Ofcoursetherewasaviolentopposition。Agreatoutcrywasraised，especiallyinGermany。Thewholebodyofthesecularpriestsexclaimedagainsttheproceeding。AtMentztheythreatenedthelifeofthearchbishop，whoattemptedtoenforcethedecree。
AtParisanumeroussynodwasassembled，inwhichitwasvotedthatGregoryoughtnotheretobeobeyed。ButGregorywasstrongerthanhisrebelliousclergy，——strongerthantheinstinctsofhumannature，strongerthantheunitedvoiceofreasonandScripture。Hefellbackonthemajesticpowerofprevailingideas，ontheasceticelementoftheearlyChurch，onthetraditionsofmonasticlife。
Hewassupportedbymorethanahundredthousandmonks，bythesuperstitionsofprimitiveages，bytheexampleofsaintsandmartyrs，byhisownelevatedrank，bytheallegianceduetohimasheadoftheChurch。Excommunicationswerehurled，likethunderbolts，intoremotesthamlets，andthemurmursofindignantChristendomweresilencedbytheawfuldenunciationsofGod’ssupposedvicegerent。Theclergysuccumbedbeforesuchaterriblespiritualforce。Thefearofhell——thegreatideabywhichtheprieststhemselvescontrolledtheirflocks——wasmorepotentthananytemporalgood。Whatpriestinthatagewoulddareresisthisspiritualmonarchonalmostanypoint，andespeciallywhendisobediencewassupposedtoentailtheburningsofaphysicalhellforeverandever？Socelibacywasre-establishedasalawoftheChristianChurchatthebiddingofthatfar-seeinggeniuswhohaddevisedthemeansofspiritualdespotism。Thatlaw——sogloomy，sounnatural，sofraughtwithevil——hasneverbeenrepealed;itstillrulestheCatholicpriesthoodofEuropeandAmerica。NorwillitberepealedsolongastheideasoftheMiddleAgeshavemoreforcethanenlightenedreason。Itisanabominablelaw，butwhocandoubtitsefficacyincementingthepowerofthepopes？
Butsimony，orthesaleofeeclesiasticalbenefices，wasastillmorealarmingeviltothemindofGregory。ItwasthegreatscandaloftheChurchandage。HerewehonorthePopeforstrivingtoremoveit。Andyetitsabolitionwasnoeasything。Hecameincontactwiththeselfishnessofbaronsandkings。Hefounditaneasiermattertotakeawaythewivesofprieststhanthepursesofprinces。Priestswhohadvowedobediencemightconsenttotherepudiationoftheirwives，butwouldgreattemporalrobberspartwiththeirspoils？Thesaleofbeneficeswasonegreatsourceofroyalandbaronialrevenues。Bishoprics，onceconferredforwisdomandpiety，hadbecomeprizesfortherapaciousandambitious。
Bishopsandabbotsweremostfrequentlychosenfromtheranksofthegreat。PowerfulSeeswerethegiftsofkingstotheirfavoritesorfamilies，orwereboughtbythewealthy;sothatworldlyorincapablemenweremadeoverseersoftheChurchofChrist。Theclergywereindangerofbeinghopelesslysecularized。
Andtheevilspreadtotheextremitiesoftheclericalbody。TheprincesandbaronsweregettingcontroloftheChurchitself。
BishopsoftenpossessedapluralityofSees。Childrenwereelevatedtoepiscopalthrones。Sycophants，courtiers，jesters，imbecilesonsofprinces，becamegreatecclesiasticaldignitaries。
Whocanwonderatthedegeneracyoftheclergywhentheyheldtheircuresatthehandsoflaypatrons，towhomtheysworeallegianceforthetemporalitiesoftheirbenefices？Eventheringandthecrozier，theemblemsofspiritualauthority，——oncereceivedatthehandofmetropolitanarchbishopsalone，——werenowbestowedbytemporalsovereigns，whoclaimedtherebyfealtyandallegiance;sothatprinceshadgraduallyusurpedtheoldrightsoftheChurch，andGregoryresolvedtorecoverthem。Solongasemperorsandkingscouldfilltherichbishopricsandabbacieswiththeircreatures，thepapaldominionwasweakenedinitsmostvitalpoint，andmightbecomeadream。Thisevilwasrapidlyunderminingthewholeecclesiasticaledifice，anditrequiredaheroofprodigiousgenius，energy，andinfluencetoreformit。
Hildebrandsawandcomprehendedthewholeextentandbearingoftheevil，andresolvedtoremoveitordieintheattempt。Itwasnotonlyundermininghisthrone，butwassecularizingtheChurchanddestroyingtherealpoweroftheclergy。Hemadeuphismindtofacethedifficultyinitsmostdreadedquarters。Heknewthattheattempttoremovethisscandalwouldentailadesperateconflictwiththeprincesoftheearth。Beforethis，popesandprincesweregenerallyleaguedtogether;theyplayedintoeachother’shands:
butnowabattlewastobefoughtbetweenthetemporalandspiritualpowers。HeknewthatprinceswouldneverrelinquishsolucrativeasourceofprofitasthesaleofpowerfulSees，unlesstherighttosellthemweretakenawaybysometremendousconflict。
Hethereforepreparedforthefight，andforgedhisweaponsandgatheredtogetherhisforces。Norwouldhewastetimebyidlenegotiations;itwasnecessarytoactwithpromptnessandvigor。
Nomatterhowgreatthedanger;nomatterhowpowerfulhisenemies。
TheChurchwasinperil;andheresolvedtocometotherescue，costwhatitmight。WhatwashislifecomparedwiththesaleofGod’sheritage？ForwhatwasheplacedinthemostexaltedpostoftheChurch，ifnottodefendherinanalarmingcrisis？
Inresolvingtoseparateforeverthespiritualfromthetemporalpower，HildebrandfollowedinthefootstepsofAmbrose。Buthehadalsodeeperdesigns。Heresolvedtoraise，ifpossible，thespiritualABOVEthetemporalpower。KingsshouldbesubjecttotheChurch，nottheChurchtothekingsoftheearth。HebelievedthathewastheappointedvicaroftheAlmightytoruletheworldinpeace，ontheprinciplesofeternallove;thatChristhadestablishedanewtheocracy，andhaddelegatedhispowertotheApostlePeter，whichhaddescendedtothePopeastheApostle’slegitimatesuccessor。
Isaynothinghereofthiscolossalclaim，ofthisingeniousprinciple，onwhichthemonarchicalpowerofthePapacyrests。ItisthegreatfactoftheMiddleAges。Andyet，butforthistheocraticidea，itisdifficulttoseehowtheexternalunityoftheChurchcouldhavebeenpreservedamongthesemi-barbariansofEurope。Andwhatanecessarythingitwas——inagesofsuperstition，ignorance，andanarchy——topreservetheunityoftheChurch，toestablishaspiritualpowerwhichshouldaweandcontrolbarbaricprinces！TherearetwosidestothesupremacyofthepopesasheadoftheChurch，whenweconsidertheaspectandstateofsocietyinthoseironandlawlesstimes。WouldProvidencehavepermittedsuchapowertoruleforathousandyearshaditnotbeenanecessity？Atanyrate，thisistoocomplicatedaquestionformetodiscuss。Itisenoughformetodescribetheconflictforprinciples，nottoattempttosettlethem。InthismatterIamnotapartisan，butapainter。Iseektodescribeabattle，nottodefendeitherthiscauseorthat。Ihavemyopinions，butthisisnoplacetopresentthem。IseektodescribesimplythegreatbattleoftheMiddleAges，andyoucandrawyourownconclusionsastothemeritsoftherespectivecauses。Ipresentthebattleofheroes，——abattleworthyofthemuseofHomer。
Hildebrandinthisbattledisdainedtofightwithanybutgreatandnobleantagonists。Asthefriendofthepoorman，crushedandmockedbyacoldandunfeelingnobility;astheprotectoroftheChurch，indangerofbeingsubvertedbytheunhallowedtyrannyandgreedofprinces;astheconsecratedmonarchofagreatspiritualfraternity，——heresolvedtofacethemightiestmonarchs，andsuffer，andifneedbedie，foracausewhichheregardedasthehopeandsalvationofEurope。Thereforeheconvenedanothercouncil，andprohibited，undertheterriblepenaltyofexcommunication，——forthatwashismightyweapon，——theinvestitureofbishopricsandabbaciesatthehandsoflaymen:onlyhehimselfshouldgivetoecclesiasticstheringandthecrozier，——thebadgesofspiritualauthority。Andheequallythreatenedwitheternalfireanybishoporabbotwhoshouldreceivehisdignityfromthehandofaprince。
ThisdecreewasespeciallyaimedagainsttheEmperorofGermany，towhom，asliegelord，thePopehimselfowedfealtyandobedience。
HenryIV。wasoneofthemightiestmonarchsoftheFranconiandynasty，——agreatwarriorandagreatman，belovedbyhissubjectsandfearedbytheprincesofEurope。Buthe，aswellasGregory，wasresolvedtomaintaintherightsofhispredecessors。Healsoperceivedtheimportanceoftheapproachingcontest。Andwhatacontest！Thespiritualandtemporalpowerswerenowtobearrayedagainsteachotherinafierceantagonism。Theapparentobjectofcontentionchanged。Itwasnotmerelysimony;itwasastowhoshouldbethesuprememasterofGermanyandItaly，theemperororthepope。Towhom，intheeyesofcontemporaries，wouldvictoryincline，——tothesonofacarpenter，speakinginthenameoftheChurch，andholdinginhishandstheconsecratedweaponofexcommunication;orthemostpowerfulmonarchofhisage，armedwiththesecularsword，andseekingtorestorethedignityofRomanemperors？ThePopeissupportedbythemonks，theinferiorclergy，andthevastspiritualpowersuniversallysupposedtobedelegatedtohimbyChrist，asthesuccessorofSaintPeter;theEmperorissupportedbylargefeudalarmies，andalltheprestigeofthesuccessorsofCharlemagne。IfthePopeappealstoanancientcustomoftheChurch，theEmperorappealstoageneralfeudalcustomwhichrequiredbishopsandabbotstopaytheirhomagetohimforthetemporalitiesoftheirSees。ThePopehasthecanonsoftheChurchonhisside;theEmperorthelawsoffeudalism，——andboththecanonsoftheChurchandfeudalprinciplesarebindingobligations。Hithertotheyhavenotclashed。Butnowfeudalism，verygenerallyestablished，andpapalabsolutism，rapidlyculminating，aretomeetinangrycollision。Shallthekingsoftheearthprevail，assistedbyfeudalarmiesandoutwardgrandeur，andsustainedbysuchpowerfulsentimentsasloyaltyandchivalry;
orshallapriest，speakinginthenameofGodAlmighty，andappealingtothefuturefearsofmen？
Whatconflictgranderandmoresublimethanthis，inthewholehistoryofsociety？Whatconflictprovedmoremomentousinitsresults？
Ineednottraceallthestepsofthatmemorablecontest，ordescribethedetails，fromthetimethatthePopesentouthisedictsandexcommunicatedallwhodaredtodisobeyhim，——includingsomeofthemosteminentGermanprelatesandGermanprinces。HenryatthistimewasengagedinadesperatewarwiththeSaxons，andGregoryseizedthisopportunitytosummontheEmperor——hisemperor——
toappearbeforehimatRomeandanswerforallegedcrimesagainsttheSaxonChurch。Wasthereeversuchaudacity？HowcouldHenryhelpgivingwaytopassionateindignation;he——thesuccessoroftheRomanCaesars，sovereignlordofGermanyandItaly——summonedtothebarofapriest，andthatpriesthisownsubject，inatemporalsense？Hewasfilledwithwrathanddefiance，andatoncesummonedacouncilofGermanbishopsatWorms，“whodenouncedthePopeasausurper，asimonist，amurderer，aworshipperoftheDevil，andpronounceduponhimtheemptysentenceofadeposition。”
“TheagedHildebrand。”inthewordsofStephen，“washoldingacouncilinthesecondweekofLent，1076，beneaththesculpturedroofoftheVatican，arrayedintherichandmysticvestmentsofpontificaldominion，andthepapalchoirwerechantingthoseimmortalanthemswhichhadcomedownfromblessedsaintsandmartyrs，whenthemessengeroftheEmperorpresentedhimselfbeforetheassembledhierarchyofRome，andwithinsolentdemeanorandabruptspeechdeliveredthesentenceoftheGermancouncil。”Hewasleftunharmedbytheindignantpontiff，butthenextdayascendinghisthrone，andinpresenceofthedignitariesofhisChurch，thusinvokedtheassistanceofthepretendedfounderofhisempire:——
“SaintPeter！lendusyourears，andlistentoyourservantwhomyouhavecherishedfromhisinfancy;andallthesaintsalsobearwitnesshowtheRomanChurchraisedmebyforceandagainstmywilltothishighdignity，althoughIshouldhavepreferredtospendmydaysinacontinualpilgrimagethantoascendthypulpitforanyhumanmotive。AndinasmuchasIthinkitwillbegratefultoyouthatthoseintrustedtomycareshouldobeyme;therefore，supportedbythesehopes，andforthehonoranddefenceoftheChurch，inthenameoftheOmnipotentGod，——Father，Son，andHolyGhost，——bymyauthorityandpower，IprohibitKingHenry，whowithunheard-ofpridehasraisedhimselfagainstyourChurch，fromgoverningthekingdomsofGermanyandItaly;IabsolveallChristiansfromtheoaththeyhavetakentohim，andIforbidallmentoyieldtohimthatservicewhichisdueuntoaking。
Finally，Ibindhimwiththebondsofanathema，thatallpeoplemayknowthatthouartPeter，andthatupontheetheSonofGodhathbuiltHisChurch，againstwhichthegatesofhellcannotprevail。”
Thiswasanold-fashionedexcommunication;andweinthesedayshavebutafaintideawhatadreadfulthingitwas，especiallywhenaccompaniedwithaninterdict。Thechurcheswereeverywhereshut;
thedeadwereunburiedinconsecratedground;theritesofreligionweresuspended;gloomandfearsatoneverycountenance;desolationoverspreadtheland。Thekingwasregardedasguiltyanddamned;
hisministerslookeduponhimasaSamsonshornofhislocks;hisverywifefearedcontaminationfromhissociety;hischildren，asamanblastedwiththemaledictionofHeaven。Whenamanwasuniversallysupposedtobecursedinthehouseandinthefield;inthewoodandinthechurch;ineatingordrinking;infastingorsleeping;inworkingorresting;inhisarms，inhislegs，inhisheart，andinhishead;livingordying;inthisworldandinthenext，——whatcouldhedo？
AndwhatcouldHenrydo，withallhisgreatness？Hisvictoriousarmiesdesertedhim;arivalprincelaidclaimtohisthrone;hisenemiesmultiplied;hisdifficultiesthickened;newdangerssurroundedhimoneveryside。Ifloyalty——thatpotentprinciple——
hadsummonedonehundredthousandwarriorstohiscamp，aprinciplemuchmorepowerfulthanloyalty——thefearofhell——haddispersedthem。EvenhisfriendsjoinedthePope。ThesaintedAgnes，hisownmother，acquiescedinthesentence。TheCountessMatilda，therichestladyintheworld，threwallhertreasuresatthefeetofherspiritualmonarch。Themoralsentimentsofhisownsubjectswereturnedagainsthim;hewasregardedasjustlycondemned。ThegreatprincesofGermanysoughthisdeposition。Theworldrejectedhim，theChurchabandonedhim，andGodhadforsakenhim。Hewasprostrate，helpless，disarmed，ruined。True，hemadesuperhumanefforts:hetraversedhisempirewiththehopeofrallyinghissubjects;heflewfromcitytocity，——butallinvain。Everyconvent，everycastle，everycityofhisvastdominionsbeheldinhimthevisitationoftheAlmighty。Thediademwasobscuredbythetiara，andloyaltyitselfyieldedtothesuperiorpotencyofreligiousfear。OnlyBertha，hisneglectedwife，wasfaithfulandtrustinginthatgloomyday;allelsehaddefraudedandbetrayedhim。Howbitterhishumiliation！Andyethishaughtyfoewasnotcontentedwiththepunishmenthehadinflicted。Hedeclaredthatifthesunwentdownonthe23dofFebruary，1077，beforeHenrywasrestoredtothebosomoftheChurch，hiscrownshouldbetransferredtoanother。Thatinexorableoldpontifflaidclaimtotherightofgivingandtakingawayimperialcrowns。WaseverbeforeseensucharroganceandaudacityinaPope？Andyetheknewthathewouldbesustained，heknewthathissupremacywasbasedonauniversallyrecognizedidea。Whocanresisttheideasofhisage？Henrymighthaveresisted，ifresistancehadbeenpossible。
Evenhemustyieldtoirresistiblenecessity。Hewasmorallycertainthathewouldlosehiscrown，andbeindangeroflosinghissoul，unlesshemadehispeacewithhisdangerousenemy。Itwasnecessarythattheawfulcurseshouldberemoved。Hehadnoremedy;onlyonecoursewasbeforehim。Hemustyield;nottomanalone，buttoanidea，whichhadtheforceoffate。Wondernotthathemadeuphismindtosubmit。Hewasgreat，butnotgreaterthanhisage。Howfewmenare！Mohammedcouldrenounceprevailingidolatries;Luthercouldburnapapalbull;buttheEmperorofGermanycouldnotresisttheacceptedvicegerentoftheAlmighty。
Behold，then，themelancholy，pitiablespectacleofthismightymonarchinthedepthofwinter——andawinterofunprecedentedseverity——crossing，inthegarbofapilgrim，thefrozenAlps，enduringthegreatestprivationsandfatiguesandperils，andapproachingonfootthegloomyfortressofCanossa(beyondthePo)，inwhichHildebrandhadintrenchedhimself。Eventhentheangrypontiffrefusedtoseehim。Henryhadtostooptoastilldeeperdegradation，——tostandbareheadedandbarefootedforthreedays，amidtheblastsofwinter，inthecourt-yardofthecastle，beforethePopewouldpromiseabsolution，andthenonlyattheintercessionoftheCountessMatilda。
Whatarewetothinkofsuchafall，suchahumiliationonthepartofasovereign？Whatarewetothinkofsuchhaughtinessonthepartofapriest，——hissubject？Wearefilledwithblendedpityandindignation。Weareinclinedtosaythatthiswasthegreatestblunderthatanymonarchevermade;thatHenry——humbledanddesertedandthreatenedashewas——shouldnothavestoopedtothis;
thatheshouldhavelosthiscrownandliferatherthanhandedoverhisempiretoaplebeianpriest，——forhewasanacknowledgedhero;
hewasmonarchofhalfofEurope。AndyetweareboundtoconsiderHenry’scircumstancesandtheideaswithwhichhehadtocontend。
HiswastheerroroftheMiddleAges;thefeeblestofhismodernsuccessorswouldhavekilledthePopeifhecould，ratherthanhavedisgracedhimselfbysuchanignominy。
TrueitisthatHenrycametohimself;thatherepentedofhisstep。Butitwastoolate。Gregoryhadgainedthevictory;anditwasallthegreaterbecauseitwasamoralone。ItwasknowntoallEuropeandalltheworld，andwouldbeknowntoallposterity，thattheEmperorofGermanyhadbowedinsubmissiontoaforeignpriest。Thetemporalpowerhadyieldedtothespiritual;theStatehadconcededthesupremacyoftheChurch。ThePopehadtriumphedoverthemightiestmonarchoftheage，andhissuccessorswouldplacetheirfeetoverfutureprostratekings。Whatavictory！
Whatmightyconsequencesweretheresultofit！OnwhatathronedidthismoralvictoryseatthefuturepontiffsoftheEternalCity！Howaugusttheirdominion，foritwasoverthemindsandsoulsofmen！TrulytothePopeweregiventhekeysofHeavenandHell;andsolongastheideasofthatagewereaccepted，whocouldresistamanarmedwiththethundersofOmnipotence？
ItmatterednothingthattheEmperorwasashamedofhisweakness;
thatheretracted;thathevowedvengeance;thathemarchedattheheadofnewarmies。Nomatterthathisadherentswereindignant;
thatallGermanywept;thatloyaltyralliedtohisaid;thathegainedvictoriesproportionatewithhisformerdefeats;thathechasedGregoryfromcitytocity，andcastletocastle，andconventtoconvent，whilehisgeneralsburnedthePope’spalacesandwastedhisterritories。NomatterthatGregory——broken，defeated，miserable，outwardlyruined——diedprematurelyinexile;nomatterthathedidnot，inhisgreatreverses，anticipatethefruitsofhisfirmnessandheroism。Hisprinciplessurvivedhim;theyhaveneverbeenlostsightofbyhissuccessors;theygainedstrengththroughsuccessivegenerations。InnocentIII。reapedwhathehadsown。KingsdarednotresistInnocentIII。，whorealizedthosethreethingstowhichthemoreableGregoryhadaspired，——
“independentsovereignty，controlovertheprincesoftheearth，andthesupremacyoftheChurch。”Innocentwasthegreaterpope，butHildebrandwasthegreaterman。
Yet，likesomanyofthegreatheroesoftheworld，hewasnotdestinedinhisownpersontoreapthefruitsofhisheroism。“I
havelovedrighteousnessandhatediniquity，andthereforeIdieinexile。”——thesewerehislastbitterwords。Hefanciedhehadfailed。Butdidhefail？Whatdidheleavebehind？Helefthisgreatexampleandhisstillgreaterideas。Heleftalegacytohissuccessorswhichmakesthemstillpotentontheearth，inspiteofreformationsandrevolutions，andallthetriumphsofliteratureandscience。Howmightyhisdeeds！HowgreathisservicestohisChurch！“Hefound。”saysaneloquentandableEdinburghreviewer，“thepapacydependentontheemperor;hesustaineditbyalliancesalmostcommensuratewiththeItalianpeninsula。HefoundthepapacyelectoralbytheRomanpeopleandclergy;heleftitelectoralbypapalnomination。HefoundtheemperorthevirtualpatronoftheRomanSee;hewrenchedthatpowerfromhishands。Hefoundthesecularclergythealliesanddependentsofthesecularpower;heconvertedthemintoinalienableauxiliariesofhisown。
HefoundthepatronageoftheChurchthedesecratedspoilandmerchandiseofprinces;hereducedittohisowndominion。Heiscelebratedasthereformeroftheimpureandprofaneabusesofhisage;heismorejustlyentitledtothepraiseofhavinglefttheimpressofhisgiganticcharacteronalltheageswhichhavesucceededhim。”
SuchwasthegreatHildebrand;aconqueror，however，bytheforceofrecognizedideasmorethanbyhisownstrength。Howlong，youask，shallhisempirelast？Wecannottellwhocanpredictthefortunesofsuchapower。Itisnotformetospeculateorpreach。
Inconsideringhislifeandcareer，Ihavesimplyattemptedtopaintoneofthemostmemorablemoralcontestsoftheworld;toshowthepowerofgeniusandwillinasuperstitiousage，——and，more，themajesticforceofideasoverthemindsandsoulsofmen，eventhoughtheseideascannotbesustainedbyreasonorScripture。
AUTHORITIES。
EpistlesofGregoryVII。;Baronius’sAnnals;Dupin’sEcclesiasticalhistory;Voigt，inhisHildebrandalsGregoryVII。;Guizot’sLecturesonCivilization;SirJamesStephens’sarticleonHildebrand，inEdinburghReview;Dugdale’sMosasticon;Hallam’sMiddleAges;Digby’sAgesofFaith;Jaffe’sRegestaPontificumRomanorum;Mignet’sseriesofarticlesonLaLuttedesPapescontrelesEmpereursd’Allemagne;M。Villemain’sHistoiredeGregoireVII。;BowdenonthelifeandTimesofHildebrand;Milman’sLatinChristianity;Watterich’sRomanorumPontificumabAequalibusConscriptae;Platina’sLivesofthePopes;Stubbs’sConstitutionalHistory;Lee’sHistoryofClericalCelibacy;CardinalNewman’sEssays;Lecky’sHistoryofEuropeanMorals;Dr。Dollinger’sChurchHistory;Neander’sChurchHistory;articlesinContemporaryReviewofJulyandAugust，1882，ontheTurningPointoftheMiddleAges。
SAINTBERNARD。
A。D。1091-1153。
MONASTICINSTITUTIONS。
OneoftheoldestinstitutionsoftheChurchisthatwhichgrewoutofmonasticlife。Ithaditsseat，ataremoteperiod，inIndia。
Ithasexisted，indifferentforms，inotherOrientalcountries。
IthasbeenmodifiedbyBrahminical，Buddhistic，andPersiantheogonies，andextendedtoEgypt，Syria，andAsiaMinor。GowhereyouwillintheEast，andyouseetracesofitsmightyinfluence。
Wecannottellitsremotestorigin，butweseeeverywheretheforceofitsideas。ItsfundamentalprincipleappearstobethedesiretopropitiatetheDeitybypenancesandasceticlaborsasanatonementforsin，orasameansofrisingtoahigherreligiouslife。Ithassoughttoescapethepollutinginfluencesofdemoralizedsocietybyloftycontemplationandretirementfromtheworld。Fromthefirst，itwasaprotestagainstmaterialism，luxury，andenervatingpleasures。Itrecognizedsomethinghigherandnoblerthandevotiontomaterialgains，oralifeofdegradingpleasure。
Inonesenseitwasanintellectualmovement，whileinanotheritwasaninsulttothehumanunderstanding。Itattemptedapurermorality，butabnegatedobviousandpressingduties。Itwasalwaysacontradiction，——loftywhiledegraded，seekingtocomprehendtheprofoundestmysteries，yetdebasedbypuerilesuperstitions。
Theconsciousnessofmankind，inallagesandcountries，haseveracceptedretributionforsin——moreorlesspermanent——inthisworldorinthenext。AndithasequallyacceptedtheexistenceofaSupremeIntelligenceandPower，towhomallareresponsible，andinconnectionwithwhomhumandestiniesareboundup。ThedeeperwepenetrateintotheoccultwisdomoftheEast，——onwhichlighthasbeenshedbymodernexplorations，monumentalinscriptions，manuscripts，historicalrecords，andotherthingswhichscienceandgeniushavedeciphered，——thesurerwefeelthattheesotericclassesofIndia，Egypt，andChinaweremoreunitedintheirviewsofSupremePowerandIntelligencethanwasgenerallysupposedfiftyyearsago。ThehigherintellectsofAsia，inallcountriesandages，hadmoreloftyideasofGodthanwehavearighttoinferfromthesuperstitionsofthepeoplegenerally。Theyhadunenlightenedideasastothegroundsofforgiveness。ButofthenecessityofforgivenessandthefavoroftheDeitytheyhadnodoubt。
Thephilosophicalopinionsofthesesagesgavedirectiontoagreatreligiousmovement。Matterwassupposedtobeinherentlyevil，andmindwasthoughttobeinherentlygood。Theseatofevilwasplacedinthebodyratherthanintheheartandmind。Notthethoughtsofmenwereevil，butthepassionsandappetitesofthebody。Hencethefirstthingforagoodmantodowastobringthebody——thisseatofevil——undersubjection，and，ifpossible，toeradicatethepassionsandappetiteswhichenslavethebody;andthiswastobedonebyself-flagellations，penances，austerities，andsolitude，——flightfromthecontaminatinginfluencesoftheworld。AllOrientalpietyassumedthisasceticform。Thetransitionwaseasytothesunderingofdomesticties，tothesuppressionofnaturalemotionsandsocialenjoyments。Thedevoteebecameaustere，cold，inhuman，unsocial。Heshunnedthehabitationsofmen。AndthemoredesiroushewastoessayahighreligiouslifeandthusriseinfavorwithGod，themoresevereandrevengefulandunforgivinghemadetheDeityheadored，——notacompassionateCreatorandFather，butanirresistiblePowerbentonhisdestruction。ThisdegradingviewoftheDeity，borrowedfromPaganism，tingedthesubsequenttheologyoftheChristianmonks，andenteredlargelyintothetheologyoftheMiddleAges。
Suchwastheprevailingphilosophy，ortheosophy——bothloftyanddegraded——withwhichtheChristianconverthadtocontend;notmerelytheshamelessvicesofthepeople，soopenandflagrantastocalloutdisgustandindignation，butalsotheviewswhichthemorevirtuousandreligiousofPagansaintsacceptedandpromulgated:andnotsaintsalone，butthosewhomadethegreatestpretensiontointellectualculture，liketheGnosticsandManicheans;thosemenwhowerethefirsttoensnareSaintAugustine，——specious，subtle，sophistical，asacuteastheBrahminsofIndia。ItwasEasternphilosophy，unquestionablyfalse，thatinfluencedthemostpowerfulinstitutionthatexistedinEuropeforaboveathousandyears，——aninstitutionwhichallthelearningandeloquenceoftheReformersofthesixteenthcenturycouldnotsubvert，exceptinProtestantcountries。
Nowwhat，morespecifically，weretheideaswhichtheearlymonksborrowedfromIndia，Persia，andEgypt，whichultimatelytooksuchafirmholdoftheEuropeanmind？
Onewasthesuperiorvirtueofalifedevotedtopurelyreligiouscontemplation，andforthesameendthatanimatedtheexistenceoffakirsandsofis。Itwastoescapethecontaminatinginfluenceofmatter，toriseabovethewantsofthebody，toexterminateanimalpassionsandappetites，tohidefromaworldwhichluxurycorrupted。TheChristianrecluseswerethusledtoburythemselvesincellsamongthemountainsanddeserts，indrearyanduncomfortablecaverns，inisolatedretreatsfarfromthehabitationofmen，——yea，amongwildbeasts，clothingthemselvesintheirskinsandeatingtheirfood，inordertocommunewithGodmoreeffectually，andpropitiateHisfavor。Theirthoughtsweredivertedfromthemiserieswhichtheyoughttohavealleviatedandtheignorancewhichtheyoughttohaveremoved，andwereconcentrateduponthemselves，notupontheirrelativesandneighbors。Thecriesofsufferinghumanityweredisregardedinavainattempttopractisedoubtfulvirtues。Howmuchgoodthosepiousreclusesmighthavedone，hadtheirpietytakenamorepracticalform！Whatmissionariestheymighthavemade，whatself-
denyinglaborersinthefieldofactivephilanthropy，whatnobleteacherstothepoorandmiserable！TheconversionoftheworldtoChristianitydidnotenterintotheirmindssomuchasthedesiretoswellthenumberoftheircommunities。Theyonlyaimedatadreamypietism，——atbesttheirownindividualsalvation，ratherthanthesalvationofothers。Insteadofreachingtothebeatificvision，theybecameignorant，narrow，andvisionary;and，whenlearned，theyfoughtforwordsandnotforthings。Theywereadvocatesofsubtileandmetaphysicaldistinctionsintheology，ratherthanofthosepracticaldutiesandsimplefaithwhichprimitiveChristianityenjoined。Monasticlife，nolessthantheschoolsofAlexandria，wasinfluentialincreatingadivinitywhichgaveasgreatauthoritytodogmasthataretheresultofintellectualdeductions，asthosebasedondirectandoriginaldeclarations。Andthesedeductionswereoftengloomy，andcoloredbythefearswhichwereinseparablefromabeliefindivinewrathratherthandivinelove。Thegeniusofmonasticism，ancientandmodern，isthepropitiationoftheDivinitywhoseekstopunishratherthantoforgive。ItinventedPurgatory，toescapetheawfulburningsofaneverlastinghellofphysicalsufferings。ItpervadedthewholetheologyoftheMiddleAges，fillinghamletandconventalikewithanatmosphereoffearandwrath，andcreatingacruelspiritualdespotism。Therecluse，isolatedandlonely，consumedhimselfwithphantoms，fancieddevils，and“chimerasdire。”Hecouldnotescapefromhimself，althoughhemightflyfromsociety。Asameansofgracehesoughtvoluntarysolitaryconfinement，withoutnutritiousfoodorproperprotectionfromtheheatandcold，cladinasheepskinfilledwithdirtandvermin。
Whatlifecouldbemoreantagonistictoenlightenedreason？Whatmistakemorefataltoeverythinglikeself-improvement，culture，knowledge，happiness？Andallforwhat？Tostriveafteranimpossibleperfection，orthesolutionofinsolublequestions，orthefavorofaDeitywhoseattributeshemisunderstood。
Butthisunnatural，unwiseretirementwasnottheworstevilinthelifeofaprimitivemonk，withallitsdreamycontemplationandsilentdespair。Itwasaccompaniedwiththemostpainfulausterities，——self-inflictedscourgings，lacerations，direprivations，topropitiateanangrydeity，ortobringthebodyintoastatewhichwouldbeinsensibletopain，ortoexorcisepassionswhichtheimaginationsinflamed。Allthiswasbasedonpenance，——
self-expiation，——whichenteredsolargelyintothetheogoniesoftheEast，andwhichgaveagloomyformtothepietyoftheMiddleAges。ThiserrorwasamongthefirsttokindlethefieryprotestsofLuther。Therepudiationofthiserror，andofitslogicalsequences，wasoneofthecausesoftheReformation。ThiserrorcastitsdismalshadowonthecommonlifeoftheMiddleAges。Youcannotpenetratethespiritofthosecenturieswithoutapainfulrecognitionofalmostuniversaldarknessanddespair。HowgloomywasaGothicchurchbeforetheeleventhcentury，withitsdarkandheavycrypt，itsnarrowwindows，itsmassivepillars，itslowroof，itscold，damppavement，asifmenwentintothatchurchtohidethemselvesandsingmournfulsongs，——theDiesIraeofmonasticfear！
Buttheprimitivemonks，withalltheirloftyself-sacrificesandeffortsforholymeditation，towardsthemiddleofthefourthcentury，astheirnumberincreasedfromtheanarchiesandmiseriesofafallingempire，becamequarrelsome，sometimesturbulent，andgenerallyfierceandfanatical。Theyhadtobegoverned。Theyneededsomemastermindtocontrolthem，andconfinethemtotheirreligiousduties。ThenaroseBasil，agreatscholar，andaccustomedtocivilizedlifeintheschoolsofAthensandConstantinople，whogaverulesandlawstothemonks，gatheredthemintocommunitiesanddiscouragedsocialisolation，knowingthatthedemonshadmorepowerovermenwhentheywerealoneandidle。
ThisBasilwasanextraordinaryman。Hisancestorswerehonorableandwealthy。Hemovedinthehighestcircleofsociallife，likeChrysostom。Hewaseducatedinthemostfamousschools。Hetravelledextensivelylikeotheryoungmenofrank。HistutorwasthecelebratedLibanius，thegreatestrhetoricianoftheday。HeexhaustedAntioch，Caesarea，andConstantinople，andcompletedhisstudiesatAthens，whereheformedafamousfriendshipwithGregoryNazianzen，whichwasaswarmanddevotedasthatbetweenCiceroandAtticus:theseyoungmenwerethetalkandadmirationofAthens。
Here，too，hewasintimatewithyoungJulian，afterwardsthe“Apostate“EmperorofRome。BasilthenvisitedtheschoolsofAlexandria，andmadetheacquaintanceofthegreatAthanasius，aswellasofthosemonkswhosoughtaretreatamidEgyptiansolitudes。Herehisconversiontookplace，andhepartedwithhisprincelypatrimonyforthebenefitofthepoor。HethenenteredtheChurch，andwassuccessivelyordaineddeaconandpriest，whileleadingamonasticlife。HeretiredamongthemountainsofArmenia，andmadechoiceofabeautifulgrove，wateredwithcrystalstreams，wherehegavehimselftostudyandmeditation。HerehewasjoinedbyhisfriendGregoryNazianzenandbyenthusiasticadmirers，whoformedareligiousfraternity，towhomhewasaspiritualfather。HeafterwardswasforcedtoacceptthegreatSeeofCaesarea，andwasnolessrenownedasbishopandoratorthanhehadbeenasmonk。Yetitisasamonkthatheleftthemostenduringinfluence，sincehemadethefirstgreatchangeinmonasticlife，——makingitmoreorderly，moreindustrious，andlessfanatical。
Heinstitutedorembodied，amongothers，thethreegreatvows，whicharevitaltomonasticinstitutions，——Poverty，Obedience，andChastity。InthesevowshegavetheinstitutionamoreChristianandalessOrientalaspect。Monachismbecamemorepracticalandlessvisionaryandwild。ItapproximatednearertotheChristianstandard。SubmissiontopovertyiscertainlyaChristianvirtue，ifvoluntarypovertyisnot。Chastityisacardinalduty。
Obedienceisanecessitytoallcivilizedlife。Itisthefirstconditionofallgovernment。
Moreover，thesethreevowsseemtohavebeencalledforbytheconditionofsociety，andtheprevalenceofdestructiveviews。
HereBasil，——oneofthecommandingintellectsofhisday，andaslearnedandpolishedashewaspious，——likeJeromeafterhim，provedhimselfagreatlegislatorandadministrator，includinginhiscomprehensiveviewbothChristianprinciplesandthenecessitiesofthetimes，andadaptinghisinstitutiontoboth。
Oneofthemostobvious，flagrant，anduniversalevilsofthedaywasdevotiontomoney-makinginordertopurchasesensualpleasures。ItpervadedRomanlifefromthetimeofAugustus。Thevowofpoverty，therefore，wasastern，lofty，disdainfulprotestagainstthemostdangerousanddemoralizingeviloftheEmpire。Ithurledscorn，hatred，anddefianceonthisoverwhelmingevil，andinvokedtheaidofChristianity。Itwassimplytheearnestaffirmationandbeliefthatmoneycouldnotbuythehigherjoysofearth，andmightjeopardizethehopesofheaven。Itcalledtomindthegreatestexamples;itshowedthatthegreatteachersofmankind，thesagesandprophetsofhistory，haddisdainedmoneyasthehighestgood;thatrichesexposedmentogreattemptation，andloweredthestandardofmoralityandvirtue，——“howhardlyshalltheywhohaverichesenterintothekingdomofGod！“Itappealedtothehighestformofself-sacrifice;itarrayeditselfagainstavicewhichwasunderminingsociety。AndamongtrulyChristianpeoplethisnewapplicationofChrist’swarningsagainstthedangersofwealthexcitedenthusiasm。ItwaslikeenlistinginthearmyofChristagainsthisgreatestenemies。MakeanydutyclearandimperioustoChristianpeople，andtheywillgenerallyconformtoit。Sotheworldsawoneofthemostimpressivespectaclesofallhistory，——therichgivinguptheirpossessionstofollowtheexampleandinjunctionsofChrist。ItwasthemostsignaltestofChristianobedience。ItpromptedPaula，therichestladyofChristianantiquity，todevotetherevenuesofanentirecity，whichsheowned，tothecauseofChrist;andtheapprobationofJerome，herfriend，wasasufficientrecompense。
ThevowofChastitywasequallyaprotestagainstoneofthecharacteristicvicesoftheday，aswellasaChristianvirtue。
Luxuryandpleasure-seekingliveshadrelaxedtherestraintsofhomeandthevirtuesofearlierdays。Theevilsofconcubinagewereshamelessandopenthroughouttheempire，whichledtoalowestimateoffemalevirtueanddegradedthesex。Thepaganpoetsheldupwomanasasubjectofscornandscarcasm。Onnosubjectweretheapostlesmoreurgentintheirexhortationsthantoalifeofpurity。TonogreatertemptationweretheconvertstoChristianitysubjectedthantheloosenessofprevailingsentimentsinreferencetothisvice。Itstaredeverybodyintheface。Basiltookespecialcaretoguardthemonksfromthisprevailinginiquity，andmadechastityatranscendentandfundamentalvirtue。
Heaimedtoremovethetemptationtosin。Themonkswereenjoinedtoshuntheverypresenceofwomen。Iftheycarriedthesystemofnon-intercoursetoofar，andbecamehardandunsympathetic，itwastoavoidthegreatscandaloftheage，——astillgreaterevil。Tothemonkwasdeniedeventheblessingofthemarriageties。
Celibacybecameafundamentallawofmonachism。ItwasnottocementaspiritualdespotismthatBasilforbademarriage，buttoattainagreatersanctity，——foramonkwasconsecratedtowhatwasrightlyheldthehigherlife。Thislawofcelibacywasabused，andgraduallywasextendedtoalltheclergy，secularaswellasregular，butnottilltheclergywereallsubordinatedtotheruleofanabsolutePope。Itisthefateofallhumaninstitutionstobecomecorrupt;butnoinstitutionoftheChurchhasbeensofatallypervertedasthatpertainingtothemarriageoftheclergy。
Foundedtopromotepurityofpersonallife，itwasusedtoupholdthearmsofspiritualdespotism。ItwasthepolicyofHildebrand。
ThevowofObedience，again，wasmadeinspecialreferencetothedisintegrationofsociety，whenlawswerefeeblyenforcedandacentralpowerwaspassingaway。Thedisciplineevenofarmieswasrelaxed。Mobsweretheorderoftheday，eveninimperialcities。
Moreover，monkshadlongbeeninsubordinate;theyobeyednohead，exceptnominally;theywerewithdifficultyruledintheircommunities。Thereforeobediencewasmadeacardinalvirtue，asessentialtotheveryexistenceofmonasticinstitutions。Ineednotherealludetotheperversionofthisrule，——howitdegeneratedintoafearfuldespotism，andwasmadeuseofbyambitiouspopes，andfinallybythegeneralsoftheMendicantFriarsandtheJesuits。AlltherulesofBasilwerepervertedfromtheiroriginalintention;butinhisdaytheywerecalledfor。
Aboutacenturylaterthemonasticsystemwentthroughanotherchangeordevelopment，whenBenedict，aremarkableorganizer，institutedonMonteCassino，nearNaples，hiscelebratedmonastery(529A。D。)，whichbecamethemodelofallthemonasteriesoftheWest。HereaffirmedtherulesofBasil，butwithgreaterstrictness。Hegavenonewprinciplestomonasticlife;butheadaptedittotheclimateandinstitutionsofthenewlyfoundedGothickingdomsofEurope。ItbecamelessOriental;itwasmademorepractical;itwasinvestedwithnewdignity。ThemostvisionaryandfanaticalofalltheinstitutionsoftheEastwasmadeuseful。Themonksbecameindustrious。Industrywasrecognizedasaprimenecessityevenformenwhohadretiredfromtheworld。Nolongerwerethelaborsofmonksconfinedtotheweavingofbaskets，buttheywereextendedtothecomfortsofordinarylife，——totheerectionofstatelybuildings，tousefularts，thesystematiccultivationoftheland，totheaccumulationofwealth，——notforindividuals，butfortheirmonasteries。
Monasticlifebecamelessdreamy，lessvisionary，butmoreuseful，recognizingthebodilynecessitiesofmen。Thereligiousdutiesofmonkswerestilldreary，monotonous，andgloomy，——longandprotractedsinginginthechoir，incessantvigils，anunnaturalsilenceatthetable，solitarywalksinthecloister，theabsenceofsocialpleasures，confinementtotheprecinctsoftheirconvents;buttheirconventsbecamebee-hivesofindustry，andtheirlandswerehighlycultivated。Themonkswerehospitable;
theyentertainedstrangers，andgaveasheltertothepersecutedandmiserable。Theirmonasteriesbecamesacredretreats，whichwererespectedbythoserudewarriorswhocrushedbeneaththeirfeetthegloriesofancientcivilization。Norforseveralcenturiesdidthemonksintheirsacredenclosuresgiveespecialscandal。Theirliveswerespentinlaborsofausefulkind，alternatedandrelievedbydevotionalduties。
Hencetheysecuredtherespectandfavorofprincesandgoodmen，whogavethemlandsandrichpresentsofgoldandsilvervessels。
Theirconventswereunmolestedandrichlyendowed，andthesebecameenormouslymultipliedineveryEuropeancountry。Graduallytheybecamesorichastoabsorbthewealthofnations。Theirabbotsbecamegreatpersonages，beingchosenfromtheranksofprincesandbarons。Theoriginalpovertyandsocialinsignificanceofmonachismpassedaway，andtheinstitutionbecamethemostpowerfulorganizationinEurope。Itthenaspiredtopoliticalinfluence，andthelordabbotsbecamethepeersofprincesandtheministersofkings。Theirabbeychurches，especially，becamethewonderandtheadmirationoftheage，bothforsizeandmagnificence。TheabbeychurchofCluny，inBurgundy，wasfivehundredandthirtyfeetlong，andhadstallsfortwohundredmonks。Ithadtheappointmentofonehundredandfiftyparishpriests。ThechurchofSaintAlbans，inEngland，issaidtohavebeensixhundredfeetlong;andthatofGlastonbury，theoldestinEngland，fivehundredandthirty。Peterborough’swasoverfivehundred。ThekingsofEngland，bothSaxonandNorman，wereespecialpatronsofthesereligioushouses。KingEdgarfoundedforty-sevenmonasteriesandrichlyendowedthem;HenryI。foundedonehundredandfifty;andHenryII。asmanymore。AtonetimethereweresevenhundredBenedictineabbeysinEngland，someofwhichwereenormouslyrich，——
likethoseofWestminster，St。Albans，Glastonbury，andBurySt。
Edmunds，——andtheirabbotsweremenofthehighestsocialandpoliticaldistinction。TheysatinParliamentaspeersoftherealm;theycoinedmoney，likefeudalbarons;theylivedingreatstateanddignity。TheabbotofMonteCassinowasdukeandprince，andchancellorofthekingdomoftheTwoSicilies。Thiscelebratedconventhadthepatronageoffourbishoprics，sixteenhundredandsixty-twochurches，andpossessedorcontrolledtwohundredandfiftycastles，fourhundredandfortytowns，andthreehundredandthirty-sixmanors。Itsrevenuesexceededfivehundredthousandducats，sothatthelord-abbotwasthepeerofthegreatestsecularprinces。Hewasmorepowerfulandwealthy，probably，thananyarchbishopinEurope。OneoftheabbotsofSt。GallenteredStrasburgwithonethousandhorsemeninhistrain。Whiting，ofGlastonbury，entertainedfivehundredpeopleoffashionatonetime，andhadthreehundreddomesticservants。“Myvowofpoverty。”saidanotheroftheselordlyabbots，——whogenerallyrodeonmuleswithgildedbridlesandwithhawksontheirwrists，——“hasgivenmetenthousandcrownsayear;andmyvowofobediencehasraisedmetotherankofasovereignprince。”
Amongtheprivilegesoftheseabbotswasexemptionfromtaxesandtolls;theywerejudgesinthecourts;theyhadtheexecutionofallrents，andthesupremecontroloftheincomeoftheabbeylands。TherevenuesofWestminsterandGlastonburywereequaltohalfamillionofdollarsayearinourmoney，consideringtherelativevalueofgoldandsilver。Glastonburyownedaboutonethousandoxen，twohundredandfiftycows，andsixthousandsheep。
Fontaineabbeypossessedfortythousandacresofland。TheabbotofAugia，inGermany，hadarevenueofsixtythousandcrowns，——
severalmillions，asmoneyisnowmeasured。Atonetimethemonks，withtheotherclergy，ownedhalfofthelandsofEurope。Ifakingwastoberansomed，itwastheywhofurnishedthemoney;ifcostlygiftsweretobegiventothePope，itwastheywhomadethem。Thevalueofthevesselsofgoldandsilver，therobesandcopesofsilkandvelvet，thechalices，thealtar-pieces，andtheshrinesenrichedwithjewels，wasinestimable。Thefeastswhichtheabbotsgavewerealmostregal。AttheinstallationoftheabbotofSt。Augustine，atCanterbury，therewereconsumedfifty-
eighttunsofbeer，eleventunsofwine，thirty-oneoxen，threehundredpigs，twohundredsheep，onethousandgeese，onethousandcapons，sixhundredrabbits，ninethousandeggs，whiletheguestsnumberedsixthousandpeople。OfthevariousordersoftheBenedictinestherehavebeenthirty-seventhousandmonasteriesandonehundredandfiftythousandabbots。Fromthemonks，twenty-onethousandhavebeenchosenasbishopsandarchbishops，andtwenty-
eighthavebeenelevatedtothepapalthrone。
Fromthesethings，andotherswhichmayseemtootrivialtomention，weinferthegreatwealthandpowerofmonasticinstitutions，themostflourishingdaysofwhichwerefromthesixthcenturytotheCrusades，beginningintheeleventh，whenmorethanonehundredthousandmonksacknowledgedtheruleofSaintBenedict。Duringthisperiodofprosperity，whenthevastabbeychurcheswerebuilt，andwhenabbotsweregreattemporalaswellasspiritualmagnates，quiteonanequalitywiththeproudestfeudalbarons，wenoticeamarkeddeclineinthevirtueswhichhadextortedtheadmirationofEurope。TheBenedictinesretainedtheiroriginalorganization，theywereboundbythesamevows(asindividuals，themonkswerealwayspoor)，theyworethesamedress，astheydidcenturiesbefore，andtheydidnotfailintheirdutiesinthechoir，——singingtheirregularchantsfromtwoo’clockinthemorning。Butdisciplinewasrelaxed;thebrothersstrayedintounseemlyplaces;theyindulgedinthepleasuresofthetable;theyweresensualintheirappearance;theywerecertainlyignorant，asabody;andtheyperformedmoresingingthanpreachingorteaching。
Theylivedforthemselvesratherthanforthepeople。Theyhoweverremainedhospitabletothelast。Theirconventswerehotelsaswellasbee-hives;anystrangercouldremaintwonightsataconventwithoutcompensationandwithoutbeingquestioned。Thebrothersdinedtogetherattherefectory，accordingtotherules，onbread，vegetables，andalittlemeat;althoughitwasnoticedthattheyhadagreatvarietyincookingeggs，whichwereturnedandroastedandbeatenup，andhardenedandmincedandfriedandstuffed。Itissaidthatsubsequentlytheydrankenormousquantitiesofbeerandwine，andsometimeseventodisgracefulexcess。Theirrulesrequiredthemtokeepsilenceattheirmeals;
buttheirhumanitygotthebetterofthem，andtheyhavebeencensuredfortheirhilariousandfrivolousconversation，——forjestsandstoriesandpuns。Bernardaccusedthemonksofdegeneracy，ofbeinggiventothepleasuresofthetable，oflovingthegoodthingswhichtheyprofessedtoscorn，——rarefish，game，andelaboratecookery。
Thatthemonkssadlydegeneratedinmoralsanddiscipline，andevenbecameobjectsofscandal，isquestionedbynorespectablehistorian。NoonewasmorebitterandvehementinhisdenunciationsofthisalmostuniversalcorruptionofmonasticlifethanSaintBernardhimself，——theimpersonationofanidealmonk。
Hencereformswereattempted;andtheCluniacsandCisterciansandotherordersarose，modelledaftertheoriginalinstitutiononMonteCassino。ThesewereonlybranchesoftheBenedictines。
Theirvowsandhabitsanddutieswerethesame。ItwouldseemthattheprevailingvicesoftheBenedictines，intheirdecline，werethosewhichwerefosteredbygreatwealth，andconsequentidlenessandluxury。Butattheirworstestatethemonks，orregularclergy，werenoworsethanthesecularclergy，orparishpriests，intheirordinarylives，andweremoreintelligent，——atleastmorelearned。Theignoranceofthesecularclergywasnotoriousandscandalous。Theycouldnotevenwritelettersofcommonsalutation;andwhatlittleknowledgetheyhadwasextolledandexaggerated。ItwasconfinedtotheacquisitionofthePsalterbyheart，whilealittlegrammar，writing，andaccountswereregardedasextraordinary。Hewhocouldwriteafewhomilies，drawnfromtheFathers，wasawonderandaprodigy。Therewasatotalabsenceofclassicalliterature。
ButtheBenedictines，idleandworldlyastheywere，guardedwhatlittleliteraturehadescapedtheruinoftheancientcivilization。
Theygavetheonlyeducationtheageafforded。Therewasusuallyaschoolattachedtoeveryconvent，andmanuallaborwasshortenedinfavorofstudents。Nordidthemonkssystematicallyanddeliberatelyshutthedoorofknowledgeagainstthoseinclinedtostudy，foratthattimetherewasnojealousyoflearning;therewasonlyindifferencetoit，orwantofappreciation。Theagewasignorant，andlifewashard，andthestruggleforexistenceoccupiedthethoughtsofall。Thetimeofthemonkswasconsumedinalternatedrudgeriesandreligiousdevotions。Therewassuchageneralintellectualtorporthatscholars(andthesewereveryfew)
wereleftatlibertytothinkandwriteastheypleasedonthegreatquestionsoftheology。Therewassuchageneralunanimityofbelief，thatthepopeswerenotonthelook-outforheresy。Nobodythoughtofattackingtheirthrone。TherewasnojealousyaboutthereadingoftheScriptures。Everyconventhadasmalllibrary，mostlycomposedofLivesofthesaints，andofdevoutmeditationsandhomilies;andtheBiblewasthegreatesttreasureofall，——theVulgateofSaintJerome，whichwascopiedandilluminatedbybusyhands。Inspiteofthegeneralignorance，themonksrelievedtheirdulllivesbysomeattemptsatart。Thiswastheageofthemostbeautifulilluminatedmanuscripts。Therewasbutlittleofdoctrinalcontroversy，forthecreedoftheChurchwassettled;butpiousmeditationsandthewritingsofnotedsaintswerestudiedandaccepted，——especiallytheworksofSaintAugustine，whohadfixedthethinkingoftheWestforathousandyears。PaganliteraturehadbutlittlecharmuntilAristotlewastranslatedbyArabianscholars。TheliteratureoftheChurchwaspuerileandextravagant，yetChristian，——consistingchieflyoflegendsofmartyrsandLivesofsaints。Thatliteraturehasnocharmtous，andcanneverberevived，indeedisalreadyforgottenandneglected，aswellitmaybe;butitgaveunitytoChristianbelief，andenthronedtheChristianheroesonthehighestpedestalofhumangreatness。InthemonasteriessomeoneofthefraternityreadaloudtheseLivesandMeditations，whilethebrothersworkedordined。Therewasnodiscussion，forallthoughtalike;andallsoughttostimulatereligiousemotionsratherthantoquickenintellectualactivity。
Abouthalfthetimeofthemonks，inawell-regulatedmonastery，wasgiventosinginganddevotionalexercisesandreligiousimprovement，andtheotherhalftolaborsinthefields，orinpaintingormusicalcomposition。Sofarasweknow，themonkslivedingreatharmony，andwereobedienttothecommandsoftheirsuperiors。Theyhadacommonobjecttolivefor，andhadfewdifferencesinopiniononanysubject。Theydidnotenjoyahighlife，butitwasfreefromdistractingpleasures。Theyheldtogreathumility，withwhichspiritualpridewasmingled，——notthearrogantprideofthedialectician，buttheself-satisfiedprideofthedevotee。Therewasnoreligioushatred，excepttowardsTurksandSaracens。Themonk，inhisnarrownessandignorance，mayberepulsivetoanenlightenedage:hewasnotrepulsivetohisown，forhewasnotbehinditeitherinhisideasorinhishabitsoflife。Infact，themorerepulsivethemonkofthedarkagesistothisgeneration，themoreveneratedhewasbybishopsandbaronssevenhundredyearsago;whichfactleadsustoinferthatthedegeneratemonkmightbetousmostinterestingwhenhewasmostcondemnedbythereformersofhisday，sincehewasmorehumane，genial，andfreethanhisbrethren，chainedtotherigiddisciplineofhisconvent。EvenaFriarTuckisnotsorepulsivetousasanunsocial，austere，narrow-minded，andignorantfanaticoftheeleventhcentury。
Butthemonkswerenottoremainforeverimprisonedinthecastlesofignoranceanddespair。Withtheopeningofthetwelfthcenturylightbegantodawnuponthehumanmind。Theintellectualmonk，longaccustomedtodevoutmeditations，begantospeculateonthosesubjectswhichhadoccupiedhisthoughts，——onGodandHisattributes，onthenatureandpenaltyofsin，onredemption，ontheSaviour，onthepowerofthewilltoresistevil，andotherquestionsthathadagitatedtheearlyFathersoftheChurch。ThenarosesuchmenasErigena，Roscelin，Berenger，Lanfranc，Anselm，Bernard，andothers，——allmoreorlessorthodox，butinquiringandintellectual。Itwaswithinthewallsofthecloisterthattheawakeningbeganandthefirstimpulsewasgiventolearningandphilosophy。TheabbeyofBec，inNormandy，wasthemostdistinguishedofnewintellectualcentres，whileClairvauxandotherprincelyabbeyshadinmatesasdistinguishedformeditativehabitsasforluxuryandpride。
Itwasatthisperiod，whentheconventsofEuroperejoicedinamplepossessions，andtheirchurchesrivalledcathedralsinsizeandmagnificence，andtheirabbotswerelordsandprinces，——thepalmyageofmonasticinstitutions，chieflyoftheBenedictineorder，——thatSaintBernard，thegreatestandbestrepresentativeofMediaevalmonasticism，wasborn，1091，atFontaine，inBurgundy。
Hebelongedtoanoblefamily。HismotherwasasremarkableasMonicaorNonna。Shehadsixsonsandadaughter，whomsheearlyconsecratedtotheLord。Bernardwasthethirdson。LikeLuther，hewasreligiouslyinclinedfromearlyyouth，andpantedformonasticseclusion。Attheageoftwenty-threeheenteredthenewmonasteryatCiteaux，whichhadbeenfoundedafewyearsbeforebyStephenHarding，anEnglishsaint，whorevivedtheruleofSaintBenedictwithstillgreaterstrictness，andwasthefounderoftheCistercianorder，——abranchoftheBenedictines。Heenteredthisgloomyretreat，situatedamidmarshesandmorasses，withnooutwardattractionslikeCluny，butunhealthyandmiserablypoor，——thedreariestspot，perhaps，inBurgundy;andheenteredattheheadofthirtyyoungmen，ofthenobleclass，amongwhomwerefourofhisbrotherswhohadbeenknights，andwhopresentedthemselvestotheabbotasnovices，bentontheseverestausteritiesthathumannaturecouldsupport。
Bernardhimselfwasabeautiful，delicate，refinedyoungman，——
tall，withflaxenhair，faircomplexion，blueeyesfromwhichshoneasuperhumansimplicityandpurity。HisnoblebirthwouldhaveopenedtohimthehighestdignitiesoftheChurch，buthesoughtonlytobeartheyokeofChrist，andtobenailedtothecross;andhereallybecameacommonlaborerwrappedinacoarsecowl，diggingditchesandplantingfields，——forsuchwerethelaborsofthemonksofCiteauxwhennotperformingtheirreligiousexercises。Buthisdispositionwasasbeautifulashisperson，andhesoonwontheadmirationofhisbrothermonks，ashehadwontheaffectionoftheknightsofBurgundy。Suchwashisphysicalweaknessthat“nearlyeverythinghetookhisstomachrejected;“andsuchwastherigorofhisausteritiesthathedestroyedthepowerofappetite。Hecouldscarcelydistinguishoilfromwine。HesatisfiedhishungerwiththeBibleandquenchedhisthirstwithprayer。Inthreeyearshebecamefamousasasaint，andwasmadeAbbotofClairvaux，——anewCistercianconvent，inaretiredvalleywhichhadbeenanestofrobbers。
Buthisintellectwasasremarkableashispiety，andhismonasterybecamenotonlyamodelofmonasticlifetowhichflockedmenfromallpartsofEuropetostudyitsrules，buttheasceticabbothimselfbecameanoracleonallthequestionsoftheday。Sogreatwashisinfluencethatwhenhedied，in1153，heleftbehindonehundredandsixtymonasteriesformedafterhismodel。Hebecamethecounsellorofkingsandnobles，bishopsandpopes。Hewassummonedtoattendcouncilsandsettlequarrels。HiscorrespondenceexceededthatofJeromeorSaintAugustine。HewassoughtforasbishopinthelargestcitiesofFranceandItaly。HeruledEuropebythepoweroflearningandsanctity。Heenteredintoallthetheologicalcontroversiesoftheday。HewastheopponentofAbelard，whosecondemnationhesecured。Hebecameagreattheologianandstatesman，aswellaschurchman。HeincitedtheprincesofEuropetoanewcrusade。Hiseloquenceissaidtohavebeenmarvellous;eventhetonesofhisvoicewouldmelttopityorexcitetorage。Withalongneck，likethatofCicero，andatrembling，emaciatedframe，hepreachedwithpassionateintensity。Nobodycouldresisthiseloquence。Hecouldscarcelystanduprightfromweakness，yethecouldaddresstenthousandmen。
Hewasanoutspokenman，andreprovedthegreatestdignitarieswithasmuchboldnessasdidSavonarola。Hedenouncedthegluttonyofmonks，theavariceofpopes，andtherapacityofprinces。Heheldheresyinmortalhatred，liketheFathersofthefifthcentury。
HishostilitytoAbelardwasdireful，sincehelookeduponhimasunderminingChristianityandextinguishingfaithintheworld。InhisdefenceoforthodoxyhewasthepeerofAugustineorAthanasius。HeabsolutelyabhorredtheMohammedansasthebitterestfoesofChristendom，——thepersecutorsofpiouspilgrims。
HewanderedoverEuropepreachingacrusade。Herenouncedtheworld，yetwascompelledbytheunanimousvoiceofhiscontemporariestogoverntheworld。HegaveanewimpulsetotheorderofKnightsTemplars。Hewasaswarlikeashewashumble。Hewouldbreathethebreathofintensehostilityintothesoulsofcrusaders，andthenhastenbacktothedesolateandbarrencountryinwhichClairvauxwassituated，rebuildhishutofleavesandboughs，andsoothehisrestlessspiritwiththestudyoftheSongofSongs。Likehisage，andlikehisinstitution，hewasagreatcontradiction。Thefiercestandmostdogmaticofcontroversialistswasthemostgentleandlovingofsaints。hishumanitywasasmarkedashisfanaticism，andnothingcouldweakenit，——noteventherigorsofhisconventlife。Heweptatthesorrowsofallwhosoughthissympathyoradvice。Ontheoccasionofhisbrother’sdeathheendeavoredtopreachasermonontheCanticles，butbrokedownasJeromedidatthefuneralofPaula。Hekepttothelastthemostvividrecollectionofhismother;andeverynight，beforehewenttobed，herecitedthesevenPenitentialPsalmsforthebenefitofhersoul。
InhissermonsandexhortationsBernarddweltequallyonthewrathofGodandtheloveofChrist。SaidhetoarunawayCistercian，“Thoufearestwatchings，fasts，andmanuallabor，butthesearelighttoonewhothinksoneternalfire。Theremembranceoftheouterdarknesstakesawayallhorrorfromsolitude。Placebeforethineeyestheeverlastingweepingandgnashingofteeth，thefuryofthoseflameswhichcanneverbeextinguished“(theessenceofthetheologyoftheMiddleAges，——thefearofHell，ofaphysicalandeternalHellofbodilytorments，bywhichfearthoseageswerecontrolled)。Bernard，theloveliestimpersonationofvirtuewhichthoseagessaw，wasnotbeyondtheirideas。Heimpersonatedthem，andthereforeledtheageandbecameitsgreatestoracle。ThepassivevirtuesoftheSermonontheMountwereunitedwiththefiercestpassionsofreligiousintoleranceandthemostrepulsiveviewsofdivinevengeance。Thatisthesoulofmonasticism，evenasreformedbyHarding，Alberic，andBernardinthetwelfthcentury，——lesshumanthaninthetenthcentury，yetmoreintellectual。
ThemonksofCiteaux，ofMorimond，ofPontigny，ofClairvaux，amidthewastesofabarrencountry，withtheirwhitehabitsandperpetualvigilsandhairclothshirtsandrootdinnersandhardlaborsinthefieldwereyetthecounsellorsandministersofkingsandthecreatorsofpopes，andincitedthenationstothemostbloodyandunfortunatewarsinthewholehistoryofsociety，——I
meantheCrusades。Someweregreatintellectualgiants，yetallrepelledscepticismasliferepelsdeath;alldweltonthesufferingsofthecrossasadoorthroughwhichthepenitentandbelievingcouldsurelyenterheaven，yetbasedthejusticeoftheinfiniteFatherofLoveonwhat，whenitappealstoconsciousness，seemstobethedirestinjustice。WecannotdespisetheMiddleAges，whichproducedsuchbeatificandexaltedsaints，butwepitythosedismaltimeswhenthegreatmassofthepeoplehadsolittlepleasureandcomfortinthislife，andsuchgloomyfearsoftheworldtocome;whenlifewasmadeaperpetualsacrificeandabnegationofallthepleasuresthataregivenustoenjoy，——touseandnottopervert。Hencemonasticismwasrepulsive，eveninitsbestages，toenlightenedreason，andfataltoallprogressamongnations，althoughitservedausefulpurposewhenmenweregovernedbyfearalone，andwhenviolenceandstrifeandphysicaldiscomfortandignoranceanddegradingsuperstitionscoveredthefairestportionoftheearthwithafunerealpallformorethanathousandyears。
ThethirteenthcenturysawanewdevelopmentofmonasticinstitutionsinthecreationoftheMendicantFriars，——especiallytheDominicansandFranciscans，——monkswhosemissionitwastowanderoverEuropeaspreachers，confessors，andteachers。TheBenedictinesweretoonumerous，wealthy，andcorrupttobereformed。Theyhadbecomeascandal;theyhadlosttheconfidenceofgoodmen。TherewereneededmoreactivepartisansofthePopetosustainhisauthority;thenewuniversitiesrequiredablerprofessors;thecitiessoughtmorepopularpreachers;thegreatdesiredmoreintelligentconfessors。TheCrusadeshadcreatedanewfieldofenterprise，andhadopenedtotheeyeofEuropeawiderhorizonofknowledge。Theuniversitieswhichhadgrownuparoundthecathedralschoolshadkindledaspiritofinquiry。
Churcharchitecturehadbecomelighter，morecheerful，andmoresymbolic。TheGreekphilosophyhadrevealedanewmethod。ThedoctrinesoftheChurch，iftheydidnotrequireanewsystem，yetneeded，orweresupposedtoneed，theaidofphilosophy，forthequestionswhichtheschoolmendiscussedweresosubtileandintricatethatonlythelogicofAristotlecouldmakethemclear。
NowtheMendicantordersenteredwithazealwhichhasneverbeenequalled，exceptbytheJesuits，intoalltheinquiriesoftheschools，andkindledanewreligiouslifeamongthepeople，liketheMethodistsofthelastcentury。TheyweresomewhatsimilartotheTemperancereformersofthelastfiftyyears。Theywerepopular，zealous，intelligent，andreligious。SogreatweretheirtalentsandvirtuesthattheyspeedilyspreadoverEurope，andoccupiedtheprincipalpulpitsandthemostimportantchairsintheuniversities。Bonaventura，AlbertusMagnus，ThomasAquinas，andDunsScotuswerethegreatornamentsoftheseneworders。Theirpeculiarity——incontrastwiththeoldorders——was，thattheywanderedfromcitytocityandvillagetovillageatthecommandoftheirsuperiors。Theyhadconvents，liketheothermonks;buttheyprofessedabsolutepoverty，wentbarefooted，andsubmittedtoincreasedrigors。TheirvowswereessentiallythoseoftheBenedictines。Inlessthanacentury，however，theytoohaddegenerated，andwerebitterlyreproachedfortheirvagabondhabitsandtheviolationoftheirvows。Theirconventshadalsobecomerich，likethoseoftheBenedictines。ItwasthesefriarswhomChaucerridiculed，andagainstwhosevicesWyclifdeclaimed。Yettheywereretainedbythepopesfortheirservicesinbehalfofecclesiasticalusurpation。Itwastheywhowereespeciallychosentopeddleindulgences。Theirhistoryisanimpressiveconfirmationofthetendencyofallhumaninstitutionstodegenerate。ItwouldseemthatthemissionoftheBenedictineshadbeenaccomplishedinthethirteenthcentury，andthatoftheDominicansandFranciscansinthefourteenth。
Butmonasticism，inanyofitsforms，ceasedtohaveasalutaryinfluenceonsocietywhenthedarknessoftheMiddleAgeswasdispersed。ItispeculiarlyaMediaevalinstitution。AsaMediaevalinstitution，itconferredmanybenefitsonthesemi-
barbariansofEurope。Asawhole，consideringtheshadowsofignoranceandsuperstitionwhichveiledChristendom，andtheevilswhichviolenceproduced，itsinfluencewasbeneficent。
Amongthebenefitswhichmonasticinstitutionsconferred，atleastindirectly，maybementionedthecounteractinginfluencetheyexertedagainsttheturbulenceandtyrannyofbaroniallords，whosearroganceandextortiontheyrebuked;theybefriendedthepeasantry;theyenabledpoorboystorise;theydefendedthedoctrinethattheinstructorsofmankindshouldbetakenfromallclassesalike;theyweredemocraticintheirsympathies，whilefeudallifeproducedhaughtinessandscorn;theywelcomedscholarsfromthehumblestranks;theybeheldinpeasants’childrensoulswhichcouldbeennobled。Thoughabbotswerechosengenerallyfromtheupperclasses，yettheordinarymonkssprangfromthepeasantry。Forinstance，apeasant’sfamilyisdeprivedofitshead;hehasbeenkilledwhilefightingforafeudallord。Thefamilyaredoomedtomiseryandhardship。Noaristocratictearsareshedforthem;theyarenobetterthandogsorcattle。Themotherisheartbroken。Notoneofherchildrencanordinarilyrisefromtheirabjectposition;theycanliveandbreathethecommonair，andthatisall。Theyareunmolestedintheirmudhuts，iftheywilltoilfortheowneroftheirvillageatthefootofthebaronialcastle。Butoneofhersonsisbrightandreligious。Heattractstheattentionofasympatheticmonk，whosevenerableretreatisshadedwithtrees，adornedwithflowers，andseatedperhapsonthesideofamurmuringstream，whosebankshavebeenmadefertilebyindustryandbeautifulwithherdsofcattleandflocksofsheep。HeurgestheafflictedmothertoconsecratehimtotheserviceoftheChurch;andtheboyentersthesanctuaryandiseducatedaccordingtothefashionoftheage，growingupawell-
trained，austere，andobedientmemberofthefraternity，whosespiritisdominatedbyitssuperiorsinallactivities。Hepassesfromofficetooffice。Intimehebecomesthepriorofhisconvent，——possiblyitsabbot，theequalofthatproudbaroninwhoseservicehisfatherlosthislife，thecontrollerofinnumerableacres，theministerofkings。How，outsidetheChurch，couldhethushavearisen？Butinthemonasteryheisenabled，inthemostaristocraticageoftheworld，torisetothehighestofworldlydignities。Andheisamanofpeaceandnotofwar。Hehateswar;heseekstoquelldissensionsandquarrels。Hebelievesthatthereisahigherthanthewarrior’sexcellence。Monachismrecognizedwhatfeudalismdidnot，——theclaimsofmanasman。Inthisrespectitwashumanandsympathetic。Itfurnishedaretreatfrommiseryandoppression。Itfavoredcontemplativehabitsandthepassivevirtues，somuchneededinturbulenttimes。Whateverfaultsthemonkshad，itmustbeallowedthattheyalleviatedsufferings，andpresentedtheonlyconsolationthattheirgloomyandironageafforded。Inanimperfectmannertheirconventsansweredthepurposeofourmodernhotels，hospitals，andschools。
Itwasbenevolence，charity，andpietywhichthemonksaimedtosecure，andwhichtheyoftensucceededindiffusingamongpeoplemorewretchedandignorantthanthemselves。
AUTHORITIES。
SaintBernard’sWorks，especiallytheEpistles;Mabillon;Helyot’sHistoiredesOrdresMonastiques;Dugdale’sMonasticon;Doring’sGeschichtederMonchsorden;Montalembert’sLesMoinesd’Occident;
Milman’sLatinChristianity;Morison’sLifeandTimesofSaintBernard;LivesoftheEnglishSaints;StephenHarding;Histoired’AbbayedoCluny，parM。P。Lorain;Neander’sChurchHistory;
Butler’sLivesoftheSaints;Vaughan’sLifeofThomasAquinas;
Digby’sAgesofFaith。
SAINTANSELM
A。D。1033-1109。
MEDIAEVALTHEOLOGY。
TheMiddleAgesproducednomoreinterestingmanthanAnselm，AbbotofBecandArchbishopofCanterbury，——notmerelyagreatprelate，butagreattheologian，resplendentinthevirtuesofmonasticlifeandindevotiontotheinterestsoftheChurch。HewasoneofthefirsttocreateanintellectualmovementinEurope，andtostimulatetheologicalinquiries。
AnselmwasbornatAosta，inItaly，1033，andhediedin1109，attheageof76。HewasthereforethecontemporaryofHildebrand，ofLanfranc，ofBerenger，ofRoscelin，ofHenryIV。ofGermany，ofWilliamtheConqueror，oftheCountessMatilda，andofUrbanII。
HesawthefirstCrusade，thegreatquarrelaboutinvestituresandtheestablishmentoftheNormansinEngland。AostawasontheconfinesofLombardyandBurgundy，inamountainousdistrict，amidrichcornfieldsandfruitfulvinesanddark，wavingchestnuts，insightofloftypeakswiththeireverlastingsnow。Anselmbelongedtoanoblebutimpoverishedfamily;hisfatherwasviolentandunthrifty，buthismotherwasreligiousandprudent。Hewasbynatureastudent，andearlywasdestinedtomonasticlife，——theonlylifefavorabletothedevelopmentoftheintellectinarudeandturbulentage。Ihavealreadyalludedtothegeneralignoranceoftheclergyinthosetimes。Therewerenoschoolsofanynoteatthisperiod，andnoconventswherelearningwascultivatedbeyondtherudimentsofgrammarandarithmeticandthewritingsoftheFathers。ThemonkscouldreadandtalkinLatin，ofabarbaroussort，——whichwasthecommonlanguageofthelearned，sofarasanyinthatagecouldbecalledlearned。
ThemostfamousplaceinEurope，atthattime，wherelearningwascultivated，wasthenewly-foundedabbeyofBecinNormandy，underthesuperintendenceoftheArchbishopofRouen，ofwhichLanfrancofPaviawastheprior。ItwasthefirstabbeyinNormandytoopenthedooroflearningtotheyoungandinquiringmindsofWesternEurope。ItwasaBenedictineabbey，assevereinitsrulesasthatofClairvaux。Itwouldseemthatthefameofthisconvent，andofLanfrancitspresidinggenius(afterwardsthegreatArchbishopofCanterbury)，reachedtheearsofAnselm;sothatonthedeathofhisparentshewanderedovertheAlps，throughBurgundy，tothisfamousschool，wherethebestteachingofthedaywastobehad。
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