UtopianandScientific（Introduction—History）FredrickEngelsSocialism：UtopianandScientific1892EnglishEditionIntroduction[History（theroleofReligion）intheEnglishmiddle—class]

WhenEuropeemergedfromtheMiddleAges，therisingmiddle—classofthetownsconstituteditsrevolutionaryelement。Ithadconqueredarecognizedpositionwithinmediaevalfeudalorganization，butthisposition，also，hadbecometoonarrowforitsexpansivepower。Thedevelopmentofthemiddle—class，thebourgeoisie，becameincompatiblewiththemaintenanceofthefeudalsystem；thefeudalsystem，therefore，hadtofall。

ButthegreatinternationalcentreoffeudalismwastheRomanCatholicChurch。ItunitedthewholeoffeudalizedWesternEurope，inspiteofallinternalwars，intoonegrandpoliticalsystem，opposedasmuchtotheschismaticGreeksastotheMohammedancountries。Ithadorganizeditsownhierarchyonthefeudalmodel，and，lastly，itwasitselfbyfarthemostpowerfulfeudallord，holding，asitdid，fully1/3rdofthesoiloftheCatholicworld。Beforeprofanefeudalismcouldbesuccessfullyattackedineachcountryandindetail，this，itssacredcentralorganization，hadtobedestroyed。

Moreover，parallelwiththeriseofthemiddle—classwentonthegreatrevivalofscience；astronomy，mechanics，physics，anatomy，physiologywereagaincultivated。Andthebourgeoisie，forthedevelopmentofitsindustrialproduction，requiredasciencewhichascertainedthephysicalpropertiesofnaturalobjectsandthemodesofactionoftheforcesofNature。NowuptothensciencehadbutbeenthehumblehandmaidoftheChurch，hadnotbeenallowedtooverlapthelimitssetbyfaith，andforthatreasonhadbeennoscienceatall。SciencerebelledagainsttheChurch；

thebourgeoisiecouldnotdowithoutscience，and，therefore，hadtojoinintherebellion。

Theabove，thoughtouchingbuttwoofthepointswheretherisingmiddle—classwasboundtocomeintocollisionwiththeestablishedreligion，willbesufficienttoshow，first，thattheclassmostdirectlyinterestedinthestruggleagainstthepretensionsoftheRomanChurchwasthebourgeoisie；

andsecond，thateverystruggleagainstfeudalism，atthattime，hadtotakeonareligiousdisguise，hadtobedirectedagainsttheChurchinthefirstinstance。Butiftheuniversitiesandthetradersofthecitiesstartedthecry，itwassuretofind，anddidfind，astrongechointhemassesofthecountrypeople，thepeasants，whoeverywherehadtostrugglefortheirveryexistencewiththeirfeudallords，spiritualandtemporal。

Thelongfightofthebourgeoisieagainstfeudalismculminatedinthreegreat，decisivebattles。

ThefirstwaswhatiscalledtheProtestantReformationinGermany。

ThewarcryraisedagainsttheChurch，byLuther，wasrespondedtobytwoinsurrectionsofapoliticalnature；first，thatofthelowernobilityunderFranzvonSickingen（1523），thenthegreatPeasants’War，1525。Bothweredefeated，chieflyinconsequenceoftheindecisionofthepartiesmostinterested，theburghersofthetowns？anindecisionintothecausesofwhichwecannothereenter。Fromthatmoment，thestruggledegeneratedintoafightbetweenthelocalprincesandthecentralpower，andendedbyblottingoutGermany，for200years，fromthepoliticallyactivenationsofEurope。TheLutheranReformationproducedanewcreedindeed，areligionadaptedtoabsolutemonarchy。NosoonerwerethepeasantofNorth—eastGermanyconvertedtoLutheranismthantheywerefromfreemenreducedtoserfs。

ButwhereLutherfailed，Calvinwontheday。Calvin’screedwasonefitfortheboldestofthebourgeoisieofhistime。Hispredestinationdoctrinewasthereligiousexpressionofthefactthatinthecommercialworldofcompetitionsuccessorfailuredoesnotdependuponaman’sactivityorcleverness，butuponcircumstancesuncontrollablebyhim。Itisnotofhimthatwillethorofhimthatrunneth，butofthemercyofunknownsuperioreconomicpowers；andthiswasespeciallytrueataperiodofeconomicrevolution，whenalloldcommercialroutesandcentreswerereplacedbynewones，whenIndiaandAmericawereopenedtotheworld，andwheneventhemostsacredeconomicarticlesoffaith？thevalueofgoldandsilver？begantototterandtobreakdown。Calvin’schurchconstitutionofGodwasrepublicanized，couldthekingdomsofthisworldremainssubjecttomonarchs，bishops，andlords？WhileGermanLutheranismbecameawillingtoolinthehandsofprinces，CalvinismfoundedarepublicinHolland，andactiverepublicanpartiesinEngland，and，aboveall，Scotland。

InCalvinism，thesecondgreatbourgeoisupheavalfounditsdoctrinereadycutanddried。ThisupheavaltookplaceinEngland。Themiddle—classofthetownsbroughtiton，andtheyeomanryofthecountrydistrictsfoughtitout。Curiouslyenough，inallthethreegreatbourgeoisrisings，thepeasantryfurnishesthearmythathastodothefighting；andthepeasantryisjusttheclassthat，thevictoryoncegained，ismostsurelyruinedbytheeconomicconsequencesofthatvictory。AhundredyearsafterCromwell，theyeomanryofenglandhadalmostdisappeared。Anyhow，haditnotbeenforthatyeomanryandfortheplebianelementinthetowns，thebourgeoisiealonewouldneverhavefoughtthematterouttothebitterend，andwouldneverhavebroughtCharlesItothescaffold。Inordertosecureeventhoseconquestsofthebourgeoisiethatwereripeforgatheringatthetime，therevolutionhadtobecarriedconsiderablyfurther？exactlyasin1793inFranceand1848inGermany。Thisseems，infact，tobeoneofthelawsofevolutionofbourgeoissociety。

Well，uponthisexcessofrevolutionaryactivitytherenecessarilyfollowedtheinevitablereactionwhich，initsturn，wentbeyondthepointwhereitmighthavemaintaineditself。Afteraseriesofoscillations，thenewcentreofgravitywasatlastattainedandbecameanewstarting—point。

ThegrandperiodofEnglishhistory，knowntorespectabilityunderthenameof"theGreatRebellion"，andthestrugglessucceedingit，werebroughttoaclosebythecomparativelypunyeventsentitledbyLiberalhistorians"theGloriousRevolution"。

Thenewstarting—pointwasacompromisebetweentherisingmiddle—classandtheex—feudallandowners。Thelatter，thoughcalled，asnow，thearistocracy，hadbeenlongsinceonthewaywhichledthemtobecomewhatLouisPhilippeinFrancebecameatamuchlaterperiod："Thefirstbourgeoisofthekingdom"。

FortunatelyforEngland，theoldfeudalbaronshadkilledoneanotherduringtheWaroftheRoses。Theirsuccessors，thoughmostlyscionsoftheoldfamilies，hadbeensomuchoutofthedirectlineofdescentthattheyconstitutedquiteanewbody，withhabitsandtendenciesfarmorebourgeoisthanfeudal。Theyfullyunderstoodthevalueofmoney，andatoncebegantoincreasetheirrentsbyturninghundredsofsmallfarmersoutandreplacingthemwithsheep。HenryVIII，whilesquanderingtheChurchlands，createdfreshbourgeoislandlordsbywholesale；theinnumerableconfiscationofestates，regrantedtoabsoluteorrelativeupstarts，andcontinuedduringthewholeofthe17thcentury，hadthesameresult。Consequently，eversinceHenryVII，theEnglish"aristocracy"，farfromcounteractingthedevelopmentofindustrialproduction，had，onthecontrary，soughttoindirectlyprofitthereby；andtherehadalwaysbeenasectionofthegreatlandownerswilling，fromeconomicalorpoliticalreasons，tocooperatewiththeleadingmenofthefinancialandindustrialbourgeoisie。Thecompromiseof1689

was，therefore，easilyaccomplished。Thepoliticalspoilsof"pelfandplace"werelefttothegreatlandowningfamilies，providedtheeconomicinterestsofthefinancial，manufacturing，andcommercialmiddle—classweresufficientlyattendedto。Andtheseeconomicinterestswereatthattimepowerfulenoughtodeterminethegeneralpolicyofthenation。Theremightbesquabblesaboutmattersofdetail，but，onthewhole，thearistocraticoligarchyknewtoowellthatitsowneconomicprosperitywasirretrievablyboundupwiththatoftheindustrialandcommercialmiddle—class。

Fromthattime，thebourgeoisiewasahumble，butstillarecognized，componentoftherulingclassesofEngland。Withtherestofthem，ithadacommoninterestinkeepinginsubjectionthegreatworkingmassofthenation。Themerchantormanufacturerhimselfstoodinthepositionofmaster，or，asitwasuntillatelycalled，of"naturalsuperior"tohisclerks，hiswork—people，hisdomesticservants。Hisinterestwastogetasmuchandasgoodworkoutofthemashecould；forthisend，theyhadtobetrainedtopropersubmission。Hewashimselfreligious；hisreligionhadsuppliedthestandardunderwhichhehadfoughtthekingandthelords；

hewasnotlongindiscoveringtheopportunitiesthissamereligionofferedhimforworkinguponthemindsofhisnaturalinferiors，andmakingthemsubmissivetothebehestsofthemastersithadpleasedGodtoplaceoverthem。Inshort，theEnglishbourgeoisienowhadtotakeapartinkeepingdownthe"lowerorders"，thegreatproducingmassofthenation，andoneofthemeansemployedforthatpurposewastheinfluenceofreligion。

Therewasanotherfactorthatcontributedtostrengthenthereligiousleaningsofthebourgeoisie。ThatwastheriseofmaterialisminEngland。

Thisnewdoctrinenotonlyshockedthepiousfeelingsofthemiddle—class；

itannounceditselfasaphilosophyonlyfitforscholarsandcultivatedmenoftheworld，incontrasttoreligion，whichwasgoodenoughfortheuneducatedmasses，includingthebourgeoisie。WithHobbes，itsteppedonthestageasadefenderofroyalprerogativeandomnipotence；itcalleduponabsolutemonarchytokeepdownthatpuerrobustussedmalitiosus["Robustbutmaliciousboy"]？towit，thepeople。Similarly，withthesuccessorsofHobbes，withBolingbroke，Shaftesbury，etc。，thenewdeisticformofmaterialismremainedanaristocratic，esotericdoctrine，and，therefore，hatefultothemiddle—classbothforitsreligiousheresyandforitsanti—bourgeoispoliticalconnections。Accordingly，inoppositiontothematerialismanddeismofthearistocracy，thoseProtestantsectswhichhadfurnishedtheflagandthefightingcontingentagainsttheStuartscontinuedtofurnishthemainstrengthoftheprogressivemiddle—class，andformeventodaythebackboneof"theGreatLiberalParty"。

Inthemeantime，materialismpassedfromEnglandtoFrance，whereitmetandcoalescedwithanothermaterialisticschoolofphilosophers，abranchofCartesianism。InFrance，too，itremainedatfirstanexclusivelyaristocraticdoctrine。But，soon，itsrevolutionarycharacterasserteditself。TheFrenchmaterialistsdidnotlimittheircriticismtomattersofreligiousbelief；theyextendedittowhateverscientifictraditionorpoliticalinstitutiontheymetwith；andtoprovetheclaimoftheirdoctrinetouniversalapplication，theytooktheshortestcut，andboldlyappliedittoallsubjectsofknowledgeinthegiantworkafterwhichtheywerenamed？theEncyclopaedia。Thus，inoneortheotherofitstwoforms？avowedmaterialismordeism？itbecamethecreedofthewholeculturesyouthofFrance；somuchsothat，whentheGreatRevolutionbrokeout，thedoctrinehatchedbyEnglishRoyalistsgaveatheoreticalflagtoFrenchRepublicansandTerrorists，andfurnishedthetextfortheDeclarationoftheRightsofMan。TheGreatFrenchRevolutionwasthethirduprisingofthebourgeoisie，butthefirstthathadentirelycastoffthereligiouscloak，andwasfoughtoutonundisguisedpoliticallines；itwasthefirst，too，thatwasreallyfoughtoutuptothedestructionofoneofthecombatants，thearistocracy，andthecompletetriumphoftheother，thebourgeoisie。

InEngland，thecontinuityofpre—revolutionaryandpost—revolutionaryinstitutions，andthecompromisebetweenlandlordsandcapitalists，founditsexpressioninthecontinuityofjudicialprecedentsandinthereligiouspreservationofthefeudalformsofthelaw。InFrance，theRevolutionconstitutedacompletebreachwiththetraditionsofthepast；itclearedouttheverylastvestigesoffeudalism，andcreatedintheCodeCivilamasterlyadaptationoftheoldRomanlaw？thatalmostperfectexpressionofthejuridicalrelationscorrespondingtotheeconomicstagecalledbyMarxtheproductionofcommodities？tomoderncapitalistconditions；somasterlythatthisFrenchrevolutionarycodestillservesasamodelforreformsofthelawofpropertyinallothercountries，notexceptingEngland。

Letus，however，notforgetthatifEnglishlawcontinuestoexpresstheeconomicrelationsofcapitalistsocietyinthatbarbarousfeudallanguagewhichcorrespondstothethingexpressed，justasEnglishspellingcorrespondstoEnglishpronunciation？vousecrivezLondresetvousprononcezConstantinople，saidaFrenchman？thatsameEnglishlawistheonlyonewhichhaspreservedthroughages，ndtransmittedtoAmericaandtheColonies，thebestpartofthatoldGermanicpersonalfreedom，localself—government，andindependencefromallinterference（butthatofthelawcourts），whichontheContinenthasbeenlostduringtheperiodofabsolutemonarchy，andhasnowherebeenasyetfullyrecovered。

ToreturntoourBritishbourgeois。TheFrenchRevolutiongavehimasplendidopportunity，withthehelpoftheContinentalmonarchies，todestroyFrenchmaritimecommerce，toannexFrenchcolonies，ndtocrushthelastFrenchpretensionstomaritimerivalry。Thatwasonereasonwhyhefoughtit。Anotherwasthatthewaysofthisrevolutionwentverymuchagainsthisgrain。Notonlyits"execrable"terrorism，buttheveryattempttocarrybourgeoisruletoextremes。WhatshouldtheBritishbourgeoisdowithouthisaristocracy，thattaughthimmanners，suchastheywere，andinventedfashionsforhim？thatfurnishedofficersforthearmy，whichkeptorderathome，andthenavy，whichconqueredcolonialpossessionsandnewmarketsaboard？Therewas，indeed，aprogressiveminorityofthebourgeoisie，thatminoritywhoseinterestswerenotsowellattendedtounderthecompromise；thissection，composedchieflyofthelesswealthymiddle—class，didsympathizewiththeRevolution，butitwaspowerlessinParliament。

This，ifmaterialismbecamethecreedoftheFrenchRevolution，theGod—fearingEnglishbourgeoisheldallthefastertohisreligion。HadnotthereignofterrorinParisprovedwhatwastheupshot，ifthereligiousinstinctsofthemasseswerelost？ThemorematerialismspreadfromFrancetoneighboringcountries，andwasreinforcedbysimilardoctrinalcurrents，notablybyGermanphilosophy，themore，infact，materialismandfreethoughtgenerallybecame，ontheContinent，thenecessaryqualificationsofacultivatedman，themorestubbornlytheEnglishmiddle—classstucktoitsmanifoldreligiouscreeds。Thesecreedsmightdifferfromoneanother，buttheywere，allofthem，distinctlyreligious，Christiancreeds。

WhiletheRevolutionensuredthepoliticaltriumphofthebourgeoisieinFrance，inEnglandWatt，Arkwright，Cartwright，andothers，initiatedanindustrialrevolution，whichcompletelyshiftedthecentreofgravityofeconomicpower。Thewealthofthebourgeoisieincreasedconsiderablyfasterthanthatofthelandedaristocracy。Withinthebourgeoisieitself，thefinancialaristocracy，thebankers，etc。，weremoreandmorepushedintothebackgroundbythemanufacturers。Thecompromiseof1689，evenafterthegradualchangesithadundergoneinfavorofthebourgeoisie，nolongercorrespondedtotherelativepositionofthepartiestoit。Thecharacteroftheseparties，too，hadchanged；thebourgeoisieof1830wasverydifferentfromthatoftheprecedingcentury。Thepoliticalpowerstilllefttothearistocracy，andusedbythemtoresistthepretensionsofthenewindustrialbourgeoisie，becameincompatiblewiththeneweconomicinterests。Afreshstrugglewiththearistocracywasnecessary；itcouldendonlyinavictoryoftheneweconomicpower。First，theReformActwaspushedthrough，inspiteofallresistance，undertheimpulseoftheFrenchRevolutionof1830。ItgavetothebourgeoisiearecognizedandpowerfulplaceinParliament。ThentheRepealoftheCornLaws[amovetowardfree—trade]，whichsettled，onceandforall，thesupremacyofthebourgeoisie，andespeciallyofitsmostactiveportion，themanufacturers，overthelandedaristocracy。Thiswasthegreatestvictoryofthebourgeoisie；

itwas，however，alsothelastitgainedinitsownexclusiveinterest。

Whatevertriumphsitobtainedalteron，ithadtosharewithanewsocialpower？firstitsally，butsoonitsrival。

Theindustrialrevolutionhadcreatedaclassoflargemanufacturingcapitalists，butalsoaclass？andafarmorenumerousone？ofmanufacturingwork—people。Thisclassgraduallyincreasedinnumbers，inproportionastheindustrialrevolutionseizedupononebranchofmanufactureafteranother，andinthesameproportionitincreaseditspower。Thispoweritprovedasearlyas1824，byforcingareluctantParliamenttorepealtheactsforbiddingcombinationsofworkmen。DuringtheReformagitation，theworkingmenconstitutedtheRadicalwingoftheReformparty；theActof1832havingexcludedthemfromthesuffrage，theformulatedtheirdemandsinthePeople’sCharter，andconstitutedthemselves，inoppositiontothegreatbourgeoisAnti—CornLawparty，intoanindependentparty，theChartists，thefirstworking—men’spartyofmoderntimes。

ThencametheContinentalrevolutionsofFebruaryandMarch1848，inwhichtheworkingpeopleplayedsuchaprominentpart，and，atleastinParis，putforwarddemandswhichwerecertainlyinadmissiblefromthepointofviewofcapitalistsociety。Andthencamethegeneralreaction。First，thedefeatoftheChartistsonApril10，1848；thenthecrushingoftheParisworkingmen’sinsurrectioninJuneofthesameyear；thenthedisastersof1849inItaly，Hungary，SouthGermany，andatlastthevictoryofLouisBonaparteoverParis，December2，1851。Foratime，atleast，thebugbearofworking—classpretensionswasputdown，butatwhatcost!IftheBritishbourgeoishadbeenconvincedbeforeofthenecessityofmaintainingthecommonpeopleinareligiousmood，howmuchmoremusthefeelthatnecessityafteralltheseexperiences？RegardlessofthesneersofhisContinentalcompeers，hecontinuedtospendthousandsandtensofthousands，yearafteryear，upontheevangelizationofthelowerorders；notcontentwithhisownnativereligiousmachinery，heappealedtoBrotherJonathan1），thegreatestorganizerinexistenceofreligionasatrade，andimportedfromAmericarevivalism，MoodyandSankey，andthelike；and，finally，heacceptedthedangerousaidoftheSalvationArmy，whichrevivesthepropagandaofearlyChristianity，appealstothepoorastheelect，fightscapitalisminareligiousway，andthusfostersanelementofearlyChristianclassantagonism，whichonedaymaybecometroublesometothewell—to—dopeoplewhonowfindthereadymoneyforit。

ItseemsalawofhistoricaldevelopmentthatthebourgeoisiecaninnoEuropeancountrygetholdofpoliticalpower？atleastforanylengthoftime？inthesameexclusivewayinwhichthefeudalaristocracykeptholdofitduringtheMiddleAges。EveninFrance，wherefeudalismwascompletelyextinguished，thebourgeoisieasawholehasheldfullpossessionoftheGovernmentforveryshortperiodsonly。DuringLouisPhilippe’sreign，1830—48，averysmallportionofthebourgeoisieruledthekingdom；

byfarthelargerpartwereexcludedfromthesuffragebythehighqualification。

UndertheSecondRepublic，1848—51，thewholebourgeoisieruledbutforthreeyearsonly；theirincapacitybroughtontheSecondEmpire。Itisonlynow，intheThirdRepublic，thatthebourgeoisieasawholehavekeptpossessionofthehelmformorethan20years；andtheyarealreadyshowinglivelysignsofdecadence。AdurablereignofthebourgeoisiehasbeenpossibleonlyincountrieslikeAmerica，wherefeudalismwasunknown，andsocietyattheverybeginningstartedfromabourgeoisbasis。AndeveninFranceandAmerica，thesuccessorsofthebourgeoisie，theworkingpeople，arealreadyknockingatthedoor。

InEngland，thebourgeoisieneverheldundividedsway。Eventhevictoryof1832leftthelandedaristocracyinalmostexclusivepossessionofalltheleadingGovernmentoffices。Themeeknesswithwhichthemiddle—classsubmittedtothisremainedinconceivabletomeuntilthegreatLiberalmanufacturer，Mr。W。A。Forster，inapublicspeech，imploredtheyoungmenofBradfordtolearnFrench，asameanstogetonintheworld，andquotedfromhisownexperiencehowsheepishhelookedwhen，asaCabinetMinister，hehadtomoveinsocietywhereFrenchwas，atleast，asnecessaryasEnglish!Thefactwas，theEnglishmiddle—classofthattimewere，asarule，quiteuneducatedupstarts，andcouldnothelpleavingtothearistocracythosesuperiorGovernmentplaceswhereotherqualificationswererequiredthanmereinsularnarrownessandinsularconceit，seasonedbybusinesssharpness。2）Evennowtheendlessnewspaperdebatesaboutmiddle—classeducationshowthattheEnglishmiddle—classdoesnotyetconsideritselfgoodenoughforthebesteducation，andlookstosomethingmoremodest。Thus，evenaftertherepealoftheCornLaws，itappearedamatterofcoursethatthemenwhohadcarriedtheday？theCobdens，Brights，Forsters，etc。？shouldremainexcludedfromashareintheofficialgovernmentofthecountry，until20yearsafterwardsanewReformActopenedtothemthedooroftheCabinet。TheEnglishbourgeoisieare，uptothepresentday，sodeeplypenetratedbyasenseoftheirsocialinferioritythattheykeepup，attheirownexpenseandthatofthenation，anornamentalcasteofdronestorepresentthenationworthilyatallStatefunctions；andtheyconsiderthemselveshighlyhonoredwheneveroneofthemselvesisfoundworthyofadmissionintothisselectandprivilegedbody，manufactured，afterall，bythemselves。

Theindustrialandcommercialmiddle—classhad，therefore，notyetsucceededindrivingthelandedaristocracycompletelyfrompoliticalpowerwhenanothercompetitor，theworking—class，appearedonthestage。ThereactionaftertheChartistmovementandtheContinentalrevolutions，aswellastheunparalleledextensionofEnglishtradefrom1848—66（ascribedvulgarlytoFreeTradealone，butduefarmoretothecolossaldevelopmentofrailways，oceansteamers，andmeansofintercoursegenerally），hadagaindriventheworking—classintothedependencyoftheLiberalparty，ofwhichtheyformed，asinpre—Chartisttimes，theRadicalwing。Theirclaimstothefranchise，however，graduallybecameirresistible；whiletheWhigleadersoftheLiberals"funked"，DisraelishowedhissuperioritybymakingtheToriesseizethefavorablemomentandintroducehouseholdsuffrageintheboroughs，alongwitharedistributionofseats。Thenfollowedtheballot；then，in1884，theextensionofhouseholdsuffragetothecountiesandafreshredistributionofseats，bywhichelectoraldistrictswere，tosomeextent，equalized。

Allthesemeasuresconsiderablyincreasedtheelectoralpoweroftheworking—class，somuchsothatinatleast150to200constituenciesthatclassnowfurnishedthemajorityofthevoters。Butparliamentarygovernmentisacapitalschoolforteachingrespectfortradition；ifthemiddle—classlookwithaweandvenerationuponwhatLordJohnMannersplayfullycalled"ouroldnobility"，themassoftheworking—peoplethenlookedupwithrespectanddeferencetowhatusedtobedesignatedas"theirbetters"，themiddle—class。Indeed，theBritishworkman，some15yearsago，wasthemodelworkman，whoserespectfulregardforthepositionofhismaster，andwhoseself—restrainingmodestyinclaimingrightsforhimself，consoledourGermaneconomistsoftheKatheder—Socialistschoolfortheincurablecommunisticandrevolutionarytendenciesoftheirownworking—menathome。

ButtheEnglishmiddle—class？goodmenofbusinessastheyare？sawfartherthantheGermanprofessors。Theyhadsharedtheirpowersbutreluctantlywiththeworking—class。Theyhadlearnt，duringtheChartistyears，whatthatpuerrobustussedmalitiosus，thepeople，iscapableof。Andsincethattime，theyhadbeencompelledtoincorporatethebetterpartofthePeople’sCharterintheStatutesoftheUnitedKingdom。Now，ifever，thepeoplemustbekeptinorderbymoralmeans，andthefirstandforemostofallmoralmeansofactionuponthemassesisandremains？

religion。Hencetheparsons’majoritiesontheSchoolBoards，hencetheincreasingself—taxationofthebourgeoisieforthesupportofallsortsofrevivalism，fromritualismtotheSalvationArmy。

AndnowcamethetriumphofBritishrespectabilityoverthefreethoughtandreligiouslaxityoftheContinentalbourgeois。TheworkmenofFranceandGermanyhadbecomerebellious。TheywerethoroughlyinfectedwithSocialism，and，forverygoodreasons，werenotatallparticularastothelegalityofthemeansbywhichtosecuretheirownascendancy。Thepuerrobustus，here，turnedfromday—to—daymoremalitiosus。NothingremainedtotheFrenchandGermanbourgeoisieasalastresourcebuttosilentlydroptheirfreethought，asayoungster，whensea—sicknesscreepsuponhim，quietlydropstheburningcigarhebroughtswaggeringlyonboard；one—by—one，thescoffersturnedpiousinoutwardbehavior，spokewithrespectoftheChurch，itsdogmasandrites，andevenconformedwiththelatterasfarascouldnotbehelped。FrenchbourgeoisdinedmaigreonFridays，andGermanonessayoutlongProtestantsermonsintheirpewsonSundays。

Theyhadcometogriefwithmaterialism。"DieReligionmussdemVolkerhaltenwerden"？religionmustbekeptaliveforthepeople？thatwastheonlyandthelastmeanstosavesocietyfromutterruin。Unfortunatelyforthemselves，theydidnotfindthisoutuntiltheyhaddonetheirlevelbesttobreakupreligionforever。AndnowitwastheturnoftheBritishbourgeoisietosneerandtosay："Why，youfools，Icouldhavetoldyouthat200yearsago!"

However，IamafraidneitherthereligiousstolidityoftheBritish，northepostfestumconversionoftheContinentalbourgeoiswillstemtherisingProletariantide。Traditionisagreatretardingforce，isthevisinertiaeofhistory，but，beingmerelypassive，issuretobebrokendown；andthusreligionwillbenolastingsafeguardtocapitalistsociety。Ifourjuridical，philosophical，andreligiousideasarethemoreorlessremoteoffshootsoftheeconomicalrelationsprevailinginagivensociety，suchideascannot，inthelongrun，withstandtheeffectsofacompletechangeintheserelations。And，unlesswebelieveinsupernaturalrevelation，wemustadmitthatnoreligioustenetswilleversufficetopropupatotteringsociety。

Infact，inEnglandtoo，theworking—peoplehavebeguntomoveagain。

Theyare，nodoubt，shackledbytraditionsofvariouskinds。Bourgeoistraditions，suchasthewidespreadbeliefthattherecanbebuttwoparties，ConservativesandLiberals，andthattheworking—classmustworkoutitssalvationbyandthroughthegreatLiberalParty。Working—men’straditions，inheritedfromtheirfirsttentativeeffortsatindependentaction，suchastheexclusion，fromeversomanyoldTradeUnions，ofallapplicantswhohavenotgonethrougharegularapprenticeship；whichmeansthebreeding，byeverysuchunion，ofitsownblacklegs。But，forallthat，theEnglishworking—classismoving，asevenProfessorBrentanohassorrowfullyhadtoreporttohisbrotherKatheder—Socialists。Itmoves，likeallthingsinEngland，withaslowandmeasuredstep，withhesitationhere，withmoreorlessunfruitful，tentativeattemptsthere；itmovesnowandthenwithanover—cautiousmistrustofthenameofSocialism，whileitgraduallyabsorbsthesubstance；andthemovementspreadsandseizesonelayeroftheworkersafteranother。IthasnowshakenoutoftheirtorportheunskilledlaborersoftheEastEndofLondon，andweallknowwhatasplendidimpulsethesefreshforceshavegivenitinreturn。Andifthepaceofthemovementisnotuptotheimpatienceofsomepeople，letthemnotforgetthatitistheworking—classwhichkeepsalivethefinestqualitiesoftheEnglishcharacter，andthat，ifastepinadvanceisoncegainedinEngland，itis，asarule，neverlostafterwards。IfthesonsoftheoldChartists，forreasonsunexplainedabove，werenotquiteuptothemark，thegrandsonsbidfairtobeworthyoftheirforefathers。

ButthetriumphoftheEuropeanworking—classdoesnotdependuponEnglandalone。Itcanonlybesecuredbythecooperationof，atleast，England，France，andGermany。Inboththelattercountries，theworking—classmovementiswellaheadofEngland。InGermany，itisevenwithinmeasurabledistanceofsuccess。Theprogressithastheremadeduringthelast25yearsisunparalleled。Itadvanceswithever—increasingvelocity。IftheGermanmiddle—classhaveshownthemselveslamentablydeficientinpoliticalcapacity，discipline，courage，energy，andperseverance，theGermanworking—classhavegivenampleproofofallthesequalities。Fourhundredyearsago，Germanywasthestarting—pointofthefirstupheavaloftheEuropeanmiddle—class；

asthingsarenow，isitoutsidethelimitsofpossibilitythatGermanywillbethescene，too，ofthefirstgreatvictoryoftheEuropeanproletariat？

FREDERICKENGELS

LondonApril20，1892

Notes（2"BrotherJonathan"？AsortofAnglo—Christian"UncleSam"。

[2]Andeveninbusinessmatters，theconceitofnationalChauvinismisbutasorryadviser。Uptoquiterecently，theaverageEnglishmanufacturerconsidereditderogatoryforanEnglishmantospeakanylanguagebuthisown，andfeltratherproudthanotherwiseofthefactthat"poordevils"

offoreignerssettledinEnglandandtookoffhishandsthetroubleofdisposingofhisproductsabroad。Henevernoticedthattheseforeigners，mostlyGermans，thusgotcommandofaverylargepartofBritishforeigntrade，importsandexports，andthatthedirectforeigntradeofEnglishmenbecamelimited，almostentirely，tothecolonies，China，theUnitedStates，andSouthAmerica。NordidhenoticethattheseGermanstradedwithotherGermansabroad，whograduallyorganizedacompletenetworkofcommercialcoloniesallovertheworld。But，whenGermany，about40yearsago[c。1850]，seriouslybeganmanufacturingforexport，thisnetworkservedheradmirablyinhertransformation，insoshortatime，fromacorn—exportingintoafirst—ratemanufacturingcountry。Then，about10yearsago，theBritishmanufacturergotfrightened，andaskedhisambassadorsandconsulshowitwasthathecouldnolongerkeephiscustomerstogether。Theunanimousanswerwas：

（1）Youdon’tlearncustomer’slanguagebutexpecthimtospeakyourown；

（2）Youdon’teventrytosuityourcustomer’swants，habits，andtastes，butexpecthimtoconformtoyourEnglishones。

Socialism：UtopianandScientific（Introduction—Materialism）FredrickEngelsSocialism：UtopianandScientific1892EnglishEditionIntroduction[GeneralIntroductionandtheHistoryofMaterialism]

Thepresentlittlebookis，originally，partofalargerwhole。About1875，Dr。E。Duhring，privatdocent[universitylecturerwhoformerlyreceivedfeesfromhisstudentsratherthanawage]atBerlinUniversity，suddenlyandratherclamorouslyannouncedhisconversiontoSocialism，andpresentedtheGermanpublicnotonlywithanelaborateSocialisttheory，butalsowithacompletepracticalplanforthereorganizationofsociety。Asamatterofcourse，hefellfoulofhispredecessors；aboveall，hehonoredMarxbypouringoutuponhimthefullvialsofhiswrath。

ThistookplaceaboutthesametimewhenthetwosectionsoftheSocialistpartyinGermany？EisenachersandLasselleans？hadjusteffectedtheirfusip；[attheGothaUnificationCongress]，andthusobtainednotonlyanimmenseincreaseofstrength，but，waswhatmore，thefacultyofemployingthewholeofthisstrengthagainstthecommonenemy。TheSocialistpartyinGermanywasfastbecomingapower。But，tomakeitapower，thefirstconditionwasthatthenewly—conqueredunityshouldnotbeimperilled。AndDr。Duhringopenlyproceededtoformaroundhimselfasect，thenucleusofafutureseparateparty。It，thus，becamenecessarytotakeupthegauntletthrowndowntous，andtofightoutthestruggle，whetherwelikeditornot。

This，however，thoughitmightnotbeanover—difficult，wasevidentlyalong—windedbusiness。Asiswell—known，weGermansareofaterriblyponderousGrundlichkeit，radicalprofundityorprofoundradicality，whateveryoumayliketocallit。Wheneveranyoneofusexpoundswhatheconsidersanewdoctrine，hehasfirsttoelaborateitintoanall—comprisingsystem。

Hehastoprovethatboththefirstprinciplesoflogicandthefundamentallawsoftheuniversehadexistedfromalleternityfornootherpurposethantoultimatelyleadtothisnewly—discovered，crowningtheory。AndDr。Duhring，inthisrespect，wasquiteuptothenationalmark。Nothinglessthanacomplete"SystemofPhilosophy"，mental，moral，natural，andhistorical；acomplete"SystemofPoliticalEconomyandSocialism"；and，finally，a"CriticalHistoryofPoliticalEconomy"？threebigvolumesinoctavo，heavyextrinsicallyandintrinsically，threearmy—corpsofargumentsmobilizedagainstallpreviousphilosophersandeconomistsingeneral，andagainstMarxinparticular？infact，anattemptatacomplete"revolutioninscience"？thesewerewhatIshouldhavetotackle。Ihadtotreatofallandeverypossiblesubject，fromconceptsoftimeandspacetoBimetallism；

fromtheeternityofmatterandmotion，totheperishablenatureofmoralideas；fromDarwin’snaturalselectiontotheeducationofyouthinafuturesociety。Anyhow，thesystematiccomprehensivenessofmyopponentgavemetheopportunityofdeveloping，inoppositiontohim，andinamoreconnectedformthanhadpreviouslybeendone，theviewsheldbyMarxandmyselfonthisgreatvarietyofsubjects。Andthatwastheprincipalreasonwhichmademeundertakethisotherwiseungratefultask。

MyreplywasfirstpublishedinaseriesofarticlesintheLeipzigVorwarts，thechieforganoftheSocialistparty[1]，andlateronasabook："HerrEugenDuhringsUmwalzungderWissenchaft"

（Mr。E。Duhring’s"RevolutioninScience"），asecondeditionofwhichappearedinZurich，1886。

Attherequestofmyfriend，PaulLafargue，nowrepresentativeofLilleintheFrenchChamberofDeputies，Iarrangedthreechaptersofthisbookasapamphlet，whichhetranslatedandpublishedin1880，underthetitle：

"SocialismeutopiqueetSocialismescientifique"。FromthisFrenchtext，aPolishandaSpanisheditionwereprepared。In1883，outGermanfriendsbroughtoutthepamphletintheoriginallanguage。Italian，Russian，Danish，Dutch，andRoumaniantranslations，basedupontheGermantext，havesincebeenpublished。Thus，thepresentEnglishedition，thislittlebookcirculatesin10languages。IamnotawarethatanyotherSocialistwork，notevenourCommunistManifestoof1848，orMarx’sCapital，hasbeensooftentranslated。InGermany，ithashadfoureditionsofabout20，000

copiesinall。

TheAppendix，"TheMark"，waswrittenwiththeintentionofspreadingamongtheGermanSocialistpartysomeelementaryknowledgeofthehistoryanddevelopmentoflandedpropertyinGermany。Thisseemedallthemorenecessaryatatimewhentheassimilationbythatpartyoftheworking—peopleofthetownswasinafairwayofcompletion，andwhentheagriculturallaborersandpeasanthadtobetakeninhand。Thisappendixhasbeenincludedinthetranslation，astheoriginalformsoftenureoflandcommontoallTeutonictribes，andthehistoryoftheirdecay，areevenlessknowninEnglandandinGermany。Ihaveleftthetextasitstandsintheoriginal，withoutalludingtothehypothesisrecentlystartedbyMaximKovalevsky，accordingtowhichthepartitionofthearableandmeadowlandsamongthemembersoftheMarkwasprecededbytheirbeingcultivatedforjoint—accountbyalargepatriarchalfamilycommunity，embracingseveralgenerations（asexemplifiedbythestillexistingSouthSlavonianZadruga），andthatthepartition，lateron，tookplacewhenthecommunityhadincreased，soastobecometoounwieldyforjoint—accountmanagement。Kovalevskyisprobablyquiteright，butthematterisstillsubjudice[underconsideration]。

Theeconomictermsusedinthiswork，asafarastheyarenew，agreewiththoseusedintheEnglisheditionofMarx’sCapital。Wecall"productionofcommodities"thateconomicphasewherearticlesareproducednotonlyfortheuseoftheproducers，butalsoforthepurposeofexchange；

thatis，ascommodities，notasusevalues。Thisphaseextendsfromthefirstbeginningsofproductionforexchangedowntoourpresenttime；

itattainsitsfulldevelopmentundercapitalistproductiononly，thatis，underconditionswherethecapitalist，theownerofthemeansofproduction，employs，forwages，laborers，peopledeprivedofallmeansofproductionexcepttheirownlabor—power，andpocketstheexcessofthesellingpriceoftheproductsoverhisoutlay。WedividethehistoryofindustrialproductionsincetheMiddleAgesintothreeperiods：

handicraft，smallmastercraftsmanwithafewjourneymenandapprentices，whereeachlaborerproducesacompletearticle；

manufacture，wheregreaternumbersofworkmen，groupedinonelargeestablishment，producethecompletearticleontheprincipleofdivisionoflabor，eachworkmanperformingonlyonepartialoperation，sothattheproductiscompleteonlyafterhavingpassedsuccessivelythroughthehandsofall；

modernindustry，wheretheproductisproducedbymachinerydrivenbypower，andwheretheworkofthelaborerislimitedtosuperintendingandcorrectingtheperformanceofthemechanicalagent。

IamperfectlyawarethatthecontentsofthisworkwillmeetwithobjectionfromaconsiderableportionoftheBritishpublic。But，ifweContinentalshadtakentheslightestnoticeoftheprejudicesofBritish"respectability"，weshouldbeevenworseoffthanweare。Thisbookdefendswhatwecall"historicalmaterialism"，andthewordmaterialismgratesupontheearsoftheimmensemajorityofBritishreaders。"Agnosticism"mightbetolerated，butmaterialismisutterlyinadmissible。

And，yet，theoriginalhomeofallmodernmaterialism，fromthe17thcenturyonwards，isEngland。

"Materialismisthenatural—bornsonofGreatBritain。

AlreadytheBritishschoolman，DunsScotus，asked，’whetheritwasimpossibleforthemattertothink？’

"Inordertoeffectthismiracle，hetookrefugeinGod’somnipotence？i。e。，hemadetheologypreachmaterialism。Moreover，hewasanominalist。Nominalism，thefirstformofmaterialism，ischieflyfoundamongtheEnglishschoolmen。

"TherealprogenitorofEnglishmaterialismisBacon。

Tohim，naturalphilosophyistheonlytruephilosophy，andphysicsbasedupontheexperienceofthesensesisthechiefestpartofnaturalphilosophy。

Anaxagorasandhishomoiomeriae，Democritusandhisatoms，heoftenquotesashisauthorities。Accordingtohim，thesensesareinfallibleandthesourceofallknowledge。Allscienceisbasedonexperience，andconsistsinsubjectingthedatafurnishedbythesensestoarationalmethodofinvestigation。Induction，analysis，comparison，observation，experiment，aretheprincipalformsofsucharationalmethod。Amongthequalitiesinherentinmatter，motionisthefirstandforemost，notonlyintheformofmechanicalandmathematicalmotion，butchieflyintheformofanimpulse，avitalspirit，atension？ora’qual’，touseatermofJakobBohme’；[2]？ofmatter。

"InBacon，itsfirstcreator，materialismstilloccludeswithinitselfthegermsofamany—sideddevelopment。Ontheonehand，matter，surroundedbyasensuous，poeticglamor，seemstoattractman’swholeentitybywinningsmiles。Ontheother，theaphoristicallyformulateddoctrinepullulateswithinconsistenciesimportedfromtheology。

"Initsfurtherevolution，materialismbecomesone—sided。

HobbesisthemanwhosystematizesBaconianmaterialism。Knowledgebaseduponthesenseslosesitspoeticblossom，itpassesintotheabstractexperienceofthemathematician；geometryisproclaimedasthequeenofsciences。

Materialismtakestomisanthropy。Ifitistoovercomeitsopponent，misanthropic，flashlessspiritualism，andthatonthelatter’sownground，materialismhastochastiseitsownfleshandturnascetic。Thus，fromasensual，itpassesintoanintellectual，entity；butthus，too，itevolvesalltheconsistency，regardlessofconsequences，characteristicoftheintellect。

"Hobbes，asBacon’scontinuator，arguesthus：ifallhumanknowledgeisfurnishedbythesenses，thenourconceptsandideasarebutthephantoms，divestedoftheirsensualforms，oftherealworld。Philosophycanbutgivenamestothesephantoms。Onenamemaybeappliedtomorethanoneofthem。Theremayevenbenamesofnames。Itwouldimplyacontradictionif，ontheonehand，wemaintainedthatallideashadtheiroriginintheworldofsensation，and，ontheother，thatawordwasmorethanaword；

that，besidesthebeingsknowntousbyoursenses，beingswhichareoneandallindividuals，thereexistedalsobeingsofageneral，notindividual，nature。Anunbodilysubstanceisthesameabsurdityasanunbodilybody。

Body，being，substance，arebutdifferenttermsforthesamereality。Itisimpossibletoseparatethoughtfrommatterthatthinks。Thismatteristhesubstratumofallchangesgoingonintheworld。Thewordinfiniteismeaningless，unlessitstatesthatourmindiscapableofperforminganendlessprocessofaddition。Onlymaterialthingsbeingperceptibletous，wecannotknowanythingabouttheexistenceofGod。Myownexistencealoneiscertain。Everyhumanpassionisamechanicalmovement，whichhasabeginningandanend。Theobjectsofimpulsearewhatwecallgood。Manissubjecttothesamelawsasnature。Powerandfreedomareidentical。

"HobbeshadsystematizedBacon，without，however，furnishingaproofforBacon’sfundamentalprinciple，theoriginofallhumanknowledgefromtheworldofsensation。ItwasLockewho，inhisEssayontheHumanUnderstanding，suppliedthisproof。

"HobbeshadshatteredthetheisticprejudicesofBaconianmaterialism；Collins，Dodwell，Coward，Hartley，Priestley，similarlyshatteredthelasttheologicalbarsthatstillhemmedinLocke’ssensationalism。

Atallevents，forpracticalmaterialists，Deismisbutaneasy—goingwayofgettingridofreligion。"

KarlMarxTheHolyFamilyp。201—204

ThusKarlMarxwroteabouttheBritishoriginofmodernmaterialism。

IfEnglishmennowadaysdonotexactlyrelishthecomplimentthepaidtheirancestors，more’sthepity。ItisnonethelessundeniablethatBacon，Hobbes，andLockearethefathersofthatbrilliantschoolofFrenchmaterialismwhichmadethe18thcentury，inspiteofallbattlesonlandandseawonoverFrenchmenbyGermansandEnglishmen，apre—eminentlyFrenchcentury，evenbeforethatcrowningFrenchRevolution，theresultsofwhichweoutsides，inEnglandaswellasGermany，arestilltryingtoacclimatize。

Thereisnodenyingit。Aboutthemiddleofthiscentury，whatstruckeverycultivatedforeignerwhosetuphisresidenceinEngland，waswhathewasthenboundtoconsiderthereligiousbigotryandstupidityoftheEnglishrespectablemiddle—class。We，atthattime，wereallmaterialists，or，atleast，veryadvancedfree—thinkers，andtousitappearedinconceivablethatalmostalleducatedpeopleinEnglandshouldbelieveinallsortsofimpossiblemiracles，andthatevengeologistslikeBucklandandMantellshouldcontortthefactsoftheirsciencesoasnottoclashtoomuchwiththemythsofthebookofGenesis；while，inordertofindpeoplewhodaredtousetheirownintellectualfacultieswithregardtoreligiousmatters，youhadtogoamongsttheuneducated，the"greatunwashed"，astheywerethencalled，theworkingpeople，especiallytheOweniteSocialists。

ButEnglandhasbeen"civilized"sincethen。Theexhibitionof1851

soundedtheknellofEnglishinsularexclusiveness。Englandbecamegraduallyinternationalized，indiet，inmanners，inideas；somuchsothatIbegintowishthatsomeEnglishmannersandcustomshadmadeasmuchheadwayontheContinentasotherContinentalhabitshavemadehere。Anyhow，theintroductionandspreadofsalad—oil（before1851knownonlytothearistocracy）

hasbeenaccompaniedbyafatalspreadofContinentalscepticisminmattersreligious，andithascometothis，thatagnosticism，thoughnotyetconsidered"thething"quiteasmuchastheChurchofEngland，isyetverynearlyonapar，asfarasrespectabilitygoes，withBaptism，anddecidedlyranksabovetheSalvationArmy。AndIcannothelpbelievingthatunderthosecircumstancesitwillbeconsolingtomanywhosincerelyregretandcondemnthisprogressofinfidelitytolearnthatthese"new—fanglednotions"arenotofforeignorigin，arenot"madeinGermany"，likesomanyotherarticlesofdailyuse，butareundoubtedlyOldEnglish，andthattheirBritishoriginators200yearsagowentagooddealfurtherthantheirdescendantsnowdaretoventure。

What，indeed，isagnosticismbut，touseanexpressiveLancashireterm，"shamefaced"materialism？Theagnostic’sconceptionofNatureismaterialisticthroughout。Theentirenaturalworldisgovernedbylaw，andabsolutelyexcludestheinterventionofactionfromwithout。But，headds，wehavenomeanseitherofascertainingorofdisprovingtheexistenceofsomeSupremeBeingbeyondtheknownuniverse。Now，thismightholdgoodatthetimewhenLaplace，toNapoleon’squestion，why，inthegreatastronomer’sTreatiseonCelestialMechanics，theCreatorwasnotevenmentioned，proudlyreplied""Ihadnoneedofthishypothesis。"But，nowadays，inourevolutionaryconceptionoftheuniverse，thereisabsolutelynoroomforeitheraCreatororaRuler；andtotalkofaSupremeBeingshutoutfromthewholeexistingworld，impliesacontradictioninterms，and，asitseemstome，agratuitousinsulttothefeelingsofreligiouspeople。

Again，ouragnosticadmitsthatallourknowledgeisbasedupontheinformationimpartedtousbyoursenses。But，headds，howdoweknowthatoursensesgiveuscorrectrepresentationsoftheobjectsweperceivethroughthem？Andheproceedstoinformusthat，wheneverwespeakofobjects，ortheirqualities，ofwhichhecannotknowanythingforcertain，butmerelytheimpressionswhichtheyhaveproducedonhissenses。Now，thislineofreasoningseemsundoubtedlyhardtobeatbymereargumentation。Butbeforetherewasargumentation，therewasaction。ImAnfangwardieThat。[fromGoethe’sFaust："Inthebeginningwasthedeed。"]Andhumanactionhadsolvedthedifficultylongbeforehumaningenuityinventedit。Theproofofthepuddingisintheeating。Fromthemomentweturntoourownusetheseobjects，accordingtothequalitiesweperceiveinthem，weputtoaninfallibletestthecorrectnessorotherwiseofoursense—perception。Iftheseperceptionshavebeenwrong，thenourestimateoftheusetowhichanobjectcanbeturnedmustalsobewrong，andourattemptmustfail。But，ifwesucceedinaccomplishingouraim，ifwefindthattheobjectdoesagreewithourideaofit，anddoesanswerthepurposeweintendeditfor，thenthatisproofpositivethatourperceptionsofitandofitsqualities，sofar，agreewithrealityoutsideourselves。And，wheneverwefindourselvesface—to—facewithafailure，thenwegenerallyarenotlonginmakingoutthecausethatmadeusfail；wefindthattheperceptionuponwhichweactedwaseitherincompleteandsuperficial，orcombinedwiththeresultsofotherperceptionsinawaynotwarrantedbythem？whatwecalldefectivereasoning。

Solongaswetakecaretotrainoursensesproperly，andtokeepouractionwithinthelimitsprescribedbyperceptionsproperlymadeandproperlyused，solongasweshallfindthattheresultofouractionprovestheconformityofourperceptionswiththeobjectivenatureofthethingsperceived。

Notinonesingleinstance，sofar，havewebeenledtotheconclusionthatoursense—perception，scientificallycontrolled，induceinourmindsideasrespectingtheouterworldthatare，bytheirverynature，atvariancewithreality，orthatthereisaninherentincompatibilitybetweentheouterworldandoursense—perceptionsofit。

ButthencometheNeo—Kantianagnosticsandsay：Wemaycorrectlyperceivethequalitiesofathing，butwecannotbyanysensibleormentalprocessgraspthething—in—itself。This"thing—in—itself"isbeyondourken。TothisHegel，longsince，hasreplied：Ifyouknowallthequalitiesofathing，youknowthethingitself；nothingremainsbutthefactthatthesaidthingexistswithoutus；and，whenyoursenseshavetaughtyouthatfact，youhavegraspedthelastremnantofthething—in—itself，Kant’scelebratedunknowableDingansich。TowhichitmaybeaddedthatinKant’stimeourknowledgeofnaturalobjectswasindeedsofragmentarythathemightwellsuspect，behindthelittleweknewabouteachofthem，amysterious"thing—in—itself"。Butoneafteranothertheseungraspablethingshavebeengrasped，analyzed，and，whatismore，reproducedbythegiantprogressofscience；andwhatwecanproducewecertainlycannotconsiderasunknowable。Tothechemistryofthefirsthalfofthiscentury，organicsubstancesweresuchmysteriousobject；nowwelearntobuildthemuponeafteranotherfromtheirchemicalelementswithouttheaidoforganicprocesses。Modernchemistsdeclarethatassoonasthechemicalconstitutionofno—matter—whatbodyisknown，itcanbebuiltupfromitselements。Wearestillfarfromknowingtheconstitutionofthehighestorganicsubstances，thealbuminousbodies；butthereisnoreasonwhyweshouldnot，ifonlyaftercenturies，arriveattheknowledgeand，armedwithit，produceartificialalbumen。But，ifwearriveatthat，weshallatthesametimehaveproducedorganiclife，forlife，fromitslowesttoitshighestforms，isbutthenormalmodeofexistenceofalbuminousbodies。

Assoon，however，asouragnostichasmadetheseformalmentalreservations，hetalksandactsastherankmaterialistheatbottomis。Hemaysaythat，asfarasweknow，matterandmotion，orasitisnowcalled，energy，canneitherbecreatednordestroyed，butthatwehavenoproofoftheirnothavingbeencreatedatsometimeorother。Butifyoutrytousethisadmissionagainsthiminanyparticularcase，hewillquicklyputyououtofcourt。Ifheadmitsthepossibilityofspiritualisminabstracto，hewillhavenoneofitinconcreto。Asfarasweknowandcanknow，hewilltellyouthereisnocreatorandnoRuleroftheuniverse；asfarasweareconcerned，matterandenergycanneitherbecreatednorannihilated；

forus，mindisamodeofenergy，afunctionofthebrain；allweknowisthatthematerialworldisgovernedbyimmutablelaws，andsoforth。

Thus，asfarasheisascientificman，asfarasheknowsanything，heisamaterialist；outsidehisscience，inspheresaboutwhichheknowsnothing，hetranslateshisignoranceintoGreekandcallsitagnosticism。

Atallevents，onethingseemsclear：evenifIwasanagnostic，itisevidentthatIcouldnotdescribetheconceptionofhistorysketchedoutinthislittlebookas"historicalagnosticism"。Religiouspeoplewouldlaughatme，agnosticswouldindignantlyask，wasImakingfunofthem？

And，thus，IhopeevenBritishrespectabilitywillnotbeovershockedifIuse，inEnglishaswellasinsomanyotherlanguages，theterm"historicalmaterialism"，todesignatethatviewofthecourseofhistorywhichseekstheultimatecauseandthegreatmovingpowerofallimportanthistoriceventsintheeconomicdevelopmentofsociety，inthechangesinthemodesofproductionandexchange，intheconsequentdivisionofsocietyintodistinctclasses，andinthestrugglesoftheseclassesagainstoneanother。

Thisindulgencewill，perhaps，beaccordedtomeallthesoonerifI

showthathistoricalmaterialismmaybeofadvantageeventoBritishrespectability。

【推荐阅读】幽幽深宫，醒来一梦似千年，重生于下堂妃身躯中的她，将如何手刃仇人? 点击阅读