Inthecaseofoneandthesamecapital，orinthatoftwocapitalsinoneandthesamecountrythisispossiblebutinexceptionalcases。Assume，forexample，thatwehaveacapitalof80c+20v+20s；C=100，s’=100%，p’=20%；

andletussupposethatwagesfalltosuchanextentthatthesamenumberoflabourersisobtainablefor16vinsteadof20v。Then，otherthingsbeingequal，and4vbeingreleased，weshallhave:80c+16v+24s；C=96，s’=150%，p’=25%。

Inorderthatp’maynow=20%asbefore，thetotalcapitalwouldhavetoincreaseto120，theconstantcapitalthereforerisingto104:104c+16v+24s；C=120，s’=150%，p’=20%。

Thiswouldonlybepossibleifthefallinwageswereattendedsimultaneouslybyachangeintheproductivityoflabourwhichrequiredsuchachangeinthecompositionofcapital。Or，ifthevalueinmoneyoftheconstantcapitalincreasedfrom80to104。Inshort，itwouldrequireanaccidentalcoincidenceofconditionssuchasoccursinexceptionalcases。Infact，avariationofs’thatdoesnotcallforthesimultaneousvariationofv，andthusofv/C，isconceivableonlyunderverydefiniteconditions，namelyinsuchbranchesofindustryinwhichonlyfixedcapitalandlabourareemployed，whilethematerialsoflabouraresuppliedbyNature。

Butthisisnotsowhentheratesofprofitoftwodifferentcountriesarecompared。Forinthatcasethesamerateofprofitis，ineffect，basedlargelyondifferentratesofsurplus-value。

Itfollowsfromallofthesefivecases，therefore，thatarisingrateofprofitmaycorrespondtoafallingorrisingrateofsurplus-value，afallingrateofprofittoarisingorfallingrateofsurplus-value，andaconstantrateofprofittoarisingorfallingrateofsurplus-value。

AndwehaveseeninIthatarising，falling，orconstantrateofprofitmayalsoaccordwithaconstantrateofsurplus-value。

Therateofprofit，therefore，dependsontwomainfactors-therateofsurplus-valueandthevalue-compositionofcapital。Theeffectsofthesetwofactorsmaybebrieflysummedupasfollows，bygivingthecompositioninpercent，foritisimmaterialwhichofthetwoportionsofthecapitalcausesthevariation:

Theratesofprofitoftwodifferentcapitals，orofoneandthesamecapitalintwosuccessivedifferentconditions，areequal1)ifthepercentcompositionofthecapitalsisthesameandtheirratesofsurplus-valueareequal；

2)iftheirpercentcompositionisnotthesame，andtheratesofsurplus-valueareunequal，providedtheproductsoftheratesofsurplus-valuebythepercentagesofthevariableportionsofcapitals(s’byv)arethesame，i。e。，ifthemassesofsurplus-value(s=s’v)calculatedinpercentofthetotalcapitalareequal；inotherwords，ifthefactorss’andvareinverselyproportionaltooneanotherinbothcases。

Theyareunequal1)ifthepercentcompositionisequalandtheratesofsurplus-valueareunequal，inwhichcasetheyarerelatedastheratesofsurplus-value；

2)iftheratesofsurplus-valuearethesameandthepercentcompositionisunequal，inwhichcasetheyarerelatedasthevariableportionsofthecapitals；

3)iftheratesofsurplus-valueareunequalandthepercentcompositionnotthesame，inwhichcasetheyarerelatedastheproductss’v，i。e。，asthequantitiesofsurplus-valuecalculatedinpercentofthetotalcapital。[10]

vFOOTNOTES[9]Themanuscripthasthefollowingnoteatthispoint:”Investigatelaterinwhatmannerthiscaseisconnectedwithground-rent。”F。E。

[10]Themanuscriptcontainsalsoverydetailedcalculationsofthedifferencebetweentherateofsurplus-valueandtherateofprofit(s’-p’)，whichhasveryinterestingpeculiarities，andwhosemovementindicateswherethetworatesdrawapartorapproachoneanother。Thesemovementsmayalsoberepresentedbycurves。Iamnotreproducingthismaterial，becauseitisoflessimportancetotheimmediatepurposesofthiswork，andbecauseitisenoughheretocallattentiontothisfactforreaderswhowishtopursuethispointfurther-

F。E。

Capital，Vol。3，Chapter4KarlMarxCAPITALVol。III

THEPROCESSOF

CAPITALISTPRODUCTIONASAWHOLEPartI

THECONVERSIONOFSURPLUS-VALUEINTOPROFITANDOFTHERATEOFSURPLUS-VALUE

INTOTHERATEOFPROFITCHAPTER4

TheEffectoftheTurnoverontheRateofProfit[Theeffectoftheturnoverontheproductionofsurplus-value，andconsequentlyofprofit，hasbeendiscussedinBookII。Brieflysummariseditsignifiesthatowingtothetimespanrequiredforturnover，notallthecapitalcanbeemployedallatonceinproduction；someofthecapitalalwaysliesidle，eitherintheformofmoney-capital，ofrawmaterialsupplies，offinishedbutstillunsoldcommodity-capital，orofoutstandingclaims；thatthecapitalinactiveproduction，i。e。，intheproductionandappropriationofsurplus-value，isalwaysshortbythisamount，andthattheproducedandappropriatedsurplus-valueisalwayscurtailedtothesameextent。Theshortertheperiodofturnover，thesmallerthisidleportionofcapitalascomparedwiththewhole，andthelarger，therefore，theappropriatedsurplus-value，providedotherconditionsremainthesame。

IthasalreadybeenshownindetailinBookII[Englishedition:Vol。

II，pp。293-98-Ed。]howthequantityofproducedsurplus-valueisaugmentedbyreductionsintheperiodofturnover，orofoneofitstwosections，inthetimeofproductionandthetimeofcirculation。Butsincetherateofprofitonlyexpressestherelationoftheproducedquantityofsurplus-valuetothetotalcapitalemployedinitsproduction，itisevidentthatanysuchreductionincreasestherateofprofit。WhateverhasbeensaidearlierinPartIIofBookIIinregardtosurplus-value，appliesequallytoprofitandtherateofprofitandneedsnorepetitionhere。Wewishonlytostressafewoftheprincipalpoints。

Thechiefmeansofreducingthetimeofproductionishigherlabourproductivity，whichiscommonlycalledindustrialprogress。Ifthisdoesnotinvolveasimultaneousconsiderableincreaseintheoutlayoftotalcapitalresultingfromtheinstallationofexpensivemachinery，etc。，andthusareductionoftherateofprofit，whichiscalculatedonthetotalcapital，thisratemustrise。Andthisisdecidedlytrueinthecaseofmanyofthelatestimprovementsinmetallurgyandinthechemicalindustry。

Therecentlydiscoveredmethodsofproducingironandsteel，suchastheprocessesofBessemer，Siemens，Gilchrist-Thomas，etc。，cuttoaminimumatrelativelysmallcoststheformerlyarduousprocesses。Themakingofalizarin，areddye-stuffextractedfromcoal-tar，requiresbutafewweeks，andthisbymeansofalreadyexistingcoal-tardye-producinginstallations，toyieldthesameresultswhichformerlyrequiredyears。Ittookayearforthemaddertomature，anditwascustomarytolettherootsgrowafewyearsmorebeforetheywereprocessed。

Thechiefmeansofreducingthetimeofcirculationisimprovedcommunications。

Thelastfiftyyearshavebroughtaboutarevolutioninthisfield，comparableonlywiththeindustrialrevolutionofthelatterhalfofthe18thcentury。

Onlandthemacadamisedroadhasbeendisplacedbytherailway，onseatheslowandirregularsailingvesselhasbeenpushedintothebackgroundbytherapidanddependablesteamboatline，andtheentireglobeisbeinggirdledbytelegraphwires。TheSuezCanalhasfullyopenedEastAsiaandAustraliatosteamertraffic。ThetimeofcirculationofashipmentofcommoditiestoEastAsia，atleasttwelvemonthsin1847(cf。BuchII，S。235[Englishedition:KarlMarx，Capital，Vol。II，pp。251-52-

Ed。])，hasnowbeenreducedtoalmostasmanyweeks。Thetwolargecentresofthecrisesof1825-57，AmericaandIndia，havebeenbroughtfrom70to90percentnearertotheEuropeanindustrialcountriesbythisrevolutionintransport，andhavetherebylostagooddealoftheirexplosivenature。Theperiodofturnoverofthetotalworldcommercehasbeenreducedtothesameextent，andtheefficacyofthecapitalinvolvedinithasbeenmorethandoubledortrebled。Itgoeswithoutsayingthatthishasnotbeenwithouteffectontherateofprofit。

Tosingleouttheeffectoftheturnoveroftotalcapitalontherateofprofitwemustassumeallotherconditionsofthecapitalstobecomparedasequal。Asidefromtherateofsurplus-valueandtheworking-dayitisalsonotablythepercentcompositionwhichwemustassumetobethesame。

NowletustakeacapitalAcomposedof80c+20v=100C，whichmakestwoturnoversyearlyatarateofsurplus-valueof100%。Theannualproductisthen:

160c+40v+40s。However，todeterminetherateofprofitwedonotcalculatethe40sontheturned-overcapital-valueof200，butontheadvancedcapitalof100，andthusobtainp’=40%。

NowletuscomparethiswithacapitalB=160c+40v=200C，whichhasthesamerateofsurplus-valueof100%，butwhichisturnedoveronlyonceayear。Theannualproductofthiscapitalis，therefore，thesameasthatofA:

160c+40v+40s。Butthistimethe40saretobecalculatedonanadvanceofcapitalamountingto200，whichyieldsarateofprofitofonly20%，orone-halfthatofA。

Wefind，then，thatforcapitalswithanequalpercentcomposition，withequalratesofsurplus-valueandequalworking-days，theratesofprofitofthetwocapitalsarerelatedinverselyastheirperiodsofturnover。

Ifeitherthecomposition，theratesofsurplus-value，theworking-day，orthewages，areunequalinthetwocomparedcases，thiswouldnaturallyproducefurtherdifferencesintheratesofprofit；buttheseareindependentoftheturnoverand，forthisreason，donotconcernusatthispoint。

TheyhavealreadybeendiscussedinChapterIII。

Thedirecteffectofareducedperiodofturnoverontheproductionofsurplus-value，andconsequentlyofprofit，consistsofanincreasedefficiencyimpartedtherebytothevariableportionofcapital，asshowninBookII，ChapterXVI，”TheTurnoverofVariableCapital”。Thischapterdemonstratedthatavariablecapitalof500turnedovertentimesayearproducesasmuchsurplus-valueinthistimeasavariablecapitalof5，000

withthesamerateofsurplus-valueandthesamewages，turnedoverjustonceayear。

TakecapitalI，consistingof10，000fixedcapitalwhoseannualdepreciationis10%=1，000，of500circulatingconstantand500variablecapital。Letthevariablecapitalturnovertentimesperyearata100%rateofsurplus-value。

Forthesakeofsimplicityweassumeinallthefollowingexamplesthatthecirculatingconstantcapitalisturnedoverinthesametimeasthevariable，whichisgenerallythecaseinpractice。Thentheproductofonesuchperiodofturnoverwillbe:100c(depreciation)+500c+500v+500s=1，600andtheproductofoneentireyear，withtensuchturnovers，willbe1，000c(depreciation)+5，000c+5，000v+5，000s=16，000，C=11，000，s=5，000，p’=5，000/11，000=455/11%。NowletustakecapitalII:9，000fixedcapital，1，000annualwearandtear，1，000circulatingconstantcapital，1，000variablecapital，100%

rateofsurplus-value，5turnoversofvariablecapitalperyear。Thentheproductofeachoftheturnoversofthevariablecapitalwillbe:200c(depreciation)+1，000c+1，000v+1，000s=3，200，andthetotalannualproductafterfiveturnovers:1，000c(depreciation)+5，000c+5，000v+5，000s=16，000，C=11，000，s=5，000，p’=5，000/11，000=455/11%Further，takecapitalIIIwithnofixedcapital，6，000circulatingconstantcapitaland5，000variablecapital。Lettherebeoneturnoverperyearata100%rateofsurplus-value。Thenthetotalannualproductis:6，000c+5，000v+5，000s=16，000，C=11，000，s=5，000，p’=5，000/11，000=455/11%。Inallthethreecaseswethereforehavethesameannualquantityofsurplus-value=5，000，and，sincethetotalcapitalislikewiseequalinallthreecases，namely=11，000，alsothesamerateofprofitof455/11%。

ButshouldcapitalIhaveonly5insteadof10turnoversofitsvariablepartperyear，theresultwouldbedifferent。Theproductofoneturnoverwouldthenbe:200c(depreciation)+500c+500v+500s=1，700。Andtheannualproduct:1，000c(depreciation)+2，500c+2，500v+2，500s=8，500，C=11，000，s=2，500；p’=2，500/11，000=228/11%。Therateofprofithasfallenone-half，becausetheperiodofturnoverhasdoubled。

Thequantityofsurplus-valueappropriatedinoneyearisthereforeequaltothequantityofsurplus-valueappropriatedinoneturnoverofthevariablecapitalmultipliedbythenumberofsuchturnoversperyear。Supposewecallthesurplus-value，orprofit，appropriatedinoneyearS，thesurplus-valueappropriatedinoneperiodofturnovers。

thenumberofturnoversofthevariablecapitalinoneyearn，thenS=sn，andtheannualrateofsurplus-valueS’=s’n，asalreadydemonstratedinBookII，ChapterXVI，I。[Englishedition:Vol。II，p。305-Ed。]

Itgoeswithoutsayingthattheformulap’=s’(v/C)=s’v/(c+v)iscorrectonlysolongasthevinthenumeratoristhesameasthatinthedenominator。

Inthedenominatorvstandsfortheentireportionofthetotalcapitalusedonanaverageasvariablecapitalforthepaymentofwages。Thevofthenumeratorisprimarilyonlydeterminedbythefactthatacertainquantityofsurplus-value=sisproducedandappropriatedbyit，whoserelationtoits/v，ism’，therateofsurplus-value。Itisonlyalongtheselinesthattheformulap’=s/(c+v)istransformedintotheother:p’=s’v/(c+v)。

Thevofthenumeratorwillnowbemoreaccuratelydeterminedbythefactthatitmustequalthevofthedenominator，thatis，theentirevariableportionofcapitalC。Inotherwords，theequationp’=s/Cmaybecorrectlytransformedintotheequationp’=s’v/(c+v)onlyifsstandsforsurplus-valueproducedinoneturnoverofthevariablecapital。Shouldsbeonlyaportionofthissurplus-value，thens=s’visstillcorrect，butthisvisthensmallerthanthevinC=c+v，becauseitissmallerthantheentirevariablecapitalexpendedforwages。Butshouldsstandformorethanthesurplus-valueofoneturnoverofv，thenaportionofthisv，orperhapsthewholeofit，servestwice，namelyinthefirstandinthesecondturnover，andeventuallyinsubsequentturnovers。Thevwhichproducesthesurplus-valueandrepresentsthesumofallpaidwages，isthereforegreaterthanthevinc+vandthecalculationfallsintoerror。

Tomaketheformulaprecisefortheannualrateofprofit，wemustsubstitutetheannualrateofsurplus-valueforthesimplerateofsurplus-value，thatis，substituteS’ors’nfors’。Inotherwords，wemustmultiplytherateofsurplus-values’，or，whatamountstothesamething，thevariablecapitalvcontainedinC，byn，thenumberofturnoversofthisvariablecapitalinoneyear。Thusweobtainp’=s’nv/C，whichistheformulafortheannualrateofprofit。

Theamountofvariablecapitalinvestedinhisbusinessissomethingthecapitalisthimselfdoesnotknowinmostcases。WehaveseeninChapterVIIIofBookII，andshallseefurtheralong，thattheonlyessentialdistinctionwithinhiscapitalwhichimpressesitselfuponthecapitalististhatoffixedandcirculatingcapital。Hetakesmoneytopaywagesfromhiscash-boxcontainingthepartofthecirculatingcapitalhehasonhandintheformofmoney，sofarasitisnotdepositedinabank；hetakesmoneyfromthesamecash-boxforrawandauxiliarymaterials，andcreditsbothitemstothesamecash-account。Andevenifheshouldkeepaseparateaccountforwages，atthecloseoftheyearthiswouldonlyshowthesumpaidoutforthisitem，hencevn，butnotthevariablecapitalvitself。Inordertoascertainthis，hewouldhavetomakeaspecialcalculation，ofwhichweproposeheretogiveanillustration。

Forthispurposeweselectthecottonspinneryof10，000mulespindlesdescribedinBookI(S。209/201)[Englishedition:p。219-Ed。]

andassumethatthedatagiventhereforoneweekofApril1871，areinforceduringthewholeyear。Thefixedcapitalincorporatedinthemachinerywas&pound；10，000。Thecirculatingcapitalwasnotgiven。Weassumeittohavebeen&pound；2，500。Thisisaratherhighestimate，butjustifiedbytheassumption，whichwemustalwaysmakehere，thatnocreditoperationswereeffected，hencenopermanentortemporaryemploymentofotherpeople’scapital。Thevalueoftheweeklyproductwascomposedof&pound；20fordepreciationofmachinery，&pound；358circulatingconstantadvancedcapital(rent&pound；6；cotton&pound；342；coal，gas，oil，&pound；10)，&pound；52

variablecapitalpaidoutforwages，and&pound；80surplus-value。Therefore，20c(depreciation)+358c+52v+80s=510。Theweeklyadvanceofcirculatingcapitalthereforewas358c+52v=410。Intermsofpercentthiswas87。3c+12。7v。Fortheentirecirculatingcapitalof&pound；2，500thiswouldbe&pound；2，182constantand&pound；318variablecapital。Sincethetotalexpenditureforwagesinoneyearwas52times&pound；52，or&pound；2，704，itfollowsthatinayearthevariablecapitalof&pound；318wasturnedoveralmostexactly81/2；

times。Therateofsurplus-valuewas80/52=15311/13%。

Wecalculatetherateofprofitonthebasisoftheseelementsbyinsertingtheabovevaluesintheformulap’=s’nv/C:s’=15311/13，n=81/2，v=318，C=12，500；hence:p’=15311/13X81/2X318/12，500=33。27%。Wetestthisbymeansofthesimpleformulap’=s/C。Thetotalannualsurplus-valueorprofitamountsto52times&pound；80，or&pound；4，160，andthisdividedbythetotalcapitalof&pound；12，500givesus33。28%，oralmostanidenticalresult。Thisisanabnormallyhighrateofprofit，whichmayonlybeexplainedbyextraordinarilyfavourableconditionsofthemoment(verylowpricesofcottonalongwithveryhighpricesofyarn)，andcouldcertainlynothaveobtainedthroughouttheyear。

Thes’nintheformulap’=s’nv/Cstands，ashasbeensaid，forthethingcalledinBookII[Englishedition:Vol。II，p。295-Ed。]

theannualrateofsurplus-value。Intheabovecaseitis15311/13%

multipliedby81/2orinexactfigures，1，3079/18%。

Thus，ifacertainBiedermann[Biedermann-Philistine。Apun，beingalsothenameoftheeditoroftheDeutscheAllgemeineZeitung-Ed。]

wasshockedbytheabnormityofanannualrateofsurplus-valueof1，000%

usedasanillustrationinBookII，hewillnowperhapsbepacifiedbythisannualrateofsurplus-valueofmorethan1，300%takenfromthelivingexperienceofManchester。Intimesofgreatestprosperity，suchaswehavenotindeedseenforalongtime，sucharateisbynomeansararity。

Forthatmatterwehavehereanillustrationoftheactualcompositionofcapitalinmodernlarge-scaleindustry。Thetotalcapitalisbrokenupinto&pound；12，182constantand&pound；318variablecapital，asumof&pound；12，500。Intermsofpercentthisis971/2c+21/2v=100C。Onlyone-fortiethofthetotal，butinmorethananeight-foldannualturnover，servesforthepaymentofwages。

Sinceveryfewcapitalistseverthinkofmakingcalculationsofthissortwithreferencetotheirownbusiness，statisticsisalmostcompletelysilentabouttherelationoftheconstantportionofthetotalsocialcapitaltoitsvariableportion。OnlytheAmericancensusgiveswhatispossibleundermodernconditions，namelythesumofwagespaidineachlineofbusinessandtheprofitsrealised。Questionableastheymaybe，beingbasedonthecapitalist’sownuncontrolledstatements，theyareneverthelessveryvaluableandtheonlyrecordsavailabletousonthissubject。InEuropewearefartoodelicatetoexpectsuchrevelationsfromourmajorcapitalists-

F。E。]

Capital，Vol。3，Chapter5KarlMarxCAPITALVol。III

THEPROCESSOF

CAPITALISTPRODUCTIONASAWHOLEPartI

THECONVERSIONOFSURPLUS-VALUEINTOPROFITANDOFTHERATEOFSURPLUS-VALUE

INTOTHERATEOFPROFITCHAPTER5

EconomyintheEmploymentofConstantCapitalI。INGENERAL

Theincreaseofabsolutesurplus-value，ortheprolongationofsurplus-labour，andthusoftheworking-day，whilethevariablecapitalremainsthesameandthusemploysthesamenumberoflabourersatthesamenominalwages，regardlessofwhetherovertimeispaidornot，reducestherelativevalueoftheconstantcapitalascomparedtothetotalandthevariablecapital，andtherebyincreasestherateofprofit，againirrespectiveofthegrowthofthequantityofsurplus-valueandapossiblyrisingrateofsurplus-value。

Thevolumeofthefixedportionofconstantcapital，suchasfactorybuildings，machinery，etc。，remainsthesame，nomatterwhethertheseservethelabour-process16or12hours。Aprolongationoftheworking-daydoesnotentailanyfreshexpendituresinthis，themostexpensiveportionofconstantcapital。Furthermore，thevalueofthefixedcapitalistherebyreproducedinasmallernumberofturnoverperiods，sothatthetimeforwhichitmustbeadvancedtomakeacertainprofitisabbreviated。Aprolongationoftheworking-daythereforeincreasestheprofit，evenifovertimeispaid，orevenif，uptoacertainpoint，itisbetterpaidthanthenormalhoursoflabour。

Theever-mountingneedtoincreasefixedcapitalinmodernindustrywasthereforeoneofthemainreasonspromptingprofit-madcapitaliststolengthentheworking-day。[11]Thesameconditionsdonotobtainiftheworking-dayisconstant。Thenitisnecessaryeithertoincreasethenumberoflabourers，andwiththemtoacertainextenttheamountoffixedcapital，thebuildings，machinery，etc。，inordertoexploitagreaterquantityoflabour(forweleaveasidedeductionsfromwagesorthedepressionofwagesbelowtheirnormallevel)，or，iftheintensityand，consequently，theproductivityoflabour，increaseand，generally，morerelativesurplus-valueisproduced，themagnitudeofthecirculatingportionofconstantcapitalincreasesinsuchindustrialbrancheswhichuserawmaterials，sincemorerawmaterial，etc。，isprocessedinagiventime；and，secondly，theamountofmachinerysetinmotionbythesamenumberoflabourers，thereforealsothispartofconstantcapital，increasesaswell。Hence，anincreaseinsurplus-valueisaccompaniedbyanincreaseinconstantcapital，andthegrowingexploitationoflabourbygreateroutlaysofthemeansofproductionthroughwhichlabourisexploited，i。e。，byagreaterinvestmentofcapital。Therefore，therateofprofitistherebyreducedontheonehandwhileitincreasesontheother。

Quiteanumberofcurrentexpensesremainalmostorentirelythesamewhethertheworking-dayislongerorshorter。Thecostofsupervisionislessfor500working-menduring18working-hoursthanfor750working-menduring12working-hours。”Theexpenseofworkingafactory10hoursalmostequalsthatofworkingit12。”(ReportsofInsp。ofFact。，October1848，p。37。)Stateandmunicipaltaxes，fireinsurance，wagesofvariouspermanentemployees，depreciationofmachinery，andvariousotherexpensesofafactory，remainunchangedwhethertheworking-timeislongorshort。Totheextenttowhichproductiondecreases，theseexpensesriseascomparedtotheprofit。

(ReportsofInsp。ofFact。，October1862，p。19。)

Theperiodinwhichthevalueofthemachineryandoftheothercomponentsoffixedcapitalisreproducedisdeterminedinpracticenotbytheirmerelifetime，butbythedurationoftheentirelabour-processduringwhichtheyserveandwearout。Ifthelabourersmustwork18insteadof12hours，thismakesadifferenceofthreedaysmoreperweek，sothatoneweekisstretchedintooneandahalf，andtwoyearsintothree。Ifthisovertimeisunpaidthelabourersgiveawaygratisaweekoutofeverythreeandayearoutofeverythreeontopofthenormalsurplus-labourtime。Inthisway，thereproductionofthevalueofthemachineryisspeededup50%andaccomplishedintwo-thirdsoftheusuallyrequiredtime。

Toavoiduselesscomplications，weproceedinthisanalysis，andinthatofpricefluctuationsforrawmaterials(Chap。VI)，fromtheassumptionthatthemassandrateofsurplus-valuearegiven。

Asalreadyshowninthepresentationofco-operation，divisionoflabourandmachinery，theeconomyofproductionconditions[Englishedition:Vol。

I，pp。324-25-Ed。]foundinlarge-scaleproductionisessentiallyduetothefactthattheseconditionsprevailasconditionsofsocial，orsociallycombined，labour，andthereforeassocialconditionsoflabour。

Theyarecommonlyconsumedintheprocessofproductionbytheaggregatelabourer，insteadofbeingconsumedinsmallfractionsbyamassoflabourersoperatingdisconnectedlyor，atbest，directlyco-operatingonasmallscale。Inalargefactorywithoneortwocentralmotorsthecostofthesemotorsdoesnotincreaseinthesameratioastheirhorse-powerand，hence，theirpossiblesphereofactivity。Thecostofthetransmissionequipmentdoesnotgrowinthesameratioasthetotalnumberofworkingmachineswhichitsetsinmotion。Theframeofamachinedoesnotbecomedearerinthesameratioasthemountingnumberoftoolswhichitemploysasitsorgans，etc。Furthermore，theconcentrationofmeansofproductionyieldsasavingonbuildingsofvariouskindsnotonlyfortheactualworkshops，butalsoforstorage，etc。Thesameappliestoexpendituresforfuel，lighting，etc。Otherconditionsofproductionremainthesame，whetherusedbymanyorbyfew。

Thistotaleconomy，arisingasitdoesfromtheconcentrationofmeansofproductionandtheiruseenmasse，imperativelyrequires，however，theaccumulationandco-operationoflabourers，i。e。，asocialcombinationoflabour。Hence，itoriginatesquiteasmuchfromthesocialnatureoflabour，justassurplus-valueoriginatesfromthesurplus-labouroftheindividuallabourerconsideredsingly。Eventhecontinualimprovements，whichareherepossibleandnecessary，areduesolelytothesocialexperienceandobservationensuredandmadepossiblebyproductionofaggregatelabourcombinedonalargescale。

Thesameistrueofthesecondbigsourceofeconomyintheconditionsofproduction。Werefertothereconversionoftheexcretionsofproduction，theso-calledwaste，intonewelementsofproduction，eitherofthesame，orofsomeotherlineofindustry；totheprocessesbywhichthisso-calledexcretionisthrownbackintothecycleofproductionand，consequently，consumption，whetherproductiveorindividual。Thislineofsavings，whichweshalllaterexaminemoreclosely，islikewisetheresultoflarge-scalesociallabour。Itistheattendantabundanceofthiswastewhichrendersitavailableagainforcommerceandtherebyturnsitintonewelementsofproduction。Itisonlyaswasteofcombinedproduction，therefore，oflarge-scaleproduction，thatitbecomesimportanttotheproductionprocessandremainsabearerofexchange-value。Thiswaste，asidefromtheserviceswhichitperformsasnewelementofproduction，reducesthecostoftherawmaterialtotheextenttowhichitisagainsaleable，forthiscostalwaysincludesthenormalwaste，namelythequantityordinarilylostinprocessing。Thereductionofthecostofthisportionofconstantcapitalincreasesprotantotherateofprofit，assumingthemagnitudeofthevariablecapitalandtherateofsurplus-valuetobegiven。

Ifthesurplus-valueisgiven，therateofprofitcanbeincreasedonlybyreducingthevalueoftheconstantcapitalrequiredforcommodity-production。

Sofarasconstantcapitalentersintotheproductionofcommodities，itisnotitsexchange-value，butitsuse-valuealone，whichmatters。Thequantityoflabourwhichflaxcanabsorbinaspinnerydoesnotdependonitsvalue，butonitsquantity，assumingtheproductivityoflabour，i。e。，theleveloftechnicaldevelopment，tobegiven。Inlikemannertheassistancerenderedbyamachineto，say，threelabourersdoesnotdependonitsvalue，butonitsuse-valueasamachine。Ononeleveloftechnicaldevelopmentabadmachinemaybeexpensiveandonanotheragoodmachinemaybecheap。

Theincreasedprofitreceivedbyacapitalistthroughthecheapeningof，say，cottonandspinningmachinery，istheresultofhigherlabourproductivity；notinthespinnery，tobesure，butincottoncultivationandconstructionofmachinery。Itrequiressmalleroutlaysoftheconditionsoflabourtoincorporateagivenquantityoflabour，andhencetoextractagivenquantityofsurplus-labour。Thecostsrequiredtoappropriateacertainquantityofsurplus-labourdiminish。

Wehavealreadymentionedsavingsyieldedintheproductionprocessthroughco-operativeuseofmeansofproductionbytheaggregate，orsociallycombined，labour。Othersavingsofconstantcapitalarisingfromtheshorteningofthetimeofcirculationinwhichthedevelopmentofmeansofcommunicationisadominantmaterialfactorwillbediscussedlater。Atthispointweshalldealwiththesavingsyieldedbycontinuousimprovementsofmachinery，namely1)ofitsmaterial，e。g。，thesubstitutionofironforwood；2)

thecheapeningofmachineryduetothegeneralimprovementofmachine-building；

sothat，althoughthevalueofthefixedportionofconstantcapitalincreasescontinuallywiththedevelopmentoflabouronalargescale，itdoesnotincreaseatthesamerate[12]；

3)specialimprovementsenablingexistingmachinerytoworkmorecheaplyandeffectively；forinstance，improvementsofsteam-boilers，etc。，whichwillbediscussedlateroningreaterdetail；4)reductionofwastethroughbettermachinery。

Whateverreducesthewearofmachinery，andoffixedcapitalingeneral，foranygivenperiodofproduction，cheapensnotonlytheindividualcommodity，inviewofthefactthatinitspriceeveryindividualcommodityreproducesitsaliquotshareofthisdepreciation，butreducesalsothealiquotportionoftheinvestedcapitalforthisperiod。Repairwork，etc。，totheextentthatitbecomesnecessary，isaddedtotheoriginalcostofthemachinery。

Areductioninrepaircosts，duetogreaterdurabilityofthemachinery，lowersprotantothepriceofthismachinery。

Itmayagainbesaidofallthesesavingsthattheyarelargelypossibleonlyforcombinedlabour，andareoftennotrealiseduntilproductioniscarriedforwardonastilllargerscale，sothattheyrequireanevengreatercombinationoflabourintheimmediateprocessofproduction。

However，ontheotherhandthedevelopmentoftheproductivepoweroflabourinanyonelineofproduction，e。g。，theproductionofiron，coal，machinery，inarchitecture，etc。，whichmayagainbepartlyconnectedwithprogressinthefieldofintellectualproduction，notablynaturalscienceanditspracticalapplication，appearstobethepremiseforareductionofthevalue，andconsequentlyofthecost，ofmeansofproductioninotherlinesofindustry，e。g。，thetextileindustry，oragriculture。

Thisisself-evident，sinceacommoditywhichistheproductofacertainbranchofindustryentersanotherasameansofproduction。Itsgreaterorlesserpricedependsontheproductivityoflabourinthelineofproductionfromwhichitissuesasaproduct，andisatthesametimeafactorthatnotonlycheapensthecommoditiesintowhoseproductionitgoesasameansofproduction，butalsoreducesthevalueoftheconstantcapitalwhoseelementitherebecomes，andtherebyonethatincreasestherateofprofit。

Thecharacteristicfeatureofthiskindofsavingofconstantcapitalarisingfromtheprogressivedevelopmentofindustryisthattheriseintherateofprofitinonelineofindustrydependsonthedevelopmentoftheproductivepoweroflabourinanother。Whateverfallstothecapitalist’sadvantageinthiscaseisoncemoreagainproducedbysociallabour，ifnotaproductofthelabourershehimselfexploits。Suchadevelopmentofproductivepowerisagaintraceableinthefinalanalysistothesocialnatureofthelabourengagedinproduction；tothedivisionoflabourinsociety；andtothedevelopmentofintellectuallabour，especiallyinthenaturalsciences。Whatthecapitalistthusutilisesaretheadvantagesoftheentiresystemofthesocialdivisionoflabour。Itisthedevelopmentoftheproductivepoweroflabourinitsexteriordepartment，inthatdepartmentwhichsuppliesitwithmeansofproduction，wherebythevalueoftheconstantcapitalemployedbythecapitalistisrelativelyloweredandconsequentlytherateofprofitisraised。

Anotherriseintherateofprofitisproduced，notbysavingsinthelabourcreatingtheconstantcapital，butbysavingsintheapplicationofthiscapitalitself。Ontheonehand，theconcentrationoflabourers，andtheirlarge-scaleco-operation，savesconstantcapital。Thesamebuildings，andheatingandlightingappliances，etc。，costrelativelylessforthelarge-scalethanforsmall-scaleproduction。Thesameistrueofpowerandworkingmachinery。Althoughtheirabsolutevalueincreases，itfallsincomparisontotheincreasingextensionofproductionandthemagnitudeofthevariablecapital，orthequantityoflabour-powersetinmotion。

Theeconomyrealisedbyacertaincapitalwithinitsownlineofproductionisfirstandforemostaneconomyinlabour，i。e。，areductionofthepaidlabourofitsownlabourers。Thepreviouslymentionedeconomy，ontheotherhand，isdistinguishedfromthisonebythefactthatitaccomplishesthegreatestpossibleappropriationofotherpeople’sunpaidlabourinthemosteconomicalway，i。e。，withaslittleexpenseasthegivenscaleofproductionwillpermit。Inasmuchasthiseconomydoesnotrestwiththepreviouslymentionedexploitationoftheproductivityofthesociallabouremployedintheproductionofconstantcapital，butwiththeeconomyintheconstantcapitalitself，itspringseitherdirectlyfromtheco-operationandsocialformoflabourwithinacertainbranchofproduction，orfromtheproductionofmachinery，etc。，onascaleinwhichitsvaluedoesnotgrowatthesamerateasitsuse-value。

Twopointsmustbeborneinmindhere:Itthevalueofc=zero，thenp’=s’，andtherateofprofitwouldbeatitsmaximum。Second，however，themostimportantthingforthedirectexploitationoflabouritselfisnotthevalueoftheemployedmeansofexploitation，betheyfixedcapital，rawmaterialsorauxiliarysubstances。Insofarastheyserveasmeansofabsorbinglabour，asmediainorbywhichlabourand，hence，surplus-labourarematerialised，theexchange-valueofmachinery，buildings，rawmaterials，etc。，isquiteimmaterial。Whatisultimatelyessentialis，ontheonehand，thequantityofthemtechnicallyrequiredforcombinationwithacertainquantityoflivinglabour，and，ontheother，theirsuitability，i。e。，notonlygoodmachinery，butalsogoodrawandauxiliarymaterials。

Therateofprofitdependspartlyonthegoodqualityoftherawmaterial。

Goodmaterialproduceslesswaste。Lessrawmaterialsarethenneededtoabsorbthesamequantityoflabour。Furthermore，theresistancetobeovercomebytheworkingmachineisalsoless。Thispartlyaffectseventhesurplus-valueandtherateofsurplus-value。Thelabourerneedsmoretimewhenusingbadrawmaterialstoprocessthesamequantity。Assumingwagesremainthesame，thiscausesareductioninsurplus-labour。Thisalsosubstantiallyaffectsthereproductionandaccumulationofcapital，whichdependmoreontheproductivitythanontheamountoflabouremployed，asshowninBookI(S。627/619ff。)[Englishedition:p。603-Ed。]。

Thecapitalist’sfanaticalinsistenceoneconomyinmeansofproductionisthereforequiteunderstandable。Thatnothingislostorwastedandthemeansofproductionareconsumedonlyinthemannerrequiredbyproductionitself，dependspartlyontheskillandintelligenceofthelabourersandpartlyonthedisciplineenforcedbythecapitalistforthecombinedlabour。

Thisdisciplinewillbecomesuperfluousunderasocialsysteminwhichthelabourersworkfortheirownaccount，asithasalreadybecomepracticallysuperfluousinpiece-work。Thisfanaticalinsistencecomestothesurfacealsoconverselyintheadulterationoftheelementsofproduction，whichisoneoftheprincipalmeansofloweringtherelationofthevalueoftheconstantcapitaltothevariablecapital，andthusofraisingtherateofprofit。Wherebythesaleoftheseelementsofproductionabovetheirvalue，sofarasthisreappearsintheproduct，acquiresamarkedelementofcheating。ThispracticeplaysanessentialpartparticularlyinGermanindustry，whosemaximis:Peoplewillsurelyappreciateifwesendthemgoodsamplesatfirst，andtheninferiorgoodsafterward。However，asthesemattersbelongtothesphereofcompetitiontheydonotconcernushere。

Itshouldbenotedthatthisraisingoftherateofprofitbymeansofloweringthevalueoftheconstantcapital，i。e。，byreducingitsexpensiveness，doesnotinanywaydependonwhetherthebranchofindustryinwhichittakesplaceproducesluxuries，ornecessitiesfortheconsumptionoflabourers，ormeansofproductiongenerally。Thislastcircumstancewouldonlybeofmaterialimportanceifitwereaquestionoftherateofsurplus-value，whichdependsessentiallyonthevalueoflabour-power，i。e。，onthevalueofthecustomarynecessitiesofthelabourer。Butinthepresentcasethesurplus-valueandtherateofsurplus-valuehavebeenassumedasgiven。

Therelationofsurplus-valuetototalcapital-andthisdeterminestherateofprofit-dependsunderthesecircumstancesexclusivelyonthevalueoftheconstantcapital，andinnowayontheuse-valueoftheelementsofwhichitiscomposed。

Arelativecheapeningofthemeansofproductiondoesnot，ofcourse，excludethepossibleincreaseoftheirabsoluteaggregatevalue，fortheabsolutevolumeinwhichtheyareemployedgrowstremendouslywiththedevelopmentoftheproductivepoweroflabourandtheattendantgrowthofthelevelofproduction。Economyintheuseofconstantcapital，fromwhateverangleitmaybeviewed，is，inpart，theexclusiveresultofthefactthatthemeansofproductionfunctionandareconsumedasjointmeansofproductionofthecombinedlabourer，sothattheresultingsavingappearsasaproductofthesocialnatureofdirectlyproductivelabour；inpart，however，itistheresultofdevelopingproductivityoflabourinsphereswhichsupplycapitalwithitsmeansofproduction，sothatifweviewthetotallabourinrelationtototalcapital，andnotsimplythelabourersemployedbycapitalistXinrelationtocapitalistY，thiseconomypresentsitselfoncemoreasaproductofthedevelopmentoftheproductiveforcesofsociallabour，withtheonlydifferencethatcapitalistXenjoystheadvantagenotonlyoftheproductivityoflabourinhisownestablishment，butalsoofthatinotherestablishments。Yetthecapitalistviewseconomyofhisconstantcapitalasaconditionwhollyindependentof，andentirelyaliento，hislabourers。Heisalwayswellaware，however，thatthelabourerhassomethingtodowiththeemployerbuyingmuchorlittlelabourwiththesameamountofmoney(forthisishowthetransactionbetweenthecapitalistandlabourerappearsinhismind)。Thiseconomyintheapplicationofthemeansofproduction，thismethodofobtainingacertainresultwithaminimumoutlayappearsmorethananyotherinnerpoweroflabourasaninherentpowerofcapitalandamethodpeculiarandcharacteristicofthecapitalistmodeofproduction。

Thisconceptionissomuchthelesssurprisingsinceitappearstoaccordwithfact，andsincetherelationshipofcapitalactuallyconcealstheinnerconnectionbehindtheutterindifference，isolation，andalienationinwhichtheyplacethelabourervis-&agrave；-visthemeansincorporatinghislabour。

First，themeansofproductionthatmakeuptheconstantcapitalrepresentonlythemoneybelongingtothecapitalist(justasthebodyoftheRomandebtorrepresentedthemoneyofhiscreditor，accordingtoLinguet[Th&eacute；oriedesloixciviles，ouprincipesfondamentauxdelasoci&eacute；t&eacute；，tomeII，Londres，1767，livreV，chapitreXX-Ed。])andarerelatedtohimalone，whilethelabourer，whocomesincontactwiththemonlyinthedirectprocessofproduction，dealswiththemasuse-valuesofproductiononlyasmeansoflabourandmaterialsofproduction。Increaseordecreaseoftheirvalue，therefore，hasaslittlebearingonhisrelationstothecapitalistasthecircumstancewhetherhemaybeworkingwithcopperoriron。Forthatmatter，thecapitalistlikestoviewthispointdifferently，asweshalllaterindicate，wheneverthemeansofproductiongaininvalueandtherebyreducehisrateofprofit。

Second，insofarasthesemeansofproductioninthecapitalistproductionprocessareatthesametimemeansofexploitinglabour，thelabourerisnomoreconcernedwiththeirrelativedearnessorcheapnessthanahorseisconcernedwiththedearnessorcheapnessofitsbitandbridle。

Finally，wehaveearlier[Englishedition:Vol。1，p。325-Ed。]seenthat，infact，thelabourerlooksatthesocialnatureofhislabour，atitscombinationwiththelabourofothersforacommonpurpose，ashewouldatanalienpower；theconditionofrealisingthiscombinationisalienproperty，whosedissipationwouldbetotallyindifferenttohimifhewerenotcompelledtoeconomisewithit。Thesituationisquitedifferentinfactoriesownedbythelabourersthemselves，asinRochdale，forinstance。

Itscarcelyneedstobementioned，then，thatasfarasconcernstheproductivityoflabourinonebranchofindustryasaleverforcheapeningandimprovingthemeansofproductioninanother，andtherebyraisingtherateofprofit，thegeneralinterconnectionofsociallabouraffectsthelabourersasamatteralientothem，amatterthatactuallyconcernsthecapitalistalone，sinceitishewhobuysandappropriatesthesemeansofproduction。Thefactthathebuystheproductoflabourersinanotherbranchofindustrywiththeproductoflabourersinhisown，andthathethereforedisposesoftheproductofthelabourersofanothercapitalistonlybygratuitouslyappropriatingthatofhisown，isadevelopmentthatisfortunatelyconcealedbytheprocessofcirculation，etc。

Moreover，sinceproductiononalargescaledevelopsforthefirsttimeinitscapitalistform，thethirstforprofitsontheonehand，andcompetitionontheother，whichcompelsthecheapestpossibleproductionofcommodities，makethiseconomyintheemploymentofconstantcapitalappearassomethingpeculiartothecapitalistmodeofproductionandthereforeasafunctionofthecapitalist。

Justasthecapitalistmodeofproductionpromotesthedevelopmentoftheproductivepowersofsociallabour，ontheonehand，sodoesitwhipontoeconomyintheemploymentofconstantcapitalontheother。

However，itisnotonlythealienationandindifferencethatarisebetweenthelabourer，thebeareroflivinglabour，andtheeconomical，i。e。，rationalandthrifty，useofthematerialconditionsofhislabour。Inlinewithitscontradictoryandantagonisticnature，thecapitalistmodeofproductionproceedstocounttheprodigiousdissipationofthelabourer’slifeandhealth，andtheloweringofhislivingconditions，asaneconomyintheuseofconstantcapitalandtherebyasameansofraisingtherateofprofit。

Sincethelabourerpassesthegreaterportionofhislifeintheprocessofproduction，theconditionsoftheproductionprocessarelargelytheconditionsofhisactivelivingprocess，orhislivingconditions，andeconomyintheselivingconditionsisamethodofraisingtherateofprofit；

justaswesawearlier[Englishedition:Vol。I，pp。231-302-Ed。]

thatoverwork，thetransformationofthelabourerintoaworkhorse，isameansofincreasingcapital，orspeedinguptheproductionofsurplus-value。

Sucheconomyextendstoovercrowdingcloseandunsanitarypremiseswithlabourers，or，ascapitalistsputit，tospacesaving；tocrowdingdangerousmachineryintoclosequarterswithoutusingsafetydevices；toneglectingsafetyrulesinproductionprocessespernicioustohealth，or，asinmining，boundupwithdanger，etc。Nottomentiontheabsenceofallprovisionstorendertheproductionprocesshuman，agreeable，oratleastbearable。

Fromthecapitalistpointofviewthiswouldbequiteauselessandsenselesswaste。Thecapitalistmodeofproductionisgenerally，despiteallitsniggardliness，altogethertooprodigalwithitshumanmaterial，justas，conversely，thankstoitsmethodofdistributionofproductsthroughcommerceandmannerofcompetition，itisveryprodigalwithitsmaterialmeans，andlosesforsocietywhatitgainsfortheindividualcapitalist。

Justascapitalhasthetendencytoreducethedirectemploymentoflivinglabourtonomorethanthenecessarylabour，andalwaystocutdownthelabourrequiredtoproduceacommoditybyexploitingthesocialproductivenessoflabourandthustosaveamaximumofdirectlyappliedlivinglabour，soithasalsothetendencytoemploythislabour，reducedtoaminimum，underthemosteconomicalconditions，i。e。，toreducetoitsminimumthevalueoftheemployedconstantcapital。Ifitisthenecessarylabour-timewhichdeterminesthevalueofcommodities，insteadofallthelabour-timecontainedinthem，soitisthecapitalwhichrealisesthisdeterminationand，atthesametime，continuallyreducesthelabour-timesociallynecessarytoproduceagivencommodity。Thepriceofthecommodityistherebyloweredtoitsminimumsinceeveryportionofthelabourrequiredforitsproductionisreducedtoitsminimum。

Wemustmakeadistinctionineconomyasregardsuseofconstantcapital。

Ifthequantity，andconsequentlythesumofthevalueofemployedcapital，increases，thisisprimarilyonlyaconcentrationofmorecapitalinasinglehand。Yetitispreciselythisgreaterquantityappliedbyasinglesource-attended，asarule，byanabsolutelygreaterbutrelativelysmalleramountofemployedlabour-whichpermitseconomyofconstantcapital。

Totakeanindividualcapitalist，thevolumeofthenecessaryinvestmentofcapital，especiallyofitsfixedportion，increases。Butitsvaluedecreasesrelativetothemassofworked-upmaterialsandexploitedlabour。

Thisisnowtobebrieflyillustratedbyafewexamples。Weshallbeginattheend-theeconomyintheconditionsofproduction，insofarasthesealsoconstitutethelivingconditionsofthelabourer。

II。SAVINGSLABOURCONDITIONSATTHEEXPENSEOF

THELABOURERS。COALMINES。NEGLECTOFINDISPENSABLEOUTLAYS”Underthecompetitionwhichexistsamongthecoal-ownersandcoal-proprietors……nomoreoutlayisincurredthanissufficienttoovercomethemostobviousphysicaldifficulties；andunderthatwhichprevailsamongthelabouringcolliers，whoareordinarilymorenumerousthantheworktobedonerequires，alargeamountofdangerandexposuretothemostnoxiousinfluenceswillgladlybeencounteredforwagesalittleinadvanceoftheagriculturalpopulationroundthem，inanoccupation，inwhichtheycanmoreovermakeaprofitableuseoftheirchildren。Thisdoublecompetitionisquitesufficient……tocausealargeproportionofthepitstobeworkedwiththemostimperfectdrainageandventilation；oftenwithill-constructedshafts，badgearing，incompetentengineers，andill-constructedandill-preparedbaysandroadways；causingadestructionoflife，andlimb，andhealth，thestatisticsofwhichwouldpresentanappallingpicture。”(FirstReportonChildren’sEmploymentinMinesandCollieries，etc。，April21，1829，p。102。)About1860，aweeklyaverageof15menlosttheirlivesintheEnglishcollieries。AccordingtothereportonCoalMinesAccidents(February6，1862)，atotalof8，466werekilledinthetenyears1852-61。Butthereportadmitsthatthisnumberisfartoolow，becauseinthefirstfewyears，whentheinspectorshadjustbeeninstalledandtheirdistrictswerefartoolarge，agreatmanyaccidentsanddeathswerenotreported。

Theveryfactthatthenumberofaccidents，thoughstillveryhigh，hasdecreasedmarkedlysincetheinspectionsystemwasestablished，andthisinspiteofthelimitedpowersandinsufficientnumbersoftheinspectors，demonstratesthenaturaltendencyofcapitalistexploitation。Thesehumansacrificesaremostlyduetotheinordinateavariceofthemineowners。

Veryoftentheyhadonlyoneshaftsunk，sothatapartfromthelackofeffectiveventilationtherewasnoescapewerethisshafttobecomeobstructed。

Capitalistproduction，whenconsideredinisolationfromtheprocessofcirculationandtheexcessesofcompetition，isveryeconomicalwiththematerialisedlabourincorporatedincommodities。Yet，morethananyothermodeofproduction，itsquandershumanlives，orliving-labour，andnotonlybloodandflesh，butalsonerveandbrain。Indeed，itisonlybydintofthemostextravagantwasteofindividualdevelopmentthatthedevelopmentofthehumanraceisatallsafeguardedandmaintainedintheepochofhistoryimmediatelyprecedingtheconsciousreorganisationofsociety。Sincealloftheeconomistherediscussedarisesfromthesocialnatureoflabour，itisindeedjustthisdirectlysocialnatureoflabourwhichcausesthewasteoflifeandhealth。ThefollowingquestionsuggestedbyfactoryinspectorR。Bakerischaracteristicinthisrespect:”Thewholequestionisoneforseriousconsideration，andinwhatwaythissacrificeofinfantlifeoccasionedbycongregationallabourcanbebestaverted？”

(ReportsofInsp。ofFact。，October1863，p。157。)

Factories。Underthisheadingthereiscoveredthedisregardforsafetymeasurestoensurethesecurity，comfort，andhealthoflabourersalsointheactualfactories。Itistoblameforalargeportionofthecasualtylistscontainingthewoundedandkilledindustrialworkers(cf。

theannualfactoryreports)。Similarly，lackofspace，ventilation，etc。

AsfarbackasOctober1855，LeonardHornercomplainedabouttheresistanceofverymanymanufacturerstothelegalrequirementsconcerningsafetydevicesonhorizontalshafts，althoughthedangerwascontinuallyemphasisedbyaccidents，manyofthemfatal，andalthoughthesesafetydevicesdidnotcostmuchanddidnotinterferewithproduction。(ReportsofInsp。

ofFact。，October1855，p。6。)Intheirresistanceagainsttheseandotherlegalrequirementsthemanufacturerswereopenlysecondedbytheunpaidjusticesofthepeace，whowerethemselvesmostlymanufacturersorfriendsofmanufacturers，andhandeddowntheirdecisionsaccordingly。WhatsortofverdictsthesegentlemenhandeddownwasrevealedbySuperiorJudgeCampbell，whosaidwithreferencetooneofthem，againstwhichanappealhadbeenmadetohim:”ItisnotaninterpretationoftheActofParliament，itisarepealoftheActofParliament”(loc。cit。，p。11)。Hornerstatesinthesamereportthatinmanyfactorieslabourersarenotwarnedwhenmachineryisabouttobestartedup。Sincethereisalwayssomethingtobedoneaboutmachineryevenwhenitisnotoperating，fingersandhandsarealwaysoccupiedwithit，andaccidentshappencontinuallyduetothemereomissionofawarningsignal(loc。cit。，p。44)。Themanufacturershadatrades-unionatthetimetoopposefactorylegislation，theso-calledNationalAssociationfortheAmendmentoftheFactoryLawsinManchester，whichinMarch1855collectedmorethan&amp；pound；50，000byassessing2shillingsperhorse-power，topayforthecourtproceedingsagainstitsmembersstartedbyfactoryinspectors，andtoconductthecasesinthenameoftheunion。Itwasamatterofprovingthatkillingwasnotmurder[Allusiontothepamphlet’KillingnoMurder’whichappearedinEnglandin1657。ItsauthorwasthelevellerEdwardSexby-Ed。]whenitoccurredforthesakeofprofit。AfactoryinspectorforScotland，SirJohnKincaid，tellsaboutacertainfirminGlasgowwhichusedtheironscrapatitsfactorytomakeprotectiveshieldsforallitsmachinery，thecostamountingto&amp；pound；91s。Joiningthemanufacturers’unionwouldhavecostitanassessmentof&amp；pound；11forits110horse-power，whichwasmorethanthecostofallitsprotectiveappliances。ButtheNationalAssociationhadbeenorganisedin1854fortheexpresspurposeofopposingthelawwhichprescribedsuchprotection。Themanufacturershadnotpaidtheleastheedtoitduringthewholeperiodfrom1844to1854。Whenthefactoryinspectors，atinstructionsfromPalmerston，theninformedthemanufacturersthatthelawwouldbeenforcedinearnest，themanufacturersinstantlyfoundedtheirassociation，manyofwhosemostprominentmemberswerethemselvesjusticesofthepeaceandinthiscapacityweresupposedtoenforcethelaw。WheninApril1855thenewMinisteroftheInterior，SirGeorgeGrey，offeredacompromiseunderwhichthegovernmentwouldbecontentwithpracticallynominalsafetyappliancestheAssociationindignantlyrejectedeventhis。InvariouslawsuitsthefamousengineerWilliamFairbairnthrowtheweightofhisreputationbehindtheprincipleofeconomyandindefenceofthefreedomofcapitalwhichhadbeenviolated。

Theheadoffactoryinspection，LeonardHorner，waspersecutedandmalignedbythemanufacturersineveryconceivablemanner。

ButthemanufacturersdidnotrestuntiltheyobtainedawritoftheCourtofQueen’sBench，accordingtowhichtheLawof1844didnotprescribeprotectivedevicesforhorizontalshaftsinstalledmorethansevenfeetabovethegroundand，finally，in1856theysucceededinsecuringanActofParliamententirelysatisfactorytotheminthecircumstances，throughtheservicesofthebigotWilsonPatten，oneofthosepioussoulswhosedisplayofreligionisalwaysreadytodothedirtyworkfortheknightsofthemoney-bag。ThisActpracticallydeprivedthelabourersofallspecialprotectionandreferredthemtothecommoncourtsforcompensationintheeventofindustrialaccidents(sheermockeryinviewoftheexcessivecostofEnglishlawsuits)，whileitmadeitalmostimpossibleforthemanufacturertolosethelawsuitbyprovidinginafinely-wordedclauseforexperttestimony。

Theresultwasarapidincreaseofaccidents。InthesixmonthsfromMaytoOctober1858，InspectorBakerreportedthataccidentsincreasedby21%

comparedwiththeprecedinghalf-year。Inhisopinion36。7%oftheseaccidentsmighthavebeenavoided。Itistruethatthenumberofaccidentsin1858

and1859wasconsiderablybelowthatof1845and1846。Itwasactually29%lessalthoughthenumberoflabourersintheindustriessubjecttoinspectionhadincreased20%。Butwhatwasthereasonforthis？Insofarasthisissuehasbeensettlednow(1865)，itwasmainlyaccomplishedthroughtheintroductionofnewmachineryalreadyprovidedwithsafetydevicestowhichthemanufacturerdidnotobjectbecausetheycosthimnoextraexpense。Furthermore，afewlabourerssucceededinsecuringheavydamagesfortheirlostarms，andhadthisjudgementupheldevenbythehighestcourts。(ReportsofInsp。ofFact。，April30，1861，p。31，dittoApril1862，p。17。)

Somuchforeconomyindevicesprotectingthelifeandlimbsoflabourers(amongwhommanychildren)againstthedangersofhandlingandoperatingmachinery。

Workinenclosedplacesgenerally。Itiswellknowntowhatextenteconomyofspace，andthusofbuildings，crowdslabourersintoclosequarters。

Inaddition，thereisalsoeconomyinmeansofventilation。Coupledwiththelongworking-hours，thetwocausealargeincreaseindiseasesoftherespiratoryorgans，andanattendantincreaseinthedeath-rate。ThefollowingillustrationshavebeentakenfromReportsonPublicHealth，6threport，1863。ThisreportwascompiledbyDr。JohnSimon，wellknownfromourBookI。

Justascombinationandco-operationoflabourpermitslarge-scaleemploymentofmachinery，concentrationofmeansofproduction，andeconomyintheiruse，itisthisveryworkingtogetherenmasseinenclosedplacesandunderconditionsratherdeterminedbyeaseofmanufacturethanbyhealthrequirements-itisthismassconcentrationinoneandthesameworkshopthatacts，ontheonehand，asasourceofgreaterprofitsforthecapitalistand，ontheother，unlesscounteractedbyareducednumberofhoursandspecialprecautions，asthecauseofthesquanderingofthelivesandhealthofthelabourers。

Dr。Simonformulatesthefollowingruleandbacksitupwithabundantstatistics:”Inproportionasthepeopleofadistrictareattractedtoanycollectiveindooroccupation，insuchproportion，otherthingsbeingequal，thedistrictdeath-ratebylungdiseaseswillbeincreased”(p。

23)。Thecauseisbadventilation。”AndprobablyinallEnglandthereisnoexceptiontotherule，that，ineverydistrictwhichhasalargeindoorindustry，theincreasedmortalityoftheworkpeopleissuchastocolourthedeath-returnofthewholedistrictwithamarkedexcessoflungdisease”

(p。23)。

Mortalityfiguresforindustriescarriedoninenclosedplaces，collectedbytheBoardofHealthin1860and1861，indicatethatforthesamenumberofmenbetweentheagesof15and55，forwhichthedeath-ratefromconsumptionandotherpulmonarydiseasesinEnglishagriculturaldistrictsis100，thedeath-rateinCoventryis163，inBlackburnandSkipton167，CongletonandBradford168，Leicester171，Leek182，Macclesfield184，Bolton190，Nottingham192，Rochdale193，Derby198，SalfordandAshton-under-Lyne203，Leeds218，Preston220，andManchester263(p。24)。Thefollowingtablepresentsastillmorestrikingillustration。

DistrictChiefindustryDeathsfrompulmonarydiseasesbetweentheagesof15and25，per100，000populationMenWomenBerkhampsteadStrawplaiting(women)219578

LeightonBuzzardStrawplaiting(women)309554

NewportPagnellLacemanufacture(women)301617

TowcesterLacemanufacture(women)239577

YeovilManufactureofgloves(mainlywomen)280409

LeekSilkindustry(predominantlywomen)437856

CongletonSilkindustry(predominantlywomen)566790

MacclesfieldSilkindustry(predominantlywomen)593890

HealthycountrydistrictAgriculture331333Itshowsthedeath-rateforpulmonarydiseasesseparatelyforbothsexesbetweentheagesof15and25computedforevery100，000population。Inthedistrictsselectedonlywomenareemployedinindustriescarriedoninenclosedplaces，whilemenworkinallotherpossiblelines。

Inthesilkdistricts，wheremoremenareemployedinthefactory，theirmortalityisalsohigher。Thedeath-ratefromconsumption，etc。，forbothsexes，reveals，asthereportsays，”theatrocioussanitarycircumstancesunderwhichmuchofoursilkindustryisconducted”。Anditisinthissamesilkindustrythatthemanufacturers，pleadingexceptionallyfavourableandsanitaryconditionsintheirestablishments，demandedbywayofanexception，andpartiallyobtained，longworking-hoursforchildrenunder13yearsofage(BuchI，Kap。VIII，6，S。296/286)[Englishedition:Ch。

X，6，p。293-Ed。]”ProbablynoindustrywhichhasyetbeeninvestigatedhasaffordedaworsepicturethanthatwhichDr。Smithgivesoftailoring:-’Shopsvarymuchintheirsanitaryconditions，butalmostuniversallyareovercrowdedandill-ventilated，andinahighdegreeunfavourabletohealth……Suchroomsarenecessarilywarm；butwhenthegasislit，asduringtheday-timeonfoggydays，andatnightduringthewinter，theheatincreasesto80&deg；

andeventoupwardsof90&deg；，causingprofuseperspiration，andcondensationofvapouruponthepanesofglass，sothatitrunsdowninstreamsordropsfromtheroof，andtheoperativesarecompelledtokeepsomewindowsopen，atwhateverrisktothemselvesoftakingcold。’Andhegivesthefollowingaccountofwhathefoundin16ofthemostimportantWestEndshops。Thelargestcubicspaceintheseill-ventilatedroomsallowedtoeachoperativeis270feet，andtheleast105feet，andinthewholeaveragesonly156

feetperman。Inoneroom，withagalleryrunningroundit，andlightedonlyfromtheroof，from92toupwardsof100menareemployed，wherealargenumberofgaslightsburn，andwheretheurinalsareintheclosestproximity，thecubicspacedoesnotexceed150feetperman。Inanotherroom，whichcanonlybecalledakennelinayard，lightedfromtheroof，andventilatedbyasmallskylightopening，fivetosixmenworkinaspaceof112cubicfeetperman。’……Tailors，inthoseatrociousworkshopswhichDr。Smithdescribes，workgenerallyforabout12or13hoursaday，andatsometimestheworkwillbecontinuedfor15or16hours”(pp。25，26，28)

NumbersofpersonsemployedBranchesofindustryandlocalityDeath-rateper100，000betweentheagesof25-3535-4545-55

958，265Agriculture，EnglandandWales7438051，145

22，301menandTailoring，London9581，2622，093

12，377women13，803Type-settersandprinters，London8941，7472，367(p。30)。Itmustbenoted，andhasinfactbeenremarkedbyJohnSimon，chiefoftheMedicalDepartmentandauthorofthereport，thatthemortality-ratefortailors，type-setters，andprintersofLondonbetweentheagesof25

and35wascitedlowerthantherealfigure，becauseLondonemployersinbothlinesofbusinesshavealargenumberofyoungpeople(probablyupto30yearsofage)fromthecountryengagedasapprenticesand”improvers”，i。e。，mengettingadditionaltraining。TheseswellthenumberofhandsforwhichtheLondonindustrialdeath-ratesarecomputed。ButtheydonotproportionallycontributetothenumberofdeathsinLondonbecausetheirstaythereisonlytemporary。Iftheyfallillduringthisperiod，theyreturntotheirhomesinthecountry，wheretheirdeathisregisterediftheydie。ThiscircumstanceaffectstheearlieragesstillmoreandrenderstheLondondeath-ratesfortheseagegroupscompletelyvaluelessasindexesoftheill-effectsofindustryonhealth(p。30)。

Thecaseofthetype-settersissimilartothatofthetailors。Inadditiontolackofventilation，topoisonedair，etc。，thereisstillnight-worktobementioned。Theirregularworking-timeis12to13hours，sometimes15to16。”Greatheatandfoulnesswhichbeginwhenthegas-jetsarelit……Itnotinfrequentlyhappensthatfumesfromafoundry，orfoulodoursfrommachineryorsinks，risefromthelowerroom，andaggravatetheevilsoftheupperone。Theheatedairofthelowerroomsalwaystendstoheattheupperbywarmingthefloor，andwhentheroomsarelow，andtheconsumptionofgasgreat，thisisaseriousevil，andoneonlysurpassedinthecasewherethesteam-boilersareplacedinthelowerroom，andsupplyunwished-forheattothewholehouse……Asageneralexpression，itmaybestatedthatuniversallytheventilationisdefective，andquiteinsufficienttoremovetheheatandtheproductsofthecombustionofgasintheeveningandduringthenight，andthatinmanyoffices，andparticularlyinthosemadefromdwelling-houses，theconditionismostdeplorable……Andinsomeoffices(especiallythoseofweeklynewspapers)therewillbework-worktoo，inwhichboysbetween12and16yearsofagetakeequalpart-foralmostuninterruptedperiodsoftwodaysandanightatatime；-while，inotherprinting-officeswhichlaythemselvesoutforthedoingof’urgent’business，Sundaygivesnorelaxationtotheworkman，andhisworking-daysbecomeseveninsteadofsixineveryweek”(pp。26，28)。

Themillinersanddress-makershavealreadyattractedourattentioninBookI(Kap。VIII，3，S。249/241)[Englishedition:Ch。X，3，pp。254-55-

Ed。]inrespecttooverwork。TheirworkshopsaredescribedinourreportbyDr。Ord。Evenifbetterduringtheday，theybecomeoverheated，foul，andunhealthyduringthehoursinwhichgasisburned。Dr。Ordfoundin34shopsofthebettersortthattheaveragenumberofcubicfeetperworkerwasasfollows:”……Infourcasesmorethan500，infourothercasesfrom400to500，……insevenothersfrom200to250，infourothersfrom150to200，andinnineothersonlyfrom100to150。Thelargestoftheseallowanceswouldbutbescantyforcontinuouswork，unlessthespacewerethoroughlywellventilated；and，exceptwithextraordinaryventilation，itsatmospherecouldnotbetolerablywholesomeduringgas-light。”AndhereisDr。Ord’sremarkaboutoneoftheminorworkshopswhichhevisited，operatedfortheaccountofamiddleman:”Oneroomareaincubicalfeet，1，280；personspresent，14；areatoeach，incubicalfeet，91。5。Thewomenherewereweary-lookingandsqualid；theirearningswerestatedtobe7s。to15s。aweek，andtheirtea……Hours8a。m。to8p。m。Thesmallroomintowhichthese14personswerecrowdedwasill-ventilated。Thereweretwomovablewindowsandafire-place，butthelatterwasblockedupandtherewasnospecialventilationofanykind”(p。27)。

Thesamereportstateswithreferencetotheoverworkofmillinersanddress-makers:”……Theoverworkoftheyoungwomeninfashionabledress-makingestablishmentsdoesnot，formorethanaboutfourmonthsoftheyear，prevailinthatmonstrousdegreewhichhasonmanyoccasionsexcitedmomentarypublicsurpriseandindignation；butfortheindoorhandsduringthesemonthsitwill，asarule，beoffull14hoursaday，andwill，whenthereispressure，be，fordaystogether，of17oreven18hours。Atothertimesoftheyeartheworkoftheindoorhandsrangesprobablyfrom10to14

hours；anduniformlythehoursforoutdoorhandsare12or13。Formantle-makers，collar-makers，shirt-makers，andvariousotherclassesofneedleworkers(includingpersonswhoworkatthesewing-machine)thehoursspentinthecommonworkroomarefewer-generallynotmorethan10to12hours；but，saysDr。Ord，theregularhoursofworkaresubjecttoconsiderableextensionincertainhousesatcertaintimes，bythepracticeofworkingextrahoursforextrapay，andinotherhousesbythepracticeoftakingworkawayfromhousesofbusiness，tobedoneafterhoursathome，bothpracticesbeing，itmaybeadded，oftencompulsory”(p。28)。JohnSimonremarksinafootnotetothispage:”Mr。Radcliffe，……theHonorarySecretaryoftheEpidemiologicalSociety，……happeningtohaveunusualopportunitiesforquestioningtheyoungwomenemployedinfirst-classhousesofbusiness……hasfoundthatinonlyoneoutoftwentygirlsexaminedwhocalledthemselves’quitewell’couldthestateofhealthbepronouncedgood；therestexhibitinginvariousdegreesevidencesofdepressedphysicalpower，nervousexhaustion，andnumerousfunctionaldisordersthereupondependent。

Heattributestheseconditionsinthefirstplacetothelengthofthehoursofwork-theminimumofwhichheestimatesat12hoursadayoutoftheseason；andsecondarilyto……crowdingandbadventilationofworkrooms，gas-vapours，insufficiencyorbadqualityoffood，andinattentiontodomesticcomfort。”

TheconclusionarrivedatbythechiefoftheEnglishBoardofHealthisthat”itispracticallyimpossibleforworkpeopletoinsistuponthatwhichintheoryistheirfirstsanitaryright-therightthatwhateverworktheiremployerassemblesthemtodo，shall，sofarasdependsuponhim，be，athiscost，divestedofallneedlesslyunwholesomecircumstances；……whileworkpeoplearepracticallyunabletoexactthatsanitaryjusticeforthemselves，theyalso(notwithstandingthepresumedintentionsofthelaw)cannotexpectanyeffectualassistancefromtheappointedadministratorsoftheNuisancesRemovalActs”(p。29)。”Doubtlesstheremaybesomesmalltechnicaldifficultyindefiningtheexactlineatwhichemployersshallbecomesubjecttoregulation。But……inprinciple，thesanitaryclaimisuniversal。Andintheinterestofmyriadsoflabouringmenandwomen，whoselivesarenowneedlesslyafflictedandshortenedbytheinfinitephysicalsufferingwhichtheirmereemploymentengenders，Iwouldventuretoexpressmyhope，thatuniversallythesanitarycircumstancesoflabourmay，atleastsofar，bebroughtwithinappropriateprovisionsoflaw，thattheeffectiveventilationofallindoorworkplacesmaybeensured，andthatineverynaturallyinsalubriousoccupationthespecifichealth-endangeringinfluencemayasfaraspracticablebereduced”(p。31)。

III。ECONOMYINTHEGENERATIONANDTRANSMISSION

OFPOWER，ANDINBUILDINGS

InhisOctober1852reportL。HornerquotesaletterofthefamousengineerJamesNasmythofPatricroft，theinventorofthesteam-hammer，which，amongotherthings，containsthefollowing:”……Thepublicarelittleawareofthevastincreaseindrivingpowerwhichhasbeenobtainedbysuchchangesofsystemandimprovements(ofsteam-engines)asIalludeto。Theenginepowerofthisdistrict(Lancashire)

layundertheincubusoftimidandprejudicedtraditionsfornearlyfortyyears，butnowwearehappilyemancipated。Duringthelastfifteenyears，butmoreespeciallyinthecourseofthelastfouryears(since1848)，someveryimportantchangeshavetakenplaceinthesystemofworkingcondensingsteam-engines……Theresult……hasbeentorealiseamuchgreateramountofdutyorworkperformedbytheidenticalengines，andthatagainataveryconsiderablereductionoftheexpenditureoffuel……Foragreatmanyyearsaftertheintroductionofsteam-powerintothemillsandmanufactoriesoftheabove-nameddistricts，thevelocityofwhich，itwasconsideredpropertoworkcondensingsteam-engineswasabout220feetperminuteofthepiston；thatistosay，anenginewitha5-feetstrokewasrestrictedby’rule’tomake22revolutionsofthecrankshaftperminute。Beyondthisspeeditwasnotconsideredprudentordesirabletoworktheengine；andasallthemillgearing……weremadesuitabletothis220feetperminutespeedofpiston，thisslowandabsurdlyrestrictedvelocityruledtheworkingofsuchenginesformanyyears。However，atlength，eitherthroughfortunateignoranceofthe’rule’，orbybetterreasonsonthepartofsomeboldinnovator，agreaterspeedwastried，andastheresultwashighlyfavourable，othersfollowedtheexample，by，asitistermed，’lettingtheengineaway’，namely，bysomodifyingtheproportionsofthefirstmotionwheelsofthemillgearingastopermittheenginetorunat300feetandupwardsperminute，whilethemillgearinggenerallywaskeptatitsformerspeed

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