InauguralAddressPrefatoryNoteIntroductionA。NotionoftheHistoryofPhilosophy1。CommonIdeasregardingtheHistoryofPhilosophya。TheHistoryofPhilosophyasanaccumulationofOpinionsb。ProofoffutilityofPhilosophicalKnowledgeobtainedthroughHistoryofPhilosophyitselfc。ExplanatoryremarksonthediversityinPhilosophies2。ExplanatoryremarksontheDefinitionoftheHistoryofPhilosophya。TheNotionofDevelopmentb。TheNotionoftheConcretec。PhilosophyastheapprehensionofthedevelopmentoftheConcrete3。ResultsobtainedwithrespecttothenotionoftheHistoryofPhilosophya。ThedevelopmentinTimeofthevariousPhilosophiesb。TheapplicationoftheforegoingtothetreatmentofPhilosophyc。FurthercomparisonbetweentheHistoryofPhilosophyandPhilosophyitselfB。RelationofPhilosophytootherDepartmentsofKnowledge1。TheHistoricalSideofthisConnectiona。OutwardandhistoricalconditionsimposeduponPhilosophyb。ThecommencementinHistoryofanintellectualnecessityforPhilosophyc。Philosophyasthethoughtofitstime2。SeparationofPhilosophyfromotherallieddepartmentsofKnowledgea。RelationofPhilosophytoScientificKnowledgeb。RelationofPhilosophytoReligionc。PhilosophyproperdistinguishedfromPopularPhilosophy3。CommencementofPhilosophyanditsHistorya。FreedomofThoughtasafirstconditionb。SeparationoftheEastanditsPhilosophyc。BeginningsofPhilosophyinGreeceC。Division，Sources，andMethodadoptedintreatingoftheHistoryofPhilosophy1。DivisionoftheHistoryofPhilosophy2。SourcesoftheHistoryofPhilosophy3。MethodofTreatmentadoptedOrientalPhilosophyPARTONE:GREEKPHILOSOPHY

PARTTWO:PHILOSOPHYOFTHEMIDDLEAGES

PARTTHREE:MODERNPHILOSOPHY

IntroductionSectionOne:ModernPhilosophyinitsFirstStatementTHEfirsttwophilosopherswhomwehavetoconsiderareBaconandBoehme；

thereisascompleteadisparitybetweentheseindividualsasbetweentheirsystemsofphilosophy。Nonethelessbothagreethatmindoperatesinthecontentofitsknowledgeasinitsowndomain，andthisconsequentlyappearsasconcreteBeing。

ThisdomaininBaconisthefinite，naturalworld；inBoehmeitistheinward，mystical，godlyChristianlifeandexistence；fortheformerstartsfromexperienceandinduction，thelatterfromGodandthepantheismoftheTrinity。

A。BaconB。JacobBoehmeSectionTwo:PeriodoftheThinkingUnderstandingAFTERNeo-Platonisimandallthatisassociatedwithitisleftbehind，itisnotuntilDescartesisarrivedatthatwereallyenteruponaphilosophywhichis，properlyspeaking，independent，whichknowsthatitcomesforthfromreasonasindependent，andthatself-consciousnessisanessentialmomentinthetruth。Philosophyinitsownpropersoilseparatesitselfentirelyfromthephilosophizingtheology，inaccordancewithitsprinciple，andplacesitonquiteanotherside。Here，wemaysay，weareathome，andlikethemarinerafteralongvoyageinatempestuoussea，wemaynowhailthesightofland；withDescartesthecultureofmoderntimes，thethoughtofmodernPhilosophy，reallybeginstoappear，afteralongandtediousjourneyonthewaywhichhasledsofar。ItisspeciallycharacteristicoftheGermanthatthemoreservileheontheonehandis，themoreuncontrolledisheontheother；restraintandwantofrestraint-originality，istheangelofdarknessthatbuffetsus。Inthisnewperiodtheuniversalprinciplebymeansofwhicheverythingintheworldisregulated，isthethoughtthatproceedsfromitself；itisacertaininwardness，whichisaboveallevidencedinrespecttoChristianity，andwhichistheProtestantprincipleinaccordancewithwhichthoughthascometotheconsciousnessoftheworldatlargeasthattowhicheverymanhasaclaim。Thusbecausetheindependentlyexistentthought，thisculminatingpointofinwardness，isnowsetforthandfirmlygraspedassuch，thedeadexternalityofauthorityissetasideandregardedasoutofplace。Itisonlythroughmyownfreethoughtwithinthatthoughtcanhoweverberecognizedandratifiedbyme。Thislikewisesignifiesthatsuchfreethoughtistheuniversalbusinessoftheworldandofindividuals；itisindeedthedutyofeveryman，sinceeverythingisbaseduponit；thuswhatclaimstorankasestablishedintheworldmanmustscrutinizeinhisownthoughts。Philosophyisthusbecomeamatterofuniversalinterest，andonerespectingwhicheachcanjudgeforhimself；foreveryoneisathinkerfromthebeginning。

OnaccountofthisnewbeginningtoPhilosophywefindintheoldhistoriesofPhilosophyoftheseventeenthcentury-e。g。，thatofStanley-thephilosophyoftheGreeksandRomansonly，andChristianityformstheconclusion。TheideawasthatneitherinChristianitynorsubsequentlyanyphilosophywastobefound，becausetherewasnolongeranecessityforit，seeingthatthephilosophictheologyoftheMiddleAgeshadnotfree，spontaneousthoughtasitsprinciple(Vol。I。pp。111，112)。Butthoughitistruethatthishasnowbecomethephilosophicprinciple，wemustnotexpectthatitshouldbeatoncemethodicallydevelopedoutofthought。Theoldassumptionismade，thatmanonlyattainstothetruththroughreflection；thisplainlyistheprinciple。ButthedeterminationanddefinitionofGod，theworldofthemanifoldasitappears，isnotyetrevealedasnecessarilyproceedingfromthought；forwehaveonlyreachedthethoughtofacontentwhichisgiventhroughordinaryconception，observation，andexperience。

Ontheonehandweseeametaphysic，and，ontheother，theparticularsciences:ontheonehandabstractthoughtassuch，ontheotheritscontenttakenfromexperience；thesetwolinesintheabstractstandopposedtooneanother，andyettheydonotseparatethemselvessosharply。Weshallindeedcometoanopposition，viz。tothatbetweenapriorithought-thatthedeterminationswhicharetoholdgoodforthoughtmust，betakenfromthoughtitself-andthedeterminationthatwemustcommence，concludeandthinkfromexperience。Thisistheoppositionbetweenrationalismandempiricism；butitisreallyasubordinateone，becauseeventhemetaphysicalmodeinphilosophy，whichonlyallowsvaliditytoimmanentthought，doesnottakewhatismethodicallydevelopedfromthenecessityofthought，butintheoldwayderivesitscontentfrominwardoroutwardexperience，andthroughreflectionandmeditationrendersitabstract。Theformofphilosophywhichisfirstreachedthroughthoughtismetaphysics，theformofthethinkingunderstanding；thisperiodhas，asitsoutstandingfigures，DescartesandSpinoza，likewiseMalebrancheandLocke，LeibnitzandWolff。ThesecondformisScepticismandCriticismwithregardtothethinkingunderstanding，tometaphysicsassuch，andtotheuniversalofempiricism；hereweshallgoontospeakofrepresentativesoftheScottish，German，andFrenchphilosophies；theFrenchmaterialistsagainturnbacktometaphysics。

ChapterI-TheMetaphysicsoftheUnderstandingMETAPHYSICSiswhatreachesaftersubstance，andthisimpliesthatoneunity，onethoughtismaintainedinoppositiontodualism，justasBeingwasamongsttheancients。Inmetaphysicsitselfwehave，however，theoppositionbetweensubstantialityandindividuality。Whatcomesfirstisthespontaneous，butlikewiseuncritical，metaphysics，anditisrepresentedbyDescartesandSpinoza，whoasserttheunityofBeingandthought。ThesecondstageisfoundinLocke，whotreatsoftheoppositionitselfinasmuchasheconsidersthemetaphysicalIdeaofexperience，thatistheoriginofthoughtsandtheirjustification，notyetenteringonthequestionofwhethertheyareabsolutelytrue。InthethirdplacewehaveLeibnitz'smonad-theworldviewedasatotality。

A。FirstDivisionWehereencountertheinnateideasofDescartes。ThephilosophyofSpinoza，inthesecondplace，isrelatedtothephilosophyofDescartesasitsnecessarydevelopmentonly；themethodisanimportantpartofit。

AmethodwhichstandsalongsideofSpinozismandwhichisalsoaperfecteddevelopmentofCartesianism，is，inthethirdplace，thatbywhichMalebranchehasrepresentedthisphilosophy。

1。Descartes2。Spinoza3。MalebrancheB。SecondDivisionItwasLockewhobecametheinstrumentofsettingforththisentiremannerofthinkinginasystematicway，forheworkedoutBacon'spositionmorefully。AndifBaconmadesensuousBeingtobethetruth，Lockedemonstratedtheuniversal，Thought，tobepresentinsensuousBeing，orshowedthatweobtainedtheuniversal，thetrue，fromexperience。FromLockeawidecultureproceeds，influencingEnglishphilosophersmoreespecially；theformsadoptedbythisschoolwerevarious，buttheprinciplewasthesame；itbecameageneralmethodofregardingthingsinapopularway，andcallsitselfPhilosophy，althoughtheobjectofPhilosophyisnottobemetwithhere。

1。Locke2。HugoGrotius3。ThomasHobbes4。Cudworth，Clarke，Wollaston5。Puffendorf6。NewtonC。ThirdDivisionThethirddevelopmentofthephilosophyoftheunderstandingisthatrepresentedbyLeibnitzandWolff。IfWolff'smetaphysicsisdivestedofitsrigidform，wehaveasaresultthelaterpopularphilosophy。

1。Leibnitz2。Wolff3。GermanPopularPhilosophyChapterII-TransitionPeriodTHEdecadencewhichwefindinthoughtuntilthephilosophyofKantisreached，ismanifestedinwhatwasatthistimeadvocatedinoppositiontothemetaphysicoftheunderstanding，andwhichmaybecalledageneralpopularphilosophy，areflectingempiricism，whichtoagreaterorlessextentbecomesitselfametaphysic；justas，ontheotherhand，thatmetaphysic，inasfarasitextendedtoparticularsciences，becomesempiricism。Asagainstthesemetaphysicalcontradictions，asagainsttheartificialitiesofthemetaphysicalsynthesis，asagainsttheassistanceofGod，thepreestablishedharmony，thebestpossibleworld，&c。，asagainstthismerelyartificialunderstanding，wenowfindthatfixedprinciples，immanentinmind，havebeenassertedormaintainedrespectingwhatisfelt，intuitivelyperceivedandhonouredintheculturedhumanbreast。Andindistinctiontotheassertionthatweonlyfindthesolutionintheprinciplesofafixedandpermanentcontentformareconciliationhereandnow，theyadoptapositionofindependence，andassumeanintellectualstanding-groundwhichtheyfindinwhathasgenerallybeentermedthehealthyhumanunderstanding。Suchdeterminationsmayindeedbefoundtobeperfectlygoodandvalidifthefeelings，intuitions，heartandunderstandingofmanbemorallyandintellectuallyfashioned；forinthatcasebetterandmorenoblefeelingsanddesiresmayruleinmenandamoreuniversalcontent，maybeexpressedintheseprinciples。Butwhenmenmakewhatwecallsoundreason-thatwhichisbynatureimplantedinman'sbreast-intothecontentandtheprinciple，thehealthyhumanunderstandingdiscoversitselftobeidenticalwithafeelingandknowledgebelongingtonature。TheIndianswhoworshipacow，andwhoexposeorslaynewbornchildren，andcommitallsortsofbarbarousdeeds，theEgyptianswhopraytoabird，theapis，&c。，andtheTurksaswell，allpossessahealthyhumanunderstandingsimilarinnature。

ButthehealthyhumanunderstandingandthenaturalfeelingofrudeandbarbarousTurks，whentakenasastandard，resultinshockingprinciples。

Whenwespeakofhealthyhumanunderstanding，however，ofnaturalfeelings，wealwayshavebeforeoureyesaculturedmind；andthosewhomakethehealthyhumanreason，thenaturalknowledge，theimmediatefeelingsandinspirationsfoundinthemselves，intoaruleandstandard，donotknowthatwhenreligion，morality，andrectitudearediscoveredtobepresentinthehumanbreast，thisisduetocultureandeducation，whicharethefirsttomakesuchprinciplesintonaturalfeelings。Herenaturalfeelingsandthehealthyhumanunderstandingarethusmadetheprinciple；andmuchmayberecognizedascomingundertheseheads。ThisthenistheformtakenbyPhilosophyintheeighteenthcentury。Takenasawhole，threepointsofviewhavetobeconsidered；inthefirstplace，Humemustberegardedonhisownaccount，thentheScottish，and，thirdly，theFrenchphilosophy。Humeisasceptic；theScottishphilosophyopposesthescepticismofHume，theFrenchphilosophyhasinthe"enlightenment"ofGermany(bywhichexpressionisindicatedthatformofGermanphilosophywhichisnotWolffianmetaphysics)

anappendageofafeeblerform。SincefromthemetaphysicalGodwecanmakenofurtherprogressintheconcrete，Lockegroundshiscontentonexperience。Butthatempiricismleadsthoughttonofixedstandpoint，Humedemonstratesbydenyingeveryuniversal；theScottishphilosophers，onthecontrary，undoubtedlymaintainuniversalpropositionsandtruths，butnotthroughthought。Henceinempiricismitselfthefixedstandpointhasnowtobeadopted；thustheFrenchfindtheuniversalintheactualitywhichtheycallréalité。Theydonot，however，finditscontentinandfromthought，butaslivingsubstance，asnatureandmatter。Allthisisafurtherworkingoutofreflectingempiricism，andsomemoredetailsrespectingitmuststillbegiven。

A。IdealismandScepticismThoughtgenerallyissimple，universalself-identity，butintheformofnegativemovement，wherebythedeterminateabrogatesitself。ThismovementofBeing-for-selfisnowanessentialmomentofthought，whilehithertoitwasoutsideit；andthusgraspingitselfasmovementinitself，thoughtisself-consciousness-atfirstindeedformal，asindividualself-consciousness。Suchaformithasinscepticism，butthisdistinctionmarksitofffromtheolderscepticism，thatnowthecertaintyofrealityismadethestartingpoint。Withtheancients，onthecontrary，scepticismisthereturnintoindividualconsciousnessinsuchawaythattoitthisconsciousnessisnotthetruth，inotherwordsthatscepticismdoesnotgiveexpressiontotheresultsarrivedat，andattainsnopositivesignificance。Butsinceinthemodernworldthisabsolutesubstantiality，thisunityofimplicitudeandself-consciousnessisfundamental-thatis，thisfaithinrealitygenerally-scepticismhasheretheformofidealism，i。e。，ofexpressingself-consciousnessorcertaintyofselfasallrealityandtruth。Thecrudestformofthisidealismiswhenself-consciousness，asindividualorformal，doesnotproceedfurtherthantosay:Allobjectsareourconceptions。WefindthissubjectiveidealisminBerkeley，(1)

andanotherformofthesameinHume。

1。Berkeley2。HumeB。ScottishPhilosophyInScotlandquiteanotherschoolofthoughtdeveloped，andtheScotcharetheforemostofHume'sopponents；inGermanphilosophy，ontheotherhand，wehavetorecognizeinKantanotheropposingforcetothatofHume。TotheScottishschoolmanyphilosophersbelong；EnglishphilosophyisnowrestrictedtoEdinburghandGlasgow，inwhichplacesanumberofprofessorsbelongingtothisschoolsucceededoneanother。TothescepticismofHumetheyopposeaninwardindependentsourceoftruthforallthatpertainstoreligionandmorality。

ThiscoincideswithKant，whoalsomaintainsaninwardsourceorspringasagainstexternalperception；butinthecaseofKantthishasquiteanotherformthanthatwhichitpossesseswiththeScottishphilosophers。Tothemthisinwardindependentsourceisnotthoughtorreasonassuch，forthecontentwhichcomestopassfromthisinwardnessisconcreteinitsnature，andlikewisedemandsforitselftheexternalmatterofexperience。Itconsistsofpopularprinciples，whichontheonehandareopposedtotheexternalityofthesourcesofknowledge，and，ontheother，tometaphysicsassuch，toabstractthoughtorreasoningonitsownaccount。Thissortofreasoningunderstandingapplieditselftoethicsandtopolitics-scienceswhichhavebeenmuchdevelopedbyGerman，French，andaboveallbyScottishphilosophers(supra，p。320)；theyregardedmoralityasculturedmenwould，andsoughttobringmoraldutiesunderaprinciple。

ManyoftheirworksaretranslatedintoGerman；severaloftheseonethicsormoralityaretranslatedbyGarve，forinstance，whoalsotranslatedCiceroDeOfficiis，andtheyarewritteninamannersimilartothatofCicerowhenheusestheexpressionInsitumestanatura(Vol。I。p。93)。ThismoralsentimentandtheordinaryhumanunderstandinghereafterformedthecommonprincipletoawholesuccessionofScots，suchasThomasReid，Beattie，Oswald，andothers；inthiswaytheyfrequentlymadesagaciousobservations，butwiththemspeculativephilosophyquitedisappears。OnespecialcharacteristicoftheseScottishphilosophersisthattheyhavesoughtaccuratelytodefinetheprincipleofknowledge；butonthewholetheystartfromthesamepointasthatwhichwasinGermanylikewiseacceptedastheprinciple。Thatistosaytheyrepresentedtheso-calledhealthyreason，orcommon-sense(sensuscommunis)，asthegroundoftruth。Thefollowingaretheprincipalmembersofthisschool，eachofwhomhassomespecialfeaturedistinguishinghimfromtherest。

1。ThomasReid2。JamesBeattie3。JamesOswald4。DugaldStewartC。FrenchPhilosophy1。TheNegativeAspect2。ThePositiveAspecta。Materialismb。Robinet3。IdeaofaConcreteUniversalUnitya。OppositionbetweenSensationandThoughtb。Montesquieuc。Helvetiusd。RousseauD。TheGermanIlluminationSectionThree:RecentGermanPhilosophyINthephilosophyofKant，Fichte，andSchelling，therevolutiontowhichinGermanymindhasintheselatterdaysadvanced，wasformallythoughtoutandexpressed；thesequenceofthesephilosophiesshowsthecoursewhichthoughthastaken。Inthisgreatepochoftheworld'shistory，whoseinmostessenceislaidholdofinthephilosophyofhistory，twonationsonlyhaveplayedapart，theGermanandtheFrench，andthisinspiteoftheirabsoluteopposition，orratherbecausetheyaresoopposite。Theothernationshavetakennorealinwardpartinthesame，althoughpoliticallytheyhaveindeedsodone，boththroughtheirgovernmentsandtheirpeople。InGermanythisprinciplehasburstforthasthought，spirit，Notion；inFrance，intheformofactuality。InGermany，whatthereisofactualitycomestousasaforceofexternalcircumstances，andasareactionagainstthesame。ThetaskofmodernGermanphilosophyis，however，summedupintakingasitsobjecttheunityofthoughtandBeing，whichisthefundamentalideaofphilosophygenerally，andcomprehendingit，thatis，inlayingholdoftheinmostsignificanceofnecessity，theNotion(supra，p。360)。ThephilosophyofKantsetsforth，inthefirstplace，theformalaspectofthetask，butithastheabstractabsolutenessofreasoninself-consciousnessasitssoleresult，and，inonerespect，itcarriedwithitacertaincharacterofshallownessandwantofvigour，inwhichanattitudeofcriticismandnegativityisretained，andwhich，asfarasanypositiveelementisconcerned，adherestothefactsofconsciousnessandtomereconjecture，whileitrenouncesthoughtandreturnstofeeling。Ontheotherhand，however，theresprangfromthisthephilosophyofFichte，whichspeculativelygraspstheessenceofself-consciousnessasconcreteegoism，butwhichdoesnotreachbeyondthissubjectiveformpertainingtotheabsolute。FromitagaincomesthephilosophyofSchelling，whichsubsequentlyrejectsFichte'steachingandsetsforththeIdeaoftheAbsolute，thetruthinandforitself。

A。JacobiB。KantCritiqueofPureReasonCritiqueofPracticalReasonCritiqueofPracticalJudgmentC。Fichte1。TheFirstPrinciplesofFichte'sPhilosophy2。Fichte'sSysteminaRe-constitutedForm3。TheMoreImportantoftheFollowersofFichtea。FriedrichvonSchlegelb。Schleiermacherc。Novalisd。Fries，Bouterweck，KrugD。SchellingE。FinalResultFootnotes1。Inthelecturesof1825-1826and1829-1830BerkeleywaspassedoverbyHegel；inbothcoursesHumefollowsdirectlyaftertheScottishandFrenchphilosophers，andthuscomesimmediatelybeforeKant；inthecourseof1825-1826theFrenchphilosophyprecedestheScottishalso。

INAUGURALADDRESS

DeliveredatHeidelberg，onthe28thOctober，1816

GENTLEMEN，—SincetheHistoryofPhilosophyistobethesubjectoftheselectures，andtodayIammakingmyfirstappearanceinthisUniversity，IhopeyouwillallowmetosaywhatsatisfactionitgivesmetotakemyplaceoncemoreinanAcademyofLearningatthisparticulartime。FortheperiodseemstohavebeenarrivedatwhenPhilosophymayagainhopetoreceivesomeattentionandlove—thisalmostdeadsciencemayagainraiseitsvoice，andhopethattheworldwhichhadbecomedeaftoitsteaching，mayoncemorelenditanear。Thenecessitiesofthetimehaveaccordedtothepettyinterestsofeverydaylifesuchoverwhelmingattention:thedeepinterestsofactualityandthestriferespectingthesehaveengrossedallthepowersandtheforcesofthemind—asalsothenecessarymeans—tosogreatanextent，thatnoplacehasbeenlefttothehigherinwardlife，theintellectualoperationsofapurersort；andthebetternatureshavethusbeenstuntedintheirgrowth，andingreatmeasuresacrificed。Becausethespiritoftheworldwasthusoccupied，itcouldnotlookwithinandwithdrawintoitself。Butsincethisstreamofactualityischecked，sincetheGermannationhascutitswayoutofitsmostmaterialconditions，sinceitsnationality，thebasisofallhigherlife，hasbeensaved，wemayhopethat，inadditiontotheState，whichhasswallowedupallotherinterestsinitsown，theChurchmaynowresumeherhighposition—thatinadditiontothekingdomoftheworldtowhichallthoughtsandeffortshavehithertobeendirected，theKingdomofGodmayalsobeconsidered。Inotherwords，alongwiththebusinessofpoliticsandtheotherinterestsofeverydaylife，wemaytrustthatScience，thefreerationalworldofmind，mayagainflourish。

WeshallseeintheHistoryofPhilosophythatinotherEuropeancountriesinwhichthesciencesandthecultivationoftheunderstandinghavebeenprosecutedwithzealandwithrespect，Philosophy，exceptinginname，hassunkevenfrommemory，andthatitisintheGermannationthatithasbeenretainedasapeculiarpossession。WehavereceivedthehighercallofNaturetobetheconserversofthisholyflame，justastheEumolpidaeinAthenshadtheconservationoftheEleusinianmysteries，theinhabitantsoftheislandofSamothracethepreservationandmaintenanceofahigherdivineservice；andas，earlierstill，theWorld-spiritreservedtotheJewishnationthehighestconsciousnessthatitshouldoncemorerisefromthenceasthenewspiritualforce。Wehavealreadygotsofar，andhaveattainedtoaseriousnesssomuchgreaterandaconsciousnesssomuchdeeper，thatforusideasandthatwhichourreasonjustifies，canalonehaveweight；tospeakmoreplainly，thePrussianStateisaStateconstitutedonprinciplesofintelligence。Buttheneedsofthetimeandtheinterestsoftheeventsintheworldalreadymentioned，haverepressedarealandearnesteffortafterPhilosophyanddrivenhenceanygeneralattentiontoit。Ithasthushappenedthatbecausevigorousnaturesturnedtothepractical，insipidityanddullnessappropriatedtothemselvesthepre-eminenceinPhilosophyandflourishedthere。ItmayindeedbesaidthatsincePhilosophybegantotakeaplaceinGermany，ithasneverlookedsobadlyasatthepresenttime—neverhaveemptinessandshallownessoverlaiditsocompletely，andneverhavetheyspokenandactedwithsucharrogance，asthoughallpowerwereintheirhands！Tocombattheshallowness，tostrivewithGermanearnestnessandhonesty，todrawPhilosophyoutofthesolitudeintowhichithaswandered—todosuchworkasthiswemayhopethatwearecalledbythehigherspiritofourtime。Letustogethergreetthedawnofabettertimeinwhichthespirit，hithertoapreytoexternalities，mayreturnwithinitself，cometoitselfagain，andwinspaceandroomforakingdomofitsown，wheretruemindswillriseabovetheinterestsofthemoment，andobtainthepowertoreceivethetrue，eternalanddivine，thepowertoconsiderandtograspthehighest。

Weelders，whointhestormsoftheagehaveripenedintomen，maythinkyouhappywhoseyouthfallsinthedayinwhichyoumaydevotethesameundisturbedtoScienceandtoTruth。IhavededicatedmylifetoScience，anditisatruejoytometofindmyselfagaininthisplacewhereI

may，inahighermeasureandmoreextensivecircle，workwithothersintheinterestofthehighersciences，andhelptodirectyourwaytherein。IhopethatImaysucceedindeservingandobtainingyourconfidence。Butinthefirstplace，Icanasknothingofyoubuttobringwithyou，aboveall，atrustinscienceandatrustinyourselves。Theloveoftruth，faithinthepowerofmind，isthefirstconditioninPhilosophy。Man，becauseheisMind，shouldandmustdeemhimselfworthyofthehighest；hecannotthinktoohighlyofthegreatnessandthepowerofhismind，and，withthisbelief，nothingwillbesodifficultandhardthatitwillnotrevealitselftohim。TheBeingoftheuniverse，atfirsthiddenandconcealed，hasnopowerwhichcanofferresistancetothesearchforknowledge；

ithastolayitselfopenbeforetheseeker—tosetbeforehiseyesandgiveforhisenjoyment，itsrichesanditsdepths。

PrefatoryNoteINtheHistoryofPhilosophytheobservationisimmediatelyforceduponusthatitcertainlypresentsgreatinterestifitssubjectisregardedfromafavourablepointofview，butthatitwouldstillpossessinterestevenifitsendwereregardedasoppositetowhatitis。Indeed，thisinterestmayseemtoincreaseinthedegreeinwhichtheordinaryconceptionofPhilosophy，andoftheendwhichitshistoryserves，isreversed；forfromtheHistoryofPhilosophyaproofofthefutilityofthescienceismainlyderived。

Thedemandthatahistory，whateverthesubjectmaybe，shouldstatethefactswithoutprejudiceandwithoutanyparticularobjectorendtobegainedbyitsmeans，mustberegardedasafairone。

Butwithacommonplacedemandlikethis，wedonotgetfar；forthehistoryofasubjectisnecessarilyintimatelyconnectedwiththeconceptionwhichisformedofit。Inaccordancewiththiswhatisimportantinitisdetermined，andtherelationoftheeventstotheendregulatedtheselectionoffactstoberecorded，themodeofcomprehendingthem，andthepointofviewunderwhichtheyareregarded。ItmayhappenfromtheideasformedofwhataStatereallyis，thatareaderofthepoliticalhistoryofacountrymayfindthereinnothingofwhathelooksfor。StillmoremaythisbethecaseinthehistoryofPhilosophy，andrepresentationsofthishistorymaybeinstancedinwhicheverything，exceptingwhatwassupposedtobePhilosophy，appearstobefound。

Inotherhistorieswehaveaclearconceptionoftheirsubjects，atleastsofarastheirprincipalpointsareconcerned；weknowwhethertheyconcernaparticularland，peopleorrace，orwhethertheirsubjectisthescienceofmathematics，physics，&c。，oranart，suchaspainting。ThescienceofPhilosophyhas，however，thisdistinguishingfeature，and，ifyouwill，thisdisadvantageascomparedwithothersciences，thatwefindthemostvariedpointsofviewasregardsitsNotion，andregardingthatwhichitoughttoandcanaccomplish。Ifthisfirstassumption，theconceptionofthesubjectofthehistory，isnotestablished，thehistoryitselfisnecessarilymadevacillating，anditonlyobtainsconsistencywhenitsetsforthadefiniteconceptionbuttheninviewofthevariouswaysofregardingitssubject，iteasilydrawsuponitselfthereproachofone-sidedness。

Thatdrawbackrelates，however，onlytoanexternalconsiderationofthisnarrative；thereisanotherandgreaterdisadvantagealliedtoit。IftherearedifferentNotionsofthescienceofPhilosophy，itisthetrueNotionalonethatputsusinapositiontounderstandthewritingsofphilosopherswhohaveworkedintheknowledgeofit。Forinthought，andparticularlyinspeculativethought，comprehensionmeanssomethingquitedifferentfromunderstandingthegrammaticalsenseofthewordsalone，andalsofromunderstandingthemintheregionofordinaryconceptiononly。Hencewemaypossessaknowledgeoftheassertions，propositions，oroftheopinionsofphilosophers；wemayhaveoccupiedourselveslargelywiththegroundsofanddeductionsfromtheseopinions，andthemainpointinallthatwehavedonemaybewanting-thecomprehensionofthepropositions。ThereishencenolackofvoluminousandevenlearnedhistoriesofPhilosophyinwhichtheknowledgeofthematteritselfaboutwhichsomuchadohasbeenmade，isabsent。Theauthorsofsuchhistoriesmaybecomparedtoanimalswhichhavelistenedtoallthetonesinsomemusic，buttowhosesensestheunison，theharmonyoftheirtones，hasnotpenetrated。

ThecircumstancementionedmakesitinnosciencesonecessaryasinthehistoryofPhilosophytocommencewithanIntroduction，andinitcorrectlytodefine，inthefirstplace，thesubjectofthehistoryabouttoberelated。Foritmaybesaid，Howshouldwebegintotreatasubject，thenameofwhichiscertainlymentionedoftenenough，butofwhosenatureweasyetknownothing？IntreatingthehistoryofPhilosophythus，wecouldhavenootherguidancethanthatofseekingoutandtakingupwhateverhasreceivedthenameofPhilosophy，anywhereoranytime。Butinfact，whentheNotionofPhilosophyisestablished，notarbitrarilybutinascientificway，suchtreatmentbecomesthescienceofPhilosophyitself。ForinthissciencethepeculiarcharacteristicisthatitsNotionformsthebeginninginappearancemerely，anditisonlythewholetreatmentofthesciencethatistheproof，andindeedwemaysaythefindingofitsNotion；andthisisreallyaresultofthattreatment。

InthisIntroductiontheNotionofthescienceofPhilosophy，ofthesubjectofitshistory，hasthuslikewisetobesetforth。Atthesametime，thoughthisIntroductionprofessestorelatetothehistoryofPhilosophyonly，whathasjustbeensaidofPhilosophyonthewhole，alsoholdsgood。WhatcanbesaidinthisIntroductionisnotsomuchsomethingwhichmaybestatedbeforehand，aswhatcanbejustifiedorprovedinthetreatmentofthehistory。Thesepreparatoryexplanationsareforthisreasononly，nottobeplacedinthecategoryofarbitraryassumptions。Buttobeginwithstatingwhatintheirjustificationarereallyresults，canonlyhavetheinterestwhichmaybepossessedbyasummary，giveninadvance，ofthemostgeneralcontentsofascience。Itmustservetosetasidemanyquestionsanddemandswhichmight，fromourordinaryprejudices，ariseinsuchahistory。

IntroductionTHEREarevariousaspectsunderwhichtheHistoryofPhilosophymaypossessinterest。WeshallfindthecentralpointofthisinterestintheessentialconnectionexistingbetweenwhatisapparentlypastandthepresentstagereachedbyPhilosophy。ThatthisconnectionisnotoneoftheexternalconsiderationswhichmaybetakenintoaccountinthehistoryofPhilosophy，butreallyexpressesitsinnercharacter:thattheeventsofthishistory，whiletheyperpetuatethemselvesintheireffectslikeallotherevents，yetproducetheirresultsinaspecialway-thisitiswhichisheretobemoreclearlyexpounded。

WhatthehistoryofPhilosophyshowsusisasuccessionofnobleminds，agalleryofheroesofthought，who，bythepowerofReason，havepenetratedintothebeingofthings，ofnatureandofspirit，intotheBeingofGod，andhavewonforusbytheirlaboursthehighesttreasure，thetreasureofreasonedknowledge。

Theeventsandactionsofthishistoryarethereforesuchthatpersonalityandindividualcharacterdonotentertoanylargedegreeintoitscontentandmatter。InthisrespectthehistoryofPhilosophycontrastswithpoliticalhistory，inwhichtheindividual，accordingtothepeculiarityofhisdisposition，talents，affections，thestrengthorweaknessofhischaracter，andingeneral，accordingtothatthroughwhichheisthisindividual，isthesubjectofactionsandevents。InPhilosophy，thelessdesertsandmeritsareaccordedtotheparticularindividual，thebetteristhehistory；andthemoreitdealswiththoughtasfree，withtheuniversalcharacterofmanasman，themorethisthought，whichisdevoidofspecialcharacteristic，isitselfshowntobetheproducingsubject。

Theactsofthoughtappearatfirsttobeamatterofhistory，and，therefore，thingsofthepastandoutsideourrealexistence。Butinrealitywearewhatwearethroughhistory:or，moreaccurately，asinthehistoryofThought，whathaspassedawayisonlyoneside，sointhepresent，whatwehaveasapermanentpossessionisessentiallyboundupwithourplaceinhistory。Thepossessionofself-consciousreason，whichbelongstousofthepresentworld，didnotarisesuddenly，nordiditgrowonlyfromthesoilofthepresent。Thispossessionmustberegardedaspreviouslypresent，asaninheritance，andastheresultoflabour-thelabourofallpastgenerationsofmen。Justastheartsofoutwardlife，theaccumulatedskillandinvention，thecustomsandarrangementsofsocialandpoliticallife，aretheresultofthethought，care，andneeds，ofthewantandthemisery，oftheingenuity，theplansandachievementsofthosewhoprecededusinhistory，so，likewise，inscience，andspeciallyinPhilosophy，doweowewhatwearetothetraditionwhich，asHerderhasputit(1)likeaholychain，runsthroughallthatwastransient，andhasthereforepassedaway。Thushasbeenpreservedandtransmittedtouswhatantiquityproduced。

Butthistraditionisnotonlyastewardesswhosimplyguardsfaithfullythatwhichshehasreceived，andthusdeliversitunchangedtoposterity，justasthecourseofnatureintheinfinitechangeandactivityofitsformseverremainsconstanttoitsoriginallawsandmakesnostepinadvance。Suchtraditionisnomotionlessstatue，butisalive，andswellslikeamightyriver，whichincreasesinsizethefurtheritadvancesfromitssource。Thecontentofthistraditionisthatwhichtheintellectualworldhasbroughtforth，andtheuniversalMinddoesnotremainstationary。Butitisjusttheuniversalkindwithwhichwehavetodo。Itmaycertainlybethecasewithasinglenationthatitsculture，art，science-itsintellectualactivitiesasawhole-areatastandstill。Thisappears，perhaps，tobethecasewiththeChinese，forexample，whomayhavebeenasfaradvancedineveryrespecttwothousandyearsagoasnow。Buttheworld-spiritdoesnotsinkintothisrestofindifference；thisfollowsfromitsverynature，foritsactivity，isitslife。Thisactivitypresupposesamaterialalreadypresent，onwhichitacts，andwhichitdoesnotmerelyaugmentbytheadditionofnewmatter，butcompletelyfashionsandtransforms。Thusthatwhicheachgenerationhasproducedinscienceandinintellectualactivity，isanheirloomtowhichallthepastgenerationshaveaddedtheirsavings，atempleinwhichallracesofmenthankfullyandcheerfullydepositthatwhichrenderedaidtothemthroughlife，andwhichtheyhadwonfromthedepthsofNatureandofMind。Toreceivethisinheritanceisalsotoenteruponitsuse。Itconstitutesthesoulofeachsuccessivegeneration，theintellectualsubstanceofthetime；itsprinciples，prejudices，andpossessions；andthislegacyisdegradedtoamaterialwhichbecomesmetamorphosedbyMind。

Inthismannerthatwhichisreceivedischanged，andthematerialworkeduponisbothenrichedandpreservedatthesametime。

Thisisthefunctionofourownandofeveryage:tograsptheknowledgewhichisalreadyexisting，tomakeitourown，andinsodoingtodevelopitstillfurtherandtoraiseittoahigherlevel。Inthusappropriatingittoourselveswemakeitintosomethingdifferentfromwhatitwasbefore。Onthepresuppositionofanalreadyexistingintellectualworldwhichistransformedinourappropriationofit，dependsthefactthatPhilosophycanonlyariseinconnectionwithpreviousPhilosophy，fromwhichofnecessityithasarisen。ThecourseofhistorydoesnotshowustheBecomingofthingsforeigntous，buttheBecomingofourselvesandofourownknowledge。

TheideasandquestionswhichmaybepresenttoourmindregardingthecharacterandendsofthehistoryofPhilosophy，dependonthenatureoftherelationshipheregiven。InthisliestheexplanationofthefactthatthestudyofthehistoryofPhilosophyisanintroductiontoPhilosophyitself。Theguidingprinciplesfortheformationofthishistoryaregiveninthisfact，thefurtherdiscussionofwhichmustthusbethemainobjectofthisintroduction。Wemustalso，however，keepinmind，asbeingoffundamentalimportance，theconceptionoftheaimofPhilosophy。Andsince，asalreadymentioned，thesystematicexpositionofthisconceptioncannotherefindaplace，suchdiscussionaswecannowundertake，canonlyproposetodealwiththesubjectprovisionallyandnottogiveathoroughandconclusiveaccountofthenatureoftheBecomingofPhilosophy。

ThisBecomingisnotmerelyapassivemovement，aswesupposemovementssuchasthoseofthesunandmoontobe。Itisnomeremovementintheunresistingmediumofspaceandtime。Whatwemustrepresenttoourselvesistheactivityoffreethought；wehavetopresentthehistoryoftheworldofthoughtasithasarisenandproduceditself。

Thereisanoldtraditionthatitisthefacultyofthoughtwhichseparatesmenfrombeasts；andtothistraditionweshalladhere。Inaccordancewiththis，whatmanhas，asbeingnoblerthanabeast，hehasthroughthinking。Everythingwhichishuman，howeveritmayappear，issoonlybecausethethoughtcontainedinitworksandhasworked。Butthought，althoughitisthustheessential，substantial，andeffectual，hasmanyotherelements。Wemust，however，consideritbestwhenThoughtdoesnotpursueanythingelse，butisoccupiedonlywithitself-withwhatisnoblest-

whenithassoughtandfounditself。ThehistorywhichwehavebeforeusisthehistoryofThoughtfindingitself，anditisthecasewithThoughtthatitonlyfindsitselfinproducingitself；indeed，thatitonlyexistsandisactualinfindingitself。Theseproductionsarethephilosophicsystems；andtheseriesofdiscoveriesonwhichThoughtsetsoutinordertodiscoveritself，formsaworkwhichhaslastedtwenty-fivehundredyears。

IftheThoughtwhichisessentiallyThought，isinandforitselfandeternal，andthatwhichistrueiscontainedinThoughtalone，how，then，doesthisintellectualworldcometohaveahistory？Inhistorywhatappearsistransient，hasdisappearedinthenightofthepastandisnomore。Buttrue，necessarythought-anditisonlywithsuchthatwehavetodo-iscapableofnochange。Thequestionhereraisedconstitutesoneofthosemattersfirsttobebroughtunderourconsideration。

Butinthesecondplace，therearealsomanymostimportantthingsoutsideofPhilosophy，whichareyettheworkofThought，andwhichareleftunconsidered。SuchareReligion，PoliticalHistory，formsofGovernment，andtheArtsandSciences。Thequestionarisesastohowtheseoperationsdifferfromthesubjectofconsideration，andhowtheyarerelatedinhistory？Asregardsthesetwopointsofview，itisdesirabletoshowinwhatsensethehistoryofPhilosophyisheretaken，inordertoseeclearlywhatweareabout。Moreover，inthethirdplace，wemustfirsttakeageneralsurveybeforewedescendtoparticulars，elsethewholeisnotseenforthemeredetails-thewoodisnotseenforthetrees，norPhilosophyformerephilosophies。Werequiretohaveageneralideaofthenatureandaimofthewholeinordertoknowwhattolookfor。Justaswefirstdesiretoobtainageneralideaofacountry，whichweshouldnolongerseeingoingintodetail，sowedesiretoseetherelationwhichsinglephilosophiesbeartothewhole；forinreality，thehighvalueofthedetailliesinitsrelationtothewhole。ThisisnowheremorethecasethanwithPhilosophy，andalsowithitshistory。Inthecaseofahistory，indeed，theestablishmentoftheUniversalseemstobelessneedfulthaninthatofoneofthesciencesproper。Forhistoryseemsatfirsttobeasuccessionofchanceevents，inwhicheachfactstandsisolatedbyitself，whichhasTimealoneasaconnecting-link。Buteveninpoliticalhistorywearenotsatisfiedwiththis。Wesee，oratleastdivineinit，thatessentialconnectioninwhichtheindividualeventshavetheirplaceandrelationtoanendoraim，andinthiswayobtainsignificance。ForthesignificantinhistoryissuchonlythroughitsrelationtoandconnectionwithaUniversal。ToperceivethisUniversalisthustoapprehendthesignificance。

Thereare，therefore，thefollowingpointswithwhichIwishtodealinthisintroduction。

ThefirstofthesewillbetoinvestigatethecharacterofthehistoryofPhilosophy，itssignificance，itsnature，anditsaim，fromwhichwillfollowinferencesastoitstreatment。Inparticular，weshallgetaninsightintotherelationofthehistoryofPhilosophytothescienceofPhilosophy，andthiswillbethemostinterestingpointofall。Thatistosay，thishistoryrepresents，notmerelytheexternal，accidental，eventscontainedwithinit，butitshowshowthecontent，orthatwhichappearstobelongtomerehistory，reallybelongstothescienceofPhilosophy。ThehistoryofPhilosophyisitselfscientific，andthusessentiallybecomesthescienceofPhilosophy。

Inthesecondplace，theNotionofPhilosophymustbemoreadequatelydetermined，andfromitmustbededucedwhatshouldbeexcludedfromthehistoryofPhilosophyoutoftheinfinitematerialandthemanifoldaspectsoftheintellectualcultureofthenations。Religion，certainly，andthethoughtscontainedinandregardingit，particularlywhentheseareintheformofmythology，are，onaccountoftheirmatter，andthescienceswiththeirideasonthestate，dutiesandlaws，onaccountoftheirform，sonearPhilosophythatthehistoryofthescienceofPhilosophythreatenstobecomequiteindefiniteinextent。ItmightbesupposedthatthehistoryofPhilosophyshouldtakeaccountofalltheseideas。HasnoteverythingbeencalledPhilosophyandphilosophising？Ontheonehand，thecloseconnectionhastobefurtherconsideredinwhichPhilosophystandswithitsalliedsubjects，religion，art，theothersciences，andlikewisewithpoliticalhistory。Ontheotherhand，whentheprovinceofPhilosophyhasbeencorrectlydefined，wereach，withthedeterminationofwhatPhilosophyisandwhatpertainstoit，thestarting-pointofitshistory，whichmustbedistinguishedfromthecommencementsofreligiousideasandmerethoughtfulconjectures。

Fromtheideaofthesubjectwhichiscontainedinthesefirsttwopointsofview，itisnecessarytopassontotheconsiderationofthethirdpoint，tothegeneralreviewofthishistoryandtothedivisionofitsprogressintonaturalperiods-suchanarrangementtoexhibititasanorganic，progressivewhole，asarationalconnectionthroughwhichthishistoryattainsthedignityofascience。AndIwillnotoccupyfurtherspacewithreflectionsontheuseofthehistoryofPhilosophy，andothermethodsoftreatingit。Theuseisevident。But，inconclusion，IwishtoconsiderthesourcesofthehistoryofPhilosophy，forthisiscustomary。

IntroductionA。TheNotionoftheHistoryofPhilosophy。

THEthoughtwhichmayfirstoccurtousinthehistoryofPhilosophy，isthatthesubjectitselfcontainsaninnercontradiction。ForPhilosophyaimsatunderstandingwhatisunchangeable，eternal，inandforitself:itsendisTruth。Buthistorytellsusofthatwhichhasatonetimeexisted，atanothertimehasvanished，havingbeenexpelledbysomethingelse。Truthiseternal；itdoesnotfallwithinthesphereofthetransient，andhasnohistory。Butifithasahistory，andasthishistoryisonlytherepresentationofasuccessionofpastformsofknowledge，thetruthisnottobefoundinit，forthetruthcannotbewhathaspassedaway。

Itmightbesaidthatallthisargumentwouldaffectnotonlytheothersciences，butinlikedecreetheChristianreligion，anditmightbefoundinconsistentthatahistoryofthisreligionandoftheothersciencesshouldexist；butitwouldbesuperfluousfurthertoexaminethisargument，foritisimmediatelycontradictedbytheveryfactthattherearesuchhistories。Butinordertogetabetterunderstandingofthisapparentcontradiction，wemustdistinguishbetweentheoutwardhistoryofareligionorascienceandthehistoryofthesubjectitself。AndthenwemusttakeintoaccountthatthehistoryofPhilosophybecauseofthespecialnatureofitssubject-matter，isdifferentfromotherhistories。Itisatonceevidentthatthecontradictioninquestioncouldnotrefertotheoutwardhistory，butmerelytotheinward，orthatofthecontentitself。ThereisahistoryofthespreadofChristianityandofthelivesofthosewhohaveavowedit，anditsexistencehasformeditselfintothatofaChurch。Thisinitselfconstitutesanexternalexistencesuchthatbeingbroughtintocontactwithtemporalaffairsofthemostdiversekind，itslotisavariedone；anditessentiallypossessesahistory。AndoftheChristiandoctrineitistruethatit，too，hasitshistory，butitnecessarilysoonreacheditsfulldevelopmentandattainedtoitsappointedpowers。Andthisoldcreedhasbeenanacknowledgedinfluencetoeveryage，andwillstillbeacknowledgedunchangedastheTruth，eventhoughthisacknowledgmentwerebecomenomorethanapretence，andthewordsanemptyform。Butthehistoryofthisdoctrineinitswidersenseincludestwoelements:firstthevariousadditionstoanddeviationsfromthetruthformerlyestablished，andsecondlythecombatingoftheseerrors，thepurificationoftheprinciplesthatremainfromsuchadditions，andaconsequentreturntotheirfirstsimplicity。

Theothersciences，includingPhilosophy，havealsoanexternalhistorylikeReligion。Philosophyhasahistoryofitsorigin，diffusion，maturity，decay，revival；ahistoryofitsteachers，promoters，andofitsopponents-oftentoo，ofanoutwardrelationtoreligionandoccasionallytotheState。

Thissideofitshistorylikewisegivesoccasiontointerestingquestions。Amongstothersuch，itisaskedwhyPhilosophy，thedoctrineofabsoluteTruth，seemstohaverevealeditselfonthewholetoasmallnumberofindividuals，tospecialnations，andhowithaslimiteditselftoparticularperiodsoftime。SimilarlywithrespecttoChristianity，totheTruthinamuchmoreuniversalformthanthephilosophical，adifficultyhasbeenencounteredinrespecttothequestionwhetherthereisacontradictioninthefactthatthisreligionshouldhaveappearedsolateintime，andthatitshouldhaveremainedsolongandshouldstillremainlimitedtospecialracesofmen。Buttheseandothersimilarquestionsaretoomuchamatterofdetailtodependmerelyonthegeneralconflictreferredto，andwhenwehavefurthertoucheduponthepeculiarcharacterofphilosophicknowledge，wemaygomorespeciallyintotheaspectswhichrelatetotheexternalexistenceandexternalhistoryofPhilosophy。

ButasregardsthecomparisonbetweenthehistoryofReligionandthatofPhilosophyastoinnercontent，thereisnotinthelatterasthereisinReligionafixedandfundamentaltruthwhich，asunchangeable，isapartfromhistory。ThecontentofChristianity，whichisTruth，has，however，remainedunalteredassuch，andhasthereforelittlehistoryorasgoodasnone。(2)HenceinReligion，onaccountofitsverynatureasChristianity，theconflictreferredtodisappears。Theerrorsandadditionsconstitutenodifficulty。Theyaretransitoryandaltogetherhistoricalincharacter。

Theothersciences，indeed，havealsoaccordingtotheircontentaHistory，apartofwhichrelatestoalterations，andtherenunciationoftenetswhichwereformerlycurrent。Butagreat，perhapsthegreater，partofthehistoryrelatestowhathasprovedpermanent，sothatwhatwasnew，wasnotanalterationonearlieracquisitions，butanadditiontothem。Thesesciencesprogressthroughaprocessofjuxtaposition。ItistruethatinBotany，Mineralogy，andsoon，muchisdependentonwhatwaspreviouslyknown，butbyfarthegreatestpartremainsstationaryandbymeansoffreshmatterismerelyaddedtowithoutitselfbeingaffectedbytheaddition。WithasciencelikeMathematics，historyhas，inthemain，onlythepleasingtaskofrecordingfurtheradditions。Thustotakeanexample，elementarygeometryinsofarasitwascreatedbyEuclid，mayfromhistimeonberegardedashavingnofurtherhistory。

ThehistoryofPhilosophy，ontheotherhand，showsneitherthemotionlessnessofacomplete，simplecontent，noraltogethertheonwardmovementofapeacefuladditionofnewtreasurestothosealreadyacquired。Itseemsmerelytoaffordthespectacleofever-recurringchangesinthewhole，suchasfinallyarenolongerevenconnectedbythecommonaim。

1。COMMONIDEASREGARDINGTHEHISTORYOFPHILOSOPHY。

AtthispointappeartheseordinarysuperficialideasregardingthehistoryofPhilosophywhichhavetobereferredtoandcorrected。Asregardstheseverycurrentviews，whicharedoubtlessknowntoyou，gentlemen，forindeedtheyarethereflectionsmostlikelytooccurinone'sfirstcrudethoughtsonahistoryofPhilosophy，Iwillshortlyexplainwhatrequiresexplanation，andtheexplanationofthedifferencesinphilosophieswillleadusfurtherintothematteritself。

a。TheHistoryofPhilosophyasanaccumulationofOpinions。

History，atthefirstglance，includesinitsaimthenarrationoftheaccidentalcircumstancesoftimes，ofraces，andofindividuals，treatedimpartiallypartlyasregardstheirrelationintime，andpartlyastotheircontent。Theappearanceofcontingencyintime-successionistobedealtwithlateron。Itiscontingencyofcontentwhichistheideawithwhichwehavefirsttodeal-theideaofcontingentactions。Butthoughtsandnotexternalactions，orgriefs，orjoys，formthecontentofPhilosophy。

Contingentthoughts，however，arenothingbutopinions，andphilosophicalopinionsareopinionsrelatingtothemorespecialcontentofPhilosophy，regardingGod，NatureandSpirit。

ThuswenowmeettheviewveryusuallytakenofthehistoryofPhilosophywhichascribestoitthenarrationofanumberofphilosophicalopinionsastheyhavearisenandmanifestedthemselvesintime。Thiskindofmatterisincourtesycalledopinions；thosewhothinkthemselvesmorecapableofjudgingrightly，callsuchahistoryadisplayofsenselessfollies，oratleastoferrorsmadebymenengrossedinthoughtandinmereideas。ThisviewisnotonlyheldbythosewhorecognizetheirignoranceofPhilosophy。Thosewhodothis，acknowledgeit，becausethatignoranceis，incommonestimation，heldtobenoobstacletogivingjudgmentuponwhathastodowiththesubject；foritisthoughtthatanybodycanformajudgmentonitscharacterandvaluewithoutanycomprehensionofitwhatever。ButthesameviewisevenheldbythosewhowriteorhavewrittenonthehistoryofPhilosophy。Thishistory，consideredonlyastheenumerationofvariousopinions，thusbecomesanidletale，or，ifyouwill，aneruditeinvestigation。Foreruditionis，inthemain，acquaintancewithanumberofuselessthings，thatistosay，withthatwhichhasnointrinsicinterestorvaluefurtherthanbeingknown。Yetitisthoughtthatprofitistobederivedfromlearningthevariousopinionsandreflectionsofothermen。Itstimulatesthepowersofthoughtandalsoleadstomanyexcellentreflections；thissignifiesthatnowandthenitoccasionsanideaanditsartthusconsistsinthespinningoneopinionoutoftheother。

IfthehistoryofPhilosophymerelyrepresentedvariousopinionsinarray，whethertheybeofGodorofnaturalandspiritualthingsexistent，itwouldbeamostsuperfluousandtiresomescience，nomatterwhatadvantagemightbebroughtforwardasderivedfromsuchthought-activityandlearning。Whatcanbemoreuselessthantolearnastringofbaldopinions，andwhatmoreunimportant？Literaryworks，beinghistoriesofPhilosophyinthesensethattheyproduceandtreattheideasofPhilosophyasiftheywereopinions，needbeonlysuperficiallyglancedattofindhowdryanddestituteofinteresteverythingaboutthemis。

Anopinionisasubjectiveconception，anuncontrolledthought，anideawhichmayoccurtomeinonedirectionorinanother:anopinionismine，(3)itisinitselfauniversalthoughtwhichisexistentinandforitself。ButPhilosophypossessesnoopinions，forthereisnosuchthingasphilosophicalopinions。Whenwehearamanspeakingofphilosophicalopinions，eventhoughhebeanhistorianofphilosophyitself，wedetectatoncethiswantoffundamentaleducation。Philosophyistheobjectivescienceoftruth，itisscienceofnecessity，conceivingknowledge，andneitheropinionnorthespinningoutofopinions。

Themoreprecisesignificanceofthisideaisthatwegettoknowopinionsonly，thuslayingemphasisuponthewordOpinion。NowthedirectoppositeofopinionistheTruth；itisTruthbeforewhichmereopinionpales。ThosewhointhehistoryofPhilosophyseekmeretheories，orwhosupposethatonthewholeonlysucharetobefoundwithinit，alsoturnasidewhenthatwordTruthconfrontsthem。Philosophyhereencountersoppositionfromtwodifferentsides。OntheonehandpietyopenlydeclaresReasonorThoughttobeincapableofapprehendingwhatistrue，andtoleadonlytotheabyssofdoubt；itdeclaresthatindependentthoughtmustberenounced，andreasonheldinboundsbyfaithinblindauthority，ifTruthistobereached。OftherelationexistingbetweenReligionandPhilosophyandofitshistory，weshalldeallateron。Ontheotherhand，itisknownjustaswell，thatso-calledreasonhasmaintaineditsrights，abandoningfaithinmereauthority，andhasendeavouredtomakeChristianityrational，sothatthroughoutitisonlymypersonalinsightandconvictionwhichobligesmetomakeanyadmissions。Butthisaffirmationoftherightofreasonisturnedroundinanastonishingmanner，sothatitresultsinmakingknowledgeofthetruththroughreasonanimpossibility。Thisso-calledreasonontheonehandhascombatedreligiousfaithinthenameandpowerofthinkingreason，andatthesametimeithasitselfturnedagainstreasonandistruereason'sadversary。Instinctandfeelingaremaintainedbyitagainstthetruereason，thusmakingthemeasureoftruevaluethemerelysubjective-thatisaparticularconvictionsuchaseachcanforminandforhimselfinhissubjectivecapacity。Apersonalconvictionsuchasthisisnomorethantheparticularopinionthathasbecomefinalformen。

Ifwebeginwithwhatmeetsusinourveryfirstconceptions，wecannotneglecttomakementionofthisaspectinthehistoryofPhilosophy。Initsresultsitpermeatesculturegenerally，beingatoncethemisconceptionandtruesignofourtimes。Itistheprinciplethroughwhichmenmutuallyunderstandandknoweachother；anhypothesiswhosevalueisestablishedandwhichisthegroundofalltheothersciences。IntheologyitisnotsomuchthecreedofthechurchthatpassesforChristianity，asthateveryonetoagreaterorlessdegreemakesaChristianityofhisowntotallywithhisconviction。Andinhistoryweoftenseetheologydrivenintoacquiringtheknowledgeofvariousopinionsinorderthataninterestmaythusbefurnishedtothescience，andoneofthefirstresultsoftheattentionpaidthemisthehonourawardedtoallconvictions，andtheesteemvouchsafedtowhathasbeenconstitutedmerelybytheindividual。TheendeavourtoknowtheTruthisthenofcourserelinquished。Itistruethatpersonalconvictionistheultimateandabsoluteessentialwhichreasonanditsphilosophy，fromasubjectivepointofview，demandinknowledge。

Butthereisadistinctionbetweenconvictionwhenit，restsonsubjectivegroundssuchasfeelings，speculationsandperceptions，or，speakinggenerally，ontheparticularnatureofthesubject，andwhenitrestsonthoughtproceedingfromacquaintancewiththeNotionandthenatureofthething。

Intheformercaseconvictionisopinion。

Thisoppositionbetweenmereopinionandtruthnowsharplydefined，wealreadyrecognizeinthecultureoftheperiodofSocratesandPlato-aperiodofcorruptioninGreeklife-asthePlatonicoppositionbetweenopinion(doxa)andScience(episteme)。ItisthesameoppositionasthatwhichexistedinthedecadenceofRomanpublicandpoliticallifeunderAugustus，andsubsequentlywhenEpicureanismandindifferencesetthemselvesupagainstPhilosophy。Underthisinfluence，whenChristsaid，"IcameintotheworldthatIshouldbearwitnessuntotheTruth，"

Pilateanswered，"WhatisTruth？"Thatwassaidinasuperiorway，andsignifiesthatthisideaoftruthisanexpedientwhichisobsolete:wehavegotfurther，weknowthatthereisnolongeranyquestionaboutknowingtheTruth，seeingthatwehavegonebeyondit。Whomakesthisstatementhasgonebeyonditindeed。IfthisismadeourstartingpointinthehistoryofPhilosophy，itswholesignificancewillconsistinfinding，outtheparticularideasofothers，eachoneofwhichisdifferentfromtheother:theseindividualpointsofviewarethusforeigntome:mythinkingreasonisnotfree，norisitpresentinthem:formetheyarebutextraneous，deadhistoricmatter，orsomuchemptycontent，andtosatisfyoneselfwithemptyvanityismeresubjectivevanityitself。

Totheimpartialman，theTruthhasalwaysbeenaheart-stirringwordandoneofgreatimport。AstotheassertionthattheTruthcannotbeknown，weshallconsideritmorecloselyinthehistoryofPhilosophyitselfwhereitappears。Theonlythingtobehereremarkedisthatifthisassumptionbeallowed，aswasthecasewithTennemann，itisbeyondconceptionwhyanyoneshouldstilltroubleaboutPhilosophy，sinceeachopinionassertsfalselyinitsturnthatithasfoundthetruth。ThisimmediatelyrecallstometheoldbeliefthatTruthconsistsinknowledge，butthatanindividualonlyknowstheTruthinsofarashereflectsandnotashewalksandstands:andthattheTruthcannotbeknowninimmediateapprehensionandperception，whetheritbeexternalandsensuous，orwhetheritbeintellectualperception(foreveryperceptionasaperceptionissensuous)butonlythroughthelabourofthought。

b。ProofofthefutilityofPhilosophicalKnowledgeobtainedthroughtheHistoryofPhilosophyitself。

FromanotherpointofviewanotherconsequenceensuesfromtheaboveconceptionofthehistoryofPhilosophywhichmayatwillbelookedatasanevilorabenefit。Inviewofsuchmanifoldopinionsandphilosophicalsystemssonumerous，oneisperplexedtoknowwhichoneoughttobeaccepted。InregardtothegreatmatterstowhichmanisattractedandaknowledgeofwhichPhilosophywouldbestow，itisevidentthatthegreatestmindshaveerred，becausetheyhavebeencontradictedbyothers。"Since，thishasbeensowithmindssogreat，howthencanegohomuncioattempttoformajudgment？"Thisconsequence，whichensuesfromthediversityinphilosophicalsystems，is，asmaybesupposed，theevilinthematter，whileatthesametimeitisasubjectivegood。Forthisdiversityistheusualpleaurgedbythosewho，withanairofknowledge，wishtomakeashowofinterestinPhilosophy，toexplainthefactthatthey，withthispretenceofgood-will，and，indeed，withaddedmotive，forworkingatthescience，doinfactutterlyneglectit。Butthisdiversityinphilosophicalsystemsisfarfrombeingmerelyanevasiveplea。IthasfarmoreweightasagenuineseriousgroundofargumentagainstthezealwhichPhilosophyrequires。Itjustifiesitsneglectanddemonstratesconclusivelythepowerlessnessoftheendeavourtoattaintophilosophicknowledgeofthetruth。WhenitisadmittedthatPhilosophyoughttobearealscience，andonePhilosophymustcertainlybethetrue，thequestionarisesastowhichPhilosophyitis，andwhenitcanbeknown。Eachoneassertsitsgenuineness，eachevengivesdifferentsignsandtokensbywhichtheTruthcanbediscovered；soberreflectivethoughtmustthereforehesitatetogiveitsjudgment。

This，then，isthewiderinterestwhichthehistoryofPhilosophyissaidtoafford。Cicero(DenaturaDeorumI。8sq。)givesusfromthispointofview，amostslovenlyhistoryofphilosophicthoughtonGod。HeputsitinthemouthofanEpicurean，buthehimselfknewofnothingmorefavourabletosay，anditisthushisownview。TheEpicureansaysthatnocertainknowledgehasbeenarrivedat。Theproofthattheeffortsofphilosophyarefutileisderiveddirectlyfromtheusualsuperficialviewtakenofitshistory；theresultsattendantonthathistorymakeitappeartobeaprocessinwhichthemostvariousthoughtsariseinnumerousphilosophies，eachofwhichopposes，contradictsandrefutestheother。Thisfact，whichcannotbedenied，seemstocontainthejustification，indeedthenecessityforapplyingtoPhilosophythewordsofChrist，"Letthedeadburytheirdead；arise，andfollowMe。"ThewholeofthehistoryofPhilosophybecomesabattlefieldcoveredwiththebonesofthedead；itisakingdomnotmerelyformedofdeadandlifelessindividuals，butofrefutedandspirituallydeadsystems，sinceeachhaskilledandburiedtheother。Insteadof"FollowthouMe，"herethenitmustindeedbesaid，"Followthineownself"-thatis，holdbythineownconvictions，remainsteadfasttothineownopinion，whyadoptanother？

Itcertainlyhappensthatanewphilosophymakesitsappearance，whichmaintainstheotherstobevalueless；andindeedeachoneinturncomesforthatfirstwiththepretextthatbyitsmeansallpreviousphilosophiesnotonlyarerefuted，butwhatinthemiswantingissupplied，andnowatlengththerightoneisdiscovered。Butfollowinguponwhathasgonebefore，itwouldratherseemthatotherwordsofScripturearejustasapplicabletosuchaphilosophy-thewordswhichtheApostlePeterspoketoAnanias，"Beholdthefeetofthemthatshallcarrytheeoutareatthedoor。"

Beholdthephilosophybywhichthineownwillberefutedanddisplacedshallnottarrylongasithasnottarriedbefore。

c。ExplanatoryremarksonthediversityinPhilosophies。

Certainlythefactissufficientlywellestablishedthatthereareandhavebeendifferentphilosophies。

TheTruthis，however，one；andtheinstinctofreasonmaintainsthisirradicableintuitionorbelief。ItissaidthatonlyonePhilosophycanbetrue，and，becausephilosophiesaredifferent，itisconcludedthatallothersmustbeerroneous。But，infact，eachoneinturngiveseveryassurance，evidenceandproofofbeingtheoneandtruePhilosophy。Thisisacommonmodeofreasoningandiswhatseemsintruthtobetheviewofsoberthought。Asregardsthesobernatureofthewordatissue-thought-wecantellfromeverydayexperiencethatifwefastwefeelhungereitheratonceorverysoon。Butsoberthoughtalwayshasthefortunatepowerofnotresultinginhungeranddesire，butofbeingandremainingasitis，content。Hencethethoughtexpressedinsuchanutterancerevealsthefactthatitisdeadunderstanding；foritisonlydeathwhichfastsandyetrestssatisfied。Butneitherphysicallifenorintellectualremainscontentwithmereabstention；asdesireitpressesonthroughhungerandthroughthirsttowardsTruth，towardsknowledgeitself。Itpressesontosatisfythisdesireanddoesnotallowitselftofeastandfindsufficiencyinareflectionsuchasthis。

Astothisreflection，thenextthingtobesaidofitisthathoweverdifferentthephilosophieshavebeen，theyhadacommonbondinthattheywerePhilosophy。Thuswhoevermayhavestudiedorbecomeacquaintedwithaphilosophy，ofwhateverkind，providedonlythatitissuch，hastherebybecomeacquaintedwithPhilosophy。Thatdelusivemodeofreasoningwhichregardsdiversityalone，andfromdoubtoforaversiontotheparticularforminwhichaUniversalfindsitsactuality，willnotgrasporevenallowthisuniversalnature，Ihaveelsewhere(4)likenedtoaninvalidrecommendedbythedoctortoeatfruit，andwhohascherries，plumsorgrapes，beforehim，butwhopedanticallyrefusestotakeanythingbecausenopartofwhatisofferedhimisfruit，someofitbeingcherries，andtherestplumsorgrapes。

ButitisreallyimportanttohaveadeeperinsightintothebearingsofthisdiversityinthesystemsofPhilosophy。TruthandPhilosophyknownphilosophically，makesuchdiversityappearinanotherlightfromthatofabstractoppositionbetweenTruthandError。TheexplanationofhowthiscomesaboutwillrevealtousthesignificanceofthewholehistoryofPhilosophy。Wemustmakethefactconceivable，thatthediversityandnumberofphilosophiesnotonlydoesnotprejudicePhilosophyitself，thatistosaythepossibilityofaphilosophy，butthatsuchdiversityis，andhasbeen，absolutelynecessarytotheexistenceofascienceofPhilosophyandthatitisessentialtoit。

ThismakesiteasytoustocomprehendtheaimofPhilosophy，whichisinthoughtandinconceptiontograsptheTruth，andnotmerelytodiscoverthatnothingcanbeknown，orthatatleasttemporal，finitetruth，whichalsoisanuntruth，canalonebeknownandnottheTruthindeed。

FurtherwefindthatinthehistoryofPhilosophywehavetodealwithPhilosophyitself。Thefactswithinthathistoryarenotadventuresandcontainnomoreromancethandoesthehistoryoftheworld。Theyarenotamerecollectionofchanceevents，ofexpeditionsofwanderingknights，eachgoingaboutfighting，strugglingpurposelessly，leavingnoresultstoshowforallhisefforts。Norisitsothatonethinghasbeenthoughtouthere，anotherthere，atwill；intheactivityofthinkingmindthereisrealconnection，andwhattheretakesplaceisrational。Itiswiththisbeliefinthespiritoftheworldthatwemustproceedtohistory，andinparticulartothehistoryofPhilosophy。

2。EXPLANATORYREMARKSUPONTHEDEFINITIONOFTHEHISTORY

OFPHILOSOPHY。

Theabovestatement，thattheTruthisonlyone，isstillabstractandformal。Inthedeepersenseitisourstartingpoint。ButtheaimofPhilosophyistoknowthisoneTruthastheimmediatesourcefromwhichallelseproceeds，bothallthelawsofnatureandallthemanifestationsoflifeandconsciousnessofwhichtheyaremererejectionsortoleadtheselawsandmanifestationsinwaysapparentlycontrary，backtothatsinglesource，andfromthatsourcetocomprehendthem，whichistounderstandtheirderivation。Thuswhatismostessentialistoknowthatthesingletruthisnotmerelyasolitary，emptythought，butonedeterminedwithinitself。ToobtainthisknowledgewemustenterintosomeabstractNotionswhich，assuch，arequitegeneralanddry，andwhicharethetwoprinciplesofDevelopmentandoftheConcrete。Wecould，indeed，embracethewholeinthesingleprincipleofdevelopment；ifthiswereclear，allelsewouldresultandfollowofitsownaccord。Theproductofthinkingisthethought；thoughtis，however，stillformal；somewhatmoredefineditbecomesNotion，andfinallyIdeaisThoughtinitstotality，implicitlyandexplicitlydetermined。ThustheIdea，anditaloneisTruth。NowitisessentiallyinthenatureoftheIdeatodevelop，andonlythroughdevelopmenttoarriveatcomprehensionofitself，ortobecomewhatitis。ThattheIdeashouldhavetomakeitselfwhatitis，seemslikeacontradiction；itmaybesaidthatitiswhatitis。

a。TheNotionofDevelopment。

Theideaofdevelopmentiswellknown，butitisthespecialcharacteristicofPhilosophytoinvestigatesuchmattersaswereformerlyheldasknown。Whatisdealtwithormadeuseofwithoutconsiderationasanaidtodailylife，iscertainlytheunknowntomanunlesshebeinformedinPhilosophy。ThefurtherdiscussionofthisideabelongstothescienceofLogic。

Inordertocomprehendwhatdevelopmentis，-whatmaybecalledtwodifferentstatesmustbedistinguished。Thefirstiswhatisknownascapacity，power，whatIcallbeing-in-itself(potentia)；

thesecondprincipleisthatofbeing-for-itself，actuality(actus)。Ifwesay，forexample，thatmanisbynaturerational，wewouldmeanthathehasreasononlyinherentlyorinembryo:inthissense，reason，understanding，imagination，will，arepossessedfrombirthorevenfromthemother'swomb。Butwhilethechildonlyhascapacitiesortheactualpossibilityofreason，itisjustthesameasifhehadnoreason；reasondoesnotyetexistinhimsincehecannotyetdoanythingrational，andhasnorationalconsciousness。Thuswhatmanisatfirstimplicitlybecomesexplicit，anditisthesamewithreason。If，then，manhasactualityonwhateverside，heisactuallyrational；andnowwecometoreason。

Whatistherealmeaningofthisword？Thatwhichisinitselfmustbecomeanobject，tomankind，mustarriveatconsciousness，thusbecomingforman。Whathasbecomeanobjecttohimisthesameaswhatheisinhimselfthroughthebecomingobjectiveofthisimplicitbeing，manfirstbecomesforhimself；heismadedouble，isretainedandnotchangedintoanother。Forexample，manisthinking，andthushethinksoutthoughts。Inthiswayitisinthoughtalonethatthoughtisobject；reasonproduceswhatisrational:reasonisitsownobject。Thefactthatthoughtmayalsodescendtowhatisdestituteofreasonisaconsiderationinvolvingwiderissues，whichdonotconcernushere。Buteventhoughman，whoinhimselfisrational，doesnotatfirstseemtohavegotfurtheronsincehebecamerationalforhimself-whatisimplicithavingmerelyretaineditself-thedifferenceisquiteenormous:nonewcontenthasbeenproduced，andyetthisformofbeingforselfmakesallthedifference。Thewholevariationinthedevelopmentoftheworldinhistoryisfoundedonthisdifference。Thisaloneexplainshowsinceallmankindisnaturallyrational，andfreedomisthehypothesisonwhichthisreasonrests，slaveryyethasbeen，andinpartstillis，maintainedbymanypeoples，andmenhaveremainedcontentedunderit。TheonlydistinctionbetweentheAfricansandtheAsiaticsontheonehand，andtheGreeks，Romans，andmodernsontheother，isthatthelatterknowanditisexplicitforthem，thattheyarefree，buttheothersaresowithoutknowingthattheyare，andthuswithoutexistingasbeingfree。Thisconstitutestheenormousdifferenceintheircondition。Allknowledge，andlearning，science，andevencommercehavenootherobjectthantodrawoutwhatisinwardorimplicitandthustobecomeobjective。

Becausethatwhichisimplicitcomesintoexistence，itcertainlypassesintochange，yetitremainsoneandthesame，forthewholeprocessisdominatedbyit。Theplant，forexample，doesnotloseitselfinmereindefinitechange。Fromthegermmuchisproducedwhenatfirstnothingwastobeseenbutthewholeofwhatisbroughtforth，ifnotdeveloped，isyethiddenandideallycontainedwithinitself。Theprincipleofthisprojectionintoexistenceisthatthegermcannotremainmerelyimplicit，butisimpelledtowardsdevelopment，sinceitpresentsthecontradictionofbeingonlyimplicitandyetnotdesiringsotobe。Butthiscomingwithoutitselfhasanendinview；itscompletionfullyreached，anditspreviouslydeterminedendisthefruitorproduceofthegerm，whichcausesareturntothefirstcondition。Thegermwillproduceitselfaloneandmanifestwhatiscontainedinit，sothatitthenmayreturntoitselfoncemorethustorenewtheunityfromwhichitstarted。Withnatureitcertainlyistruethatthesubjectwhichcommencedandthematterwhichformstheendaretwoseparateunits，asinthecaseofseedandfruit。Thedoublingprocesshasapparentlytheeffectofseparatingintotwothingsthatwhichincontentisthesame。Thusinanimallifetheparentandtheyoungaredifferentindividualsalthoughtheirnatureisthesame。

InMinditisotherwise:itisconsciousnessandthereforeitisfree，unitinginitselfthebeginningandtheend。Aswiththegerminnature，Mindindeedresolvesitselfbackintounityafterconstitutingitselfanother。ButwhatisinitselfbecomesforMindandthusarrivesatbeingforitself。Thefruitandseednewlycontainedwithinitontheotherhand，donotbecomefortheoriginalgerm，butforusalone；inthecaseofMindbothfactorsnotonlyareimplicitlythesameincharacter，butthereisabeingfortheotherandatthesametimeabeingforself。Thatforwhichthe"other"is，isthesameasthat"other；"andthusaloneMindisathomewithitselfinits"other。"ThedevelopmentofMindliesinthefactthatitsgoingforthandseparationconstitutesitscomingtoitself。

Thisbeing-at-home-with-self，orcoming-to-selfofMindmaybedescribedasitscompleteandhighestend:itisthisalonethatitdesiresandnothingelse。Everythingthatfrometernityhashappenedinheavenandearth，thelifeofGodandallthedeedsoftimesimplyarethestrugglesforMindtoknowitself，tomakeitselfobjectivetoitself，tofinditself，beforitself，andfinallyuniteitselftoitself；itisalienatedanddivided，butonlysoastobeablethustofinditselfandreturntoitself。OnlyinthismannerdoesMindattainitsfreedom，forthatisfreewhichisnotconnectedwithordependentonanother。Trueself-possessionandsatisfactionareonlytobefoundinthis，andinnothingelsebutThoughtdoesMindattainthisfreedom。Insense-perception，forinstance，andinfeeling，Ifindmyselfconfinedandamnotfree；butIamfreewhenIhaveaconsciousnessofthismyfeeling。Manhasparticularendsandinterestseveninwill；Iamfreeindeedwhenthisismine。

Suchends，however，alwayscontain"another，"orsomethingwhichconstitutesforme"another，"

suchasdesireandimpulse。ItisinThoughtalonethatallforeignmatterdisappearsfromview，andthatMindisabsolutelyfree。AllinterestwhichiscontainedintheIdeaandinPhilosophyisexpressedinit。

b。TheNotionoftheConcrete。

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