintermediate。Thusdiseaseandhealtharenaturallypresentinthebodyofananimal，anditisnecessarythateithertheoneortheothershouldbepresentinthebodyofananimal。Oddandeven，again，arepredicatedofnumber，anditisnecessarythattheoneortheothershouldbepresentinnumbers。

Nowthereisnointermediatebetweenthetermsofeitherofthesetwopairs。Ontheotherhand，inthosecontrarieswithregardtowhichnosuchnecessityobtains，wefindanintermediate。Blacknessandwhitenessarenaturallypresentinthebody，butitisnotnecessarythateithertheoneortheothershouldbepresentinthebody，inasmuchasitisnottruetosaythateverybodymustbewhiteorblack。Badnessandgoodness，again，arepredicatedofman，andofmanyotherthings，butitisnotnecessarythateithertheonequalityortheothershouldbepresentinthatofwhichtheyarepredicated：itisnottruetosaythateverythingthatmaybegoodorbadmustbeeithergoodorbad。Thesepairsofcontrarieshaveintermediates：

theintermediatesbetweenwhiteandblackaregrey，sallow，andalltheothercoloursthatcomebetween；theintermediatebetweengoodandbadisthatwhichisneithertheonenortheother。

Someintermediatequalitieshavenames，suchasgreyandsallowandalltheothercoloursthatcomebetweenwhiteandblack；inothercases，however，itisnoteasytonametheintermediate，butwemustdefineitasthatwhichisnoteitherextreme，asinthecaseofthatwhichisneithergoodnorbad，neitherjustnorunjust。

（iii）'privatives'and'Positives'havereferencetothesamesubject。Thus，sightandblindnesshavereferencetotheeye。Itisauniversalrulethateachofapairofoppositesofthistypehasreferencetothattowhichtheparticular'positive'isnatural。Wesaythatthatiscapableofsomeparticularfacultyorpossessionhassufferedprivationwhenthefacultyorpossessioninquestionisinnowaypresentinthatinwhich，andatthetimeatwhich，itshouldnaturallybepresent。Wedonotcallthattoothlesswhichhasnotteeth，orthatblindwhichhasnotsight，butratherthatwhichhasnotteethorsightatthetimewhenbynatureitshould。Fortherearesomecreatureswhichfrombirtharewithoutsight，orwithoutteeth，butthesearenotcalledtoothlessorblind。

Tobewithoutsomefacultyortopossessitisnotthesameasthecorresponding'privative'or'positive'。'Sight'isa'positive'，'blindness'a'privative'，but'topossesssight'isnotequivalentto'sight'，'tobeblind'isnotequivalentto'blindness'。Blindnessisa'privative'，tobeblindistobeinastateofprivation，butisnota'privative'。Moreover，if'blindness'wereequivalentto'beingblind'，bothwouldbepredicatedofthesamesubject；butthoughamanissaidtobeblind，heisbynomeanssaidtobeblindness。

Tobeinastateof'possession'is，itappears，theoppositeofbeinginastateof'privation'，justas'positives'and'privatives'themselvesareopposite。Thereisthesametypeofantithesisinbothcases；forjustasblindnessisopposedtosight，soisbeingblindopposedtohavingsight。

Thatwhichisaffirmedordeniedisnotitselfaffirmationordenial。By'affirmation'wemeananaffirmativeproposition，by'denial'anegative。Now，thosefactswhichformthematteroftheaffirmationordenialarenotpropositions；yetthesetwoaresaidtobeopposedinthesamesenseastheaffirmationanddenial，forinthiscasealsothetypeofantithesisisthesame。Forastheaffirmationisopposedtothedenial，asinthetwopropositions'hesits'，'hedoesnotsit'，soalsothefactwhichconstitutesthematterofthepropositioninonecaseisopposedtothatintheother，hissitting，thatistosay，tohisnotsitting。

Itisevidentthat'positives'and'privatives'arenotopposedeachtoeachinthesamesenseasrelatives。Theoneisnotexplainedbyreferencetotheother；sightisnotsightofblindness，norisanyotherprepositionusedtoindicatetherelation。Similarlyblindnessisnotsaidtobeblindnessofsight，butrather，privationofsight。Relatives，moreover，reciprocate；ifblindness，therefore，werearelative，therewouldbeareciprocityofrelationbetweenitandthatwithwhichitwascorrelative。Butthisisnotthecase。Sightisnotcalledthesightofblindness。

Thatthosetermswhichfallundertheheadsof'positives'and'privatives'arenotopposedeachtoeachascontraries，either，isplainfromthefollowingfacts：Ofapairofcontrariessuchthattheyhavenointermediate，oneortheothermustneedsbepresentinthesubjectinwhichtheynaturallysubsist，orofwhichtheyarepredicated；foritisthose，asweproved，'inthecaseofwhichthisnecessityobtains，thathavenointermediate。Moreover，wecitedhealthanddisease，oddandeven，asinstances。Butthosecontrarieswhichhaveanintermediatearenotsubjecttoanysuchnecessity。Itisnotnecessarythateverysubstance，receptiveofsuchqualities，shouldbeeitherblackorwhite，coldorhot，forsomethingintermediatebetweenthesecontrariesmayverywellbepresentinthesubject。Weproved，moreover，thatthosecontrarieshaveanintermediateinthecaseofwhichthesaidnecessitydoesnotobtain。Yetwhenoneofthetwocontrariesisaconstitutivepropertyofthesubject，asitisaconstitutivepropertyoffiretobehot，ofsnowtobewhite，itisnecessarydeterminatelythatoneofthetwocontraries，notoneortheother，shouldbepresentinthesubject；forfirecannotbecold，orsnowblack。Thus，itisnotthecaseherethatoneofthetwomustneedsbepresentineverysubjectreceptiveofthesequalities，butonlyinthatsubjectofwhichtheoneformsaconstitutiveproperty。Moreover，insuchcasesitisonememberofthepairdeterminately，andnoteithertheoneortheother，whichmustbepresent。

Inthecaseof'positives'and'privatives'，ontheotherhand，neitheroftheaforesaidstatementsholdsgood。Foritisnotnecessarythatasubjectreceptiveofthequalitiesshouldalwayshaveeithertheoneortheother；thatwhichhasnotyetadvancedtothestatewhensightisnaturalisnotsaideithertobeblindortosee。Thus'positives'and'privatives'donotbelongtothatclassofcontrarieswhichconsistsofthosewhichhavenointermediate。Ontheotherhand，theydonotbelongeithertothatclasswhichconsistsofcontrarieswhichhaveanintermediate。Forundercertainconditionsitisnecessarythateithertheoneortheothershouldformpartoftheconstitutionofeveryappropriatesubject。Forwhenathinghasreachedthestagewhenitisbynaturecapableofsight，itwillbesaideithertoseeortobeblind，andthatinanindeterminatesense，signifyingthatthecapacitymaybeeitherpresentorabsent；foritisnotnecessaryeitherthatitshouldseeorthatitshouldbeblind，butthatitshouldbeeitherintheonestateorintheother。Yetinthecaseofthosecontrarieswhichhaveanintermediatewefoundthatitwasnevernecessarythateithertheoneortheothershouldbepresentineveryappropriatesubject，butonlythatincertainsubjectsoneofthepairshouldbepresent，andthatinadeterminatesense。Itis，therefore，plainthat'positives'and'privatives'arenotopposedeachtoeachineitherofthesensesinwhichcontrariesareopposed。

Again，inthecaseofcontraries，itispossiblethatthereshouldbechangesfromeitherintotheother，whilethesubjectretainsitsidentity，unlessindeedoneofthecontrariesisaconstitutivepropertyofthatsubject，asheatisoffire。Foritispossiblethatthatthatwhichishealthyshouldbecomediseased，thatwhichiswhite，black，thatwhichiscold，hot，thatwhichisgood，bad，thatwhichisbad，good。Thebadman，ifheisbeingbroughtintoabetterwayoflifeandthought，maymakesomeadvance，howeverslight，andifheshouldonceimprove，eveneversolittle，itisplainthathemightchangecompletely，oratanyratemakeverygreatprogress；

foramanbecomesmoreandmoreeasilymovedtovirtue，howeversmalltheimprovementwasatfirst。Itis，therefore，naturaltosupposethathewillmakeyetgreaterprogressthanhehasmadeinthepast；andasthisprocessgoeson，itwillchangehimcompletelyandestablishhiminthecontrarystate，providedheisnothinderedbylackoftime。Inthecaseof'positives'and'privatives'，however，changeinbothdirectionsisimpossible。Theremaybeachangefrompossessiontoprivation，butnotfromprivationtopossession。Themanwhohasbecomeblinddoesnotregainhissight；themanwhohasbecomebalddoesnotregainhishair；themanwhohaslosthisteethdoesnotgrowhisgrowanewset。（iv）Statementsopposedasaffirmationandnegationbelongmanifestlytoaclasswhichisdistinct，forinthiscase，andinthiscaseonly，itisnecessaryfortheoneoppositetobetrueandtheotherfalse。

Neitherinthecaseofcontraries，norinthecaseofcorrelatives，norinthecaseof'positives'and'privatives'，isitnecessaryforonetobetrueandtheotherfalse。Healthanddiseasearecontraries：neitherofthemistrueorfalse。'Double'and'half'areopposedtoeachotherascorrelatives：neitherofthemistrueorfalse。Thecaseisthesame，ofcourse，withregardto'positives'and'privatives'suchas'sight'and'blindness'。Inshort，wherethereisnosortofcombinationofwords，truthandfalsityhavenoplace，andalltheoppositeswehavementionedsofarconsistofsimplewords。

Atthesametime，whenthewordswhichenterintoopposedstatementsarecontraries，these，morethananyothersetofopposites，wouldseemtoclaimthischaracteristic。'Socratesisill'isthecontraryof'Socratesiswell'，butnotevenofsuchcompositeexpressionsisittruetosaythatoneofthepairmustalwaysbetrueandtheotherfalse。ForifSocratesexists，onewillbetrueandtheotherfalse，butifhedoesnotexist，bothwillbefalse；forneither'Socratesisill'nor'Socratesiswell'istrue，ifSocratesdoesnotexistatall。

Inthecaseof'positives'and'privatives'，ifthesubjectdoesnotexistatall，neitherpropositionistrue，butevenifthesubjectexists，itisnotalwaysthefactthatoneistrueandtheotherfalse。For'Socrateshassight'istheoppositeof'Socratesisblind'

inthesenseoftheword'opposite'whichappliestopossessionandprivation。NowifSocratesexists，itisnotnecessarythatoneshouldbetrueandtheotherfalse，forwhenheisnotyetabletoacquirethepowerofvision，botharefalse，asalsoifSocratesisaltogethernon-existent。

Butinthecaseofaffirmationandnegation，whetherthesubjectexistsornot，oneisalwaysfalseandtheothertrue。Formanifestly，ifSocratesexists，oneofthetwopropositions'Socratesisill'，'Socratesisnotill'，istrue，andtheotherfalse。Thisislikewisethecaseifhedoesnotexist；forifhedoesnotexist，tosaythatheisillisfalse，tosaythatheisnotillistrue。Thusitisinthecaseofthoseoppositesonly，whichareoppositeinthesenseinwhichthetermisusedwithreferencetoaffirmationandnegation，thattheruleholdsgood，thatoneofthepairmustbetrueandtheotherfalse。

11

Thatthecontraryofagoodisanevilisshownbyinduction：thecontraryofhealthisdisease，ofcourage，cowardice，andsoon。Butthecontraryofanevilissometimesagood，sometimesanevil。Fordefect，whichisanevil，hasexcessforitscontrary，thisalsobeinganevil，andthemean。whichisagood，isequallythecontraryoftheoneandoftheother。Itisonlyinafewcases，however，thatweseeinstancesofthis：inmost，thecontraryofanevilisagood。

Inthecaseofcontraries，itisnotalwaysnecessarythatifoneexiststheothershouldalsoexist：forifallbecomehealthytherewillbehealthandnodisease，andagain，ifeverythingturnswhite，therewillbewhite，butnoblack。Again，sincethefactthatSocratesisillisthecontraryofthefactthatSocratesiswell，andtwocontraryconditionscannotbothobtaininoneandthesameindividualatthesametime，boththesecontrariescouldnotexistatonce：forifthatSocrateswaswellwasafact，thenthatSocrateswasillcouldnotpossiblybeone。

Itisplainthatcontraryattributesmustneedsbepresentinsubjectswhichbelongtothesamespeciesorgenus。Diseaseandhealthrequireastheirsubjectthebodyofananimal；whiteandblackrequireabody，withoutfurtherqualification；justiceandinjusticerequireastheirsubjectthehumansoul。

Moreover，itisnecessarythatpairsofcontrariesshouldinallcaseseitherbelongtothesamegenusorbelongtocontrarygeneraorbethemselvesgenera。Whiteandblackbelongtothesamegenus，colour；justiceandinjustice，tocontrarygenera，virtueandvice；

whilegoodandevildonotbelongtogenera，butarethemselvesactualgenera，withtermsunderthem。

12

Therearefoursensesinwhichonethingcanbesaidtobe'prior'

toanother。Primarilyandmostproperlythetermhasreferencetotime：inthissensethewordisusedtoindicatethatonethingisolderormoreancientthananother，fortheexpressions'older'and'moreancient'implygreaterlengthoftime。

Secondly，onethingissaidtobe'prior'toanotherwhenthesequenceoftheirbeingcannotbereversed。Inthissense'one'is'prior'to'two'。Forif'two'exists，itfollowsdirectlythat'one'mustexist，butif'one'exists，itdoesnotfollownecessarilythat'two'exists：thusthesequencesubsistingcannotbereversed。Itisagreed，then，thatwhenthesequenceoftwothingscannotbereversed，thenthatoneonwhichtheotherdependsiscalled'prior'tothatother。

Inthethirdplace，theterm'prior'isusedwithreferencetoanyorder，asinthecaseofscienceandoforatory。Forinscienceswhichusedemonstrationthereisthatwhichispriorandthatwhichisposteriorinorder；ingeometry，theelementsarepriortothepropositions；inreadingandwriting，thelettersofthealphabetarepriortothesyllables。Similarly，inthecaseofspeeches，theexordiumispriorinordertothenarrative。

Besidesthesesensesoftheword，thereisafourth。Thatwhichisbetterandmorehonourableissaidtohaveanaturalpriority。Incommonparlancemenspeakofthosewhomtheyhonourandloveas'comingfirst'withthem。Thissenseofthewordisperhapsthemostfar-fetched。

Such，then，arethedifferentsensesinwhichtheterm'prior'isused。

Yetitwouldseemthatbesidesthosementionedthereisyetanother。

Forinthosethings，thebeingofeachofwhichimpliesthatoftheother，thatwhichisinanywaythecausemayreasonablybesaidtobebynature'prior'totheeffect。Itisplainthatthereareinstancesofthis。Thefactofthebeingofamancarrieswithitthetruthofthepropositionthatheis，andtheimplicationisreciprocal：forifamanis，thepropositionwhereinweallegethatheistrue，andconversely，ifthepropositionwhereinweallegethatheistrue，thenheis。Thetrueproposition，however，isinnowaythecauseofthebeingoftheman，butthefactoftheman'sbeingdoesseemsomehowtobethecauseofthetruthoftheproposition，forthetruthorfalsityofthepropositiondependsonthefactoftheman'sbeingornotbeing。

Thustheword'prior'maybeusedinfivesenses。

13

Theterm'simultaneous'isprimarilyandmostappropriatelyappliedtothosethingsthegenesisoftheoneofwhichissimultaneouswiththatoftheother；forinsuchcasesneitherispriororposteriortotheother。Suchthingsaresaidtobesimultaneousinpointoftime。Thosethings，again，are'simultaneous'

inpointofnature，thebeingofeachofwhichinvolvesthatoftheother，whileatthesametimeneitheristhecauseoftheother'sbeing。Thisisthecasewithregardtothedoubleandthehalf，forthesearereciprocallydependent，since，ifthereisadouble，thereisalsoahalf，andifthereisahalf，thereisalsoadouble，whileatthesametimeneitheristhecauseofthebeingoftheother。

Again，thosespecieswhicharedistinguishedonefromanotherandopposedonetoanotherwithinthesamegenusaresaidtobe'simultaneous'innature。Imeanthosespecieswhicharedistinguishedeachfromeachbyoneandthesamemethodofdivision。

Thusthe'winged'speciesissimultaneouswiththe'terrestrial'andthe'water'species。Thesearedistinguishedwithinthesamegenus，andareopposedeachtoeach，forthegenus'animal'hasthe'winged'，the'terrestrial'，andthe'water'species，andnooneoftheseispriororposteriortoanother；onthecontrary，allsuchthingsappeartobe'simultaneous'innature。Eachofthesealso，theterrestrial，thewinged，andthewaterspecies，canbedividedagainintosubspecies。Thosespecies，then，alsowillbe'simultaneous'pointofnature，which，belongingtothesamegenus，aredistinguishedeachfromeachbyoneandthesamemethodofdifferentiation。

Butgeneraarepriortospecies，forthesequenceoftheirbeingcannotbereversed。Ifthereisthespecies'water-animal'，therewillbethegenus'animal'，butgrantedthebeingofthegenus'animal'，itdoesnotfollownecessarilythattherewillbethespecies'water-animal'。

Thosethings，therefore，aresaidtobe'simultaneous'innature，thebeingofeachofwhichinvolvesthatoftheother，whileatthesametimeneitherisinanywaythecauseoftheother'sbeing；

thosespecies，also，whicharedistinguishedeachfromeachandopposedwithinthesamegenus。Thosethings，moreover，are'simultaneous'intheunqualifiedsenseofthewordwhichcomeintobeingatthesametime。

14

Therearesixsortsofmovement：generation，destruction，increase，diminution，alteration，andchangeofplace。

Itisevidentinallbutonecasethatallthesesortsofmovementaredistincteachfromeach。Generationisdistinctfromdestruction，increaseandchangeofplacefromdiminution，andsoon。Butinthecaseofalterationitmaybearguedthattheprocessnecessarilyimpliesoneorotheroftheotherfivesortsofmotion。

Thisisnottrue，forwemaysaythatallaffections，ornearlyall，produceinusanalterationwhichisdistinctfromallothersortsofmotion，forthatwhichisaffectedneednotsuffereitherincreaseordiminutionoranyoftheothersortsofmotion。Thusalterationisadistinctsortofmotion；for，ifitwerenot，thethingalteredwouldnotonlybealtered，butwouldforthwithnecessarilysufferincreaseordiminutionorsomeoneoftheothersortsofmotioninaddition；whichasamatteroffactisnotthecase。Similarlythatwhichwasundergoingtheprocessofincreaseorwassubjecttosomeothersortofmotionwould，ifalterationwerenotadistinctformofmotion，necessarilybesubjecttoalterationalso。Buttherearesomethingswhichundergoincreasebutyetnotalteration。Thesquare，forinstance，ifagnomonisappliedtoit，undergoesincreasebutnotalteration，andsoitiswithallotherfiguresofthissort。Alterationandincrease，therefore，aredistinct。

Speakinggenerally，restisthecontraryofmotion。Butthedifferentformsofmotionhavetheirowncontrariesinotherforms；

thusdestructionisthecontraryofgeneration，diminutionofincrease，restinaplace，ofchangeofplace。Asforthislast，changeinthereversedirectionwouldseemtobemosttrulyitscontrary；thusmotionupwardsisthecontraryofmotiondownwardsandviceversa。

Inthecaseofthatsortofmotionwhichyetremains，ofthosethathavebeenenumerated，itisnoteasytostatewhatisitscontrary。Itappearstohavenocontrary，unlessoneshoulddefinethecontraryherealsoeitheras'restinitsquality'oras'changeinthedirectionofthecontraryquality'，justaswedefinedthecontraryofchangeofplaceeitherasrestinaplaceoraschangeinthereversedirection。Forathingisalteredwhenchangeofqualitytakesplace；thereforeeitherrestinitsqualityorchangeinthedirectionofthecontrarymaybecalledthecontraryofthisqualitativeformofmotion。Inthiswaybecomingwhiteisthecontraryofbecomingblack；thereisalterationinthecontrarydirection，sinceachangeofaqualitativenaturetakesplace。

15

Theterm'tohave'isusedinvarioussenses。Inthefirstplaceitisusedwithreferencetohabitordispositionoranyotherquality，forwearesaidto'have'apieceofknowledgeoravirtue。

Then，again，ithasreferencetoquantity，as，forinstance，inthecaseofaman'sheight；forheissaidto'have'aheightofthreeorfourcubits。Itisused，moreover，withregardtoapparel，amanbeingsaidto'have'acoatortunic；orinrespectofsomethingwhichwehaveonapartofourselves，asaringonthehand：orinrespectofsomethingwhichisapartofus，ashandorfoot。Thetermrefersalsotocontent，asinthecaseofavesselandwheat，orofajarandwine；ajarissaidto'have'wine，andacorn-measurewheat。Theexpressioninsuchcaseshasreferencetocontent。Oritreferstothatwhichhasbeenacquired；wearesaidto'have'ahouseorafield。Amanisalsosaidto'have'awife，andawifeahusband，andthisappearstobethemostremotemeaningoftheterm，forbytheuseofitwemeansimplythatthehusbandliveswiththewife。

Othersensesofthewordmightperhapsbefound，butthemostordinaryoneshaveallbeenenumerated。

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