ProfessorofRomanicLanguagesandLiterature，UniversityofPennsylvania。

INTRODUCTION

NiccoloMachiavelli，thefirstgreatItalianhistorian，andoneofthemosteminentpoliticalwritersofanyageorcountry，wasbornatFlorence，May3，1469。HewasofanoldthoughnotwealthyTuscanfamily，hisfather，whowasajurist，dyingwhenNiccolowassixteenyearsold。WeknownothingofMachiavelli'syouthandlittleabouthisstudies。Hedoesnotseemtohavereceivedtheusualhumanisticeducationofhistime，asheknewnoGreek。[*]ThefirstnoticeofMachiavelliisin1498whenwefindhimholdingtheofficeofSecretaryinthesecondChanceryoftheSignoria，whichofficeheretainedtillthedownfalloftheFlorentineRepublicin1512。Hisunusualabilitywassoonrecognized，andin1500hewassentonamissiontoLouisXII。ofFrance，andafterwardonanembassytoCesareBorgia，thelordofRomagna，atUrbino。Machiavelli'sreportanddescriptionofthisandsubsequentembassiestothisprince，showshisundisguisedadmirationforthecourageandcunningofCesare，whowasamasterintheapplicationoftheprinciplesafterwardsexposedinsuchaskillfulanduncompromisingmannerbyMachiavelliinhis/Prince/。

Thelimitsofthisintroductionwillnotpermitustofollowwithanydetailthemanyimportantdutieswithwhichhewaschargedbyhisnativestate，allofwhichhefulfilledwiththeutmostfidelityandwithconsummateskill。When，afterthebattleofRavennain1512theholyleaguedetermineduponthedownfallofPierSoderini，GonfaloniereoftheFlorentineRepublic，andtherestorationoftheMedici，theeffortsofMachiavelli，whowasanardentrepublican，wereinvain；thetroopshehadhelpedtoorganizefledbeforetheSpaniardsandtheMediciwerereturnedtopower。Machiavelliattemptedtoconciliatehisnewmasters，buthewasdeprivedofhisoffice，andbeingaccusedinthefollowingyearofparticipationintheconspiracyofBoccoliandCapponi，hewasimprisonedandtortured，thoughafterwardsetatlibertybyPopeLeoX。HenowretiredtoasmallestatenearSanCasciano，sevenmilesfromFlorence。Herehedevotedhimselftopoliticalandhistoricalstudies，andthoughapparentlyretiredfrompubliclife，hislettersshowthedeepandpassionateinteresthetookinthepoliticalvicissitudesthroughwhichItalywasthenpassing，andinallofwhichthesinglenessofpurposewithwhichhecontinuedtoadvancehisnativeFlorence，isclearlymanifested。ItwasduringhisretirementuponhislittleestateatSanCascianothatMachiavelliwrote/ThePrince/，themostfamousofallhiswritings，andherealsohehadbegunamuchmoreextensivework，his/DiscoursesontheDecadesofLivy/，whichcontinuedtooccupyhimforseveralyears。These/Discourses/，whichdonotformacontinuouscommentaryonLivy，giveMachiavellianopportunitytoexpresshisownviewsonthegovernmentofthestate，ataskforwhichhislongandvariedpoliticalexperience，andanassiduousstudyoftheancientsrenderedhimeminentlyqualified。The/Discourses/and/ThePrince/，writtenatthesametime，supplementeachotherandarereallyonework。Indeed，thetreatise，/TheArtofWar/，thoughnotwrittentill1520shouldbementionedherebecauseofitsintimateconnectionwiththesetwotreatises，itbeing，infact，afurtherdevelopmentofsomeofthethoughtsexpressedinthe/Discorsi/。/ThePrince/，ashortwork，dividedintotwenty-sixbooks，isthebestknownofallMachiavelli'swritings。Hereinheexpressesinhisownmasterlywayhisviewsonthefoundingofanewstate，takingforhistypeandmodelCesareBorgia，althoughthelatterhadfailedinhisschemesfortheconsolidationofhispowerintheRomagna。Theprinciplesherelaiddownwerethenaturaloutgrowthoftheconfusedpoliticalconditionsofhistime。

Andasinthe/Principe/，asitsnameindicates，MachiavelliisconcernedchieflywiththegovernmentofaPrince，sothe/Discorsi/

treatprincipallyoftheRepublic，andhereMachiavelli'smodelrepublicwastheRomancommonwealth，themostsuccessfulandmostenduringexampleofpopulargovernment。FreeRomeistheembodimentofhispoliticalideaofthestate。MuchthatMachiavellisaysinthistreatiseisastrueto-dayandholdsasgoodasthedayitwaswritten。Andtousthereismuchthatisofespecialimportance。Toselectachapteralmostatrandom，letustakeBookI。，Chap。XV。:

"Publicaffairsareeasilymanagedinacitywherethebodyofthepeopleisnotcorrupt；andwhereequalityexists，therenoprincipalitycanbeestablished；norcanarepublicbeestablishedwherethereisnoequality。"

NomanhasbeenmoreharshlyjudgedthanMachiavelli，especiallyinthetwocenturiesfollowinghisdeath。Buthehassincefoundmanyablechampionsandthetidehasturned。/ThePrince/hasbeentermedamanualfortyrants，theeffectofwhichhasbeenmostpernicious。ButwereMachiavelli'sdoctrinesreallynew？Didhediscoverthem？Hemerelyhadthecandorandcouragetowritedownwhateverybodywasthinkingandwhateverybodyknew。Hemerelygivesustheimpressionshehadreceivedfromalongandintimateintercoursewithprincesandtheaffairsofstate。ItwasLordBacon，Ibelieve，whosaidthatMachiavellitellsuswhatprincesdo，notwhattheyoughttodo。WhenMachiavellitakesCesareBorgiaasamodel，heinnowiseextolshimasahero，butmerelyasaprincewhowascapableofattainingtheendinview。ThelifeoftheStatewastheprimaryobject。Itmustbemaintained。AndMachiavellihaslaiddowntheprinciples，baseduponhisstudyandwideexperience，bywhichthismaybeaccomplished。Hewrotefromtheview-pointofthepolitician，——notofthemoralist。

Whatisgoodpoliticsmaybebadmorals，andinfact，byastrangefatality，wheremoralsandpoliticsclash，thelattergenerallygetstheupperhand。AndwillanyonecontendthattheprinciplessetforthbyMachiavelliinhis/Prince/orhis/Discourses/haveentirelyperishedfromtheearth？Hasdiplomacybeenentirelystrippedoffraudandduplicity？Letanyonereadthefamouseighteenthchapterof/ThePrince/:"InwhatMannerPrincesshouldkeeptheirFaith，"andhewillbeconvincedthatwhatwastruenearlyfourhundredyearsago，isquiteastrueto-day。

OftheremainingworksofMachiavellithemostimportantisthe/HistoryofFlorence/writtenbetween1521and1525，anddedicatedtoClementVII。ThefirstbookismerelyarapidreviewoftheMiddleAges，thehistoryofFlorencebeginningwithBookII。Machiavelli'smethodhasbeencensuredforadheringattimestoocloselytothechroniclerslikeVillani，Cambi，andGiovanniCavalcanti，andatothersrejectingtheirtestimonywithoutapparentreason，whileinitsdetailstheauthorityofhis/History/isoftenquestionable。Itisthestraightforward，logicalnarrative，whichalwaysholdstheinterestofthereaderthatisthegreatestcharmofthe/History/。

OftheotherworksofMachiavelliwemaymentionherehiscomediesthe/Mandragola/and/Clizia/，andhisnovel/Belfagor/。

AfterthedownfalloftheRepublicandMachiavelli'sreleasefromprisonin1513，fortuneseemsneveragaintohavefavouredhim。Itistruethatin1520Giulianode'Medicicommissionedhimtowritehis/HistoryofFlorence/，andheafterwardsheldanumberofoffices，yettheselatterwereentirelybeneathhismerits。Hehadbeenmarriedin1502toMariettaCorsini，whoborehimfoursonsandadaughter。HediedonJune22，1527，leavinghisfamilyinthegreatestpoverty，asterlingtributetohishonesty，whenoneconsidersthemanyopportunitieshedoubtlesshadtoenrichhimself。Machiavelli'slifewasnotwithoutblemish——fewlivesare。Wemustbearinmindtheatmosphereofcraft，hypocrisy，andpoisoninwhichhelived，——hiswastheageofCesareBorgiaandofPopeslikethemonsterAlexanderVI。

andJuliusII。Whateverhisfaultsmayhavebeen，Machiavelliwasalwaysanardentpatriotandanearnestsupporterofpopulargovernment。Itistruethathewaswillingtoacceptaprince，ifonecouldbefoundcourageousenoughandprudentenoughtounitedismemberedItaly，forintheunityofhisnativelandhesawtheonlyhopeofitssalvation。

MachiavelliisburiedinthechurchofSantaCroceatFlorence，besidethetombofMichaelAngelo。Hismonumentbearsthisinscription:

"Tantonomininullumpareulogium。"

Andthoughthispraiseisdoubtlessexaggerated，heisasonofwhomhiscountrymaybejustlyproud。

HugoAlbertRennert。

[*]Villari，/NiccoloMachiavellieisuoitempi/，2ded。Milan，1895-97，thebestworkonthesubject。ThemostcompletebibliographyofMachiavelliupto1858istobefoundinMohl，/Gesch。u。Liter。derStaatswissenshaften/，Erlangen，1855，III。，521-91。Seealso/LaVitaegliscrittidiNiccoloMachiavellinellaloroRelazionecolMachiavellismo/，byO。Tommasini，Turin，1883(unfinished)。

ThebestEnglishtranslationofMachiavelliwithwhichIamacquaintedis:TheHistorical，Political，andDiplomaticwritingsofNiccoloMachiavelli，translatedbyChristianE。Detmold。Osgood&Co。，Boston，1882，4vols。8vo。

THE

FLORENTINEHISTORYOF

NICCOLOMACHIAVELLI

BOOKI

CHAPTERI

IrruptionofNorthernpeopleupontheRomanterritories——Visigoths——BarbarianscalledinbyStilicho——VandalsinAfrica——FranksandBurgundiansgivetheirnamestoFranceandBurgundy——TheHuns——

AnglesgivethenametoEngland——Attila，kingoftheHuns，inItaly——GenserictakesRome——TheLombards。

ThepeoplewhoinhabitthenorthernpartsbeyondtheRhineandtheDanube，livinginahealthyandprolificregion，frequentlyincreasetosuchvastmultitudesthatpartofthemarecompelledtoabandontheirnativesoil，andseekahabitationinothercountries。Themethodadopted，whenoneoftheseprovinceshadtoberelievedofitssuperabundantpopulation，wastodivideintothreeparts，eachcontaininganequalnumberofnoblesandofpeople，ofrichandofpoor。Thethirduponwhomthelotfell，thenwentinsearchofnewabodes，leavingtheremainingtwo-thirdsinpossessionoftheirnativecountry。

ThesemigratingmassesdestroyedtheRomanempirebythefacilitiesforsettlementwhichthecountryofferedwhentheemperorsabandonedRome，theancientseatoftheirdominion，andfixedtheirresidenceatConstantinople；forbythissteptheyexposedthewesternempiretotherapineofboththeirministersandtheirenemies，theremotenessoftheirpositionpreventingthemeitherfromseeingorprovidingforitsnecessities。Tosuffertheoverthrowofsuchanextensiveempire，establishedbythebloodofsomanybraveandvirtuousmen，showednolessfollyintheprincesthemselvesthaninfidelityintheirministers；fornotoneirruptionalone，butmany，contributedtoitsruin；andthesebarbariansexhibitedmuchabilityandperseveranceinaccomplishingtheirobject。

ThefirstofthesenorthernnationsthatinvadedtheempireaftertheCimbrians，whowereconqueredbyCaiusMarius，wastheVisigoths——

whichnameinourlanguagesignifies"WesternGoths。"These，aftersomebattlesfoughtalongitsconfines，longheldtheirseatofdominionupontheDanube，withconsentoftheemperors；andalthough，movedbyvariouscauses，theyoftenattackedtheRomanprovinces，werealwayskeptinsubjectionbytheimperialforces。TheemperorTheodosiusconqueredthemwithgreatglory；and，beingwhollyreducedtohispower，theynolongerselectedasovereignoftheirown，but，satisfiedwiththetermswhichhegrantedthem，livedandfoughtunderhisensigns，andauthority。OnthedeathofTheodosius，hissonsArcadiusandHonorius，succeededtotheempire，butnottothetalentsandfortuneoftheirfather；andthetimesbecamechangedwiththeprinces。Theodosiushadappointedagovernortoeachofthethreedivisionsoftheempire，Ruffinustotheeastern，tothewesternStilicho，andGildototheAfrican。Eachofthese，afterthedeathofTheodosius，determinednottobegovernorsmerely，buttoassumesovereigndominionovertheirrespectiveprovinces。GildoandRuffinusweresuppressedattheiroutset；butStilicho，concealinghisdesign，ingratiatedhimselfwiththenewemperors，andatthesametimesodisturbedtheirgovernment，astofacilitatehisoccupationofitafterward。TomaketheVisigothstheirenemies，headvisedthattheaccustomedstipendallowedtothispeopleshouldbewithheld；andashethoughttheseenemieswouldnotbesufficientalonetodisturbtheempire，hecontrivedthattheBurgundians，Franks，Vandals，andAlans(anorthernpeopleinsearchofnewhabitations)，shouldassailtheRomanprovinces。

Thattheymightbebetterabletoavengethemselvesfortheinjurytheyhadsustained，theVisigoths，onbeingdeprivedoftheirsubsidy，createdAlarictheirking；andhavingassailedtheempire，succeeded，aftermanyreverses，inoverrunningItaly，andfinallyinpillagingRome。

Afterthisvictory，Alaricdied，andhissuccessor，Astolphus，havingmarriedPlacidia，sisteroftheemperors，agreedwiththemtogotothereliefofGaulandSpain，whichprovinceshadbeenassailedbytheVandals，Burgundians，Alans，andFranks，fromthecausesbeforementioned。Henceitfollowed，thattheVandals，whohadoccupiedthatpartofSpaincalledBetica(nowAndalusia)，beingpressedbytheVisigoths，andunabletoresistthem，wereinvitedbyBoniface，whogovernedAfricafortheempire，tooccupythatprovince；for，beinginrebellion，hewasafraidhiserrorwouldbecomeknowntotheemperor。

ForthesereasonstheVandalsgladlyundertooktheenterprise，andunderGenseric，theirking，becamelordsofAfrica。

AtthistimeTheodosius，sonofArcadius，succeededtotheempire；

and，bestowinglittleattentionontheaffairsofthewest，causedthosewhohadtakenpossessiontothinkofsecuringtheiracquisitions。ThustheVandalsruledAfrica；theAlansandVisigoths，Spain；whiletheFranksandBurgundiansnotonlytookGaul，buteachgavetheirnametotheparttheyoccupied；henceoneiscalledFrance，theotherBurgundy。Thegoodfortuneofthesebroughtfreshpeopletothedestructionoftheempire，oneofwhich，theHuns，occupiedtheprovinceofPannonia，situateduponthenearershoreoftheDanube，andwhich，fromtheirname，isstillcalledHungary。Tothesedisordersitmustbeadded，thattheemperor，seeinghimselfattackedonsomanysides，tolessenthenumberofhisenemies，begantotreatfirstwiththeVandals，thenwiththeFranks；acoursewhichdiminishedhisownpower，andincreasedthatofthebarbarians。NorwastheislandofBritain，whichisnowcalledEngland，securefromthem；fortheBritons，beingapprehensiveofthosewhohadoccupiedGaul，calledtheAngli，apeopleofGermany，totheiraid；andtheseunderVortigerntheirking，firstdefended，andthendrovethemfromtheisland，ofwhichtheytookpossession，andafterthemselvesnamedthecountryEngland。Buttheinhabitants，beingrobbedoftheirhome，becamedesperatebynecessityandresolvedtotakepossessionofsomeothercountry，althoughtheyhadbeenunabletodefendtheirown。Theythereforecrossedtheseawiththeirfamilies，andsettledinthecountrynearesttothebeach，whichfromthemselvesiscalledBrittany。TheHuns，whoweresaidabovetohaveoccupiedPannonia，joiningwithothernations，astheZepidi，Eurili，Turingi，andOstro，oreasternGoths，movedinsearchofnewcountries，andnotbeingabletoenterFrance，whichwasdefendedbytheforcesofthebarbarians，cameintoItalyunderAttilatheirking。He，ashorttimepreviously，inordertopossesstheentiremonarchy，hadmurderedhisbrotherBleda；andhavingthusbecomeverypowerful，Andaric，kingoftheZepidi，andVelamir，kingoftheOstrogoths，becamesubjecttohim。

Attila，havingenteredItaly，laidsiegetoAquileia，whereheremainedwithoutanyobstaclefortwoyears，wastingthecountryround，anddispersingtheinhabitants。This，aswillberelatedinitsplace，causedtheoriginofVenice。AfterthetakingandruinofAquileia，hedirectedhiscoursetowardsRome，fromthedestructionofwhichheabstainedattheentreatyofthepontiff，hisrespectforwhomwassogreatthatheleftItalyandretiredintoAustria，wherehedied。AfterthedeathofAttila，Velamir，kingoftheOstrogoths，andtheheadsoftheothernations，tookarmsagainsthissonsHenryandUric，slewtheoneandcompelledtheother，withhisHuns，torepasstheDanubeandreturntotheircountry；whiletheOstrogothsandtheZepidiestablishedthemselvesinPannonia，andtheEruliandtheTuringiuponthefartherbankoftheDanube。

AttilahavingleftItaly，Valentinian，emperorofthewest，thoughtofrestoringthecountry；and，thathemightbemorereadytodefenditagainstthebarbarians，abandonedRome，andremovedtheseatofgovernmenttoRavenna。Themisfortuneswhichbefellthewesternempirecausedtheemperor，whoresidedatConstantinople，onmanyoccasionstogiveupthepossessionofittoothers，asachargefullofdangerandexpense；andsometimes，withouthispermission，theRomans，seeingthemselvessoabandoned，createdanemperorfortheirdefense，orsufferedsomeonetousurpthedominion。Thisoccurredattheperiodofwhichwenowspeak，whenMaximus，aRoman，afterthedeathofValentinian，seizedthegovernment，andcompelledEudocia，widowofthelateemperor，totakehimforherhusband；butshe，beingofimperialblood，scornedtheconnectionofaprivatecitizen；andbeinganxioustoavengeherselffortheinsult，secretlypersuadedGenseric，kingoftheVandalsandmasterofAfricatocometoItaly，representingtohimtheadvantagehewouldderivefromtheundertaking，andthefacilitywithwhichitmightbeaccomplished。

Temptedbythehopeofbooty，hecameimmediately，andfindingRomeabandoned，plunderedthecityduringfourteendays。HealsoravagedmanyotherplacesinItaly，andthen，loadedwithwealth，withdrewtoAfrica。TheRomans，havingreturnedtotheircity，andMaximusbeingdead，electedAvitus，aRoman，ashissuccessor。Afterthis，severalimportanteventsoccurredbothinItalyandinthecountriesbeyond；

andafterthedeathsofmanyemperorstheempireofConstantinopledevolveduponZeno，andthatofRomeuponOrestesandAugustulushisson，whoobtainedthesovereigntybyfraud。Whiletheyweredesigningtoholdbyforcewhattheyhadobtainedbytreachery，theEruliandtheTuringi，who，afterthedeathofAttila，asbeforeremarked，hadestablishedthemselvesuponthefartherbankoftheDanube，unitedinaleagueandinvadedItalyunderOdoacertheirgeneral。Intothedistrictswhichtheyleftunoccupied，theLongobardiorLombards，alsoanorthernpeople，entered，ledbyGodogotheirking。OdoacerconqueredandslewOrestesnearPavia，butAugustulusescaped。Afterthisvictory，thatRomemight，withherchangeofpower，alsochangehertitle，Odoacer，insteadofusingtheimperialname，causedhimselftobedeclaredkingofRome。HewasthefirstofthoseleaderswhoatthisperiodoverrantheworldandthoughtofsettlinginItaly；fortheothers，eitherfromfearthattheyshouldnotbeabletoholdthecountry，knowingthatitmighteasilyberelievedbytheeasternemperors，orfromsomeunknowncause，afterplunderingher，soughtothercountrieswhereintoestablishthemselves。

CHAPTERII

StateoftheRomanempireunderZeno——TheodorickingoftheOstrogoths——CharacterofTheodoric——ChangesintheRomanempire——

Newlanguages——Newnames——Theodoricdies——BelisariusinItaly——

TotilatakesRome——NarsesdestroystheGoths——NewformofGovernmentinItaly——NarsesinvitestheLombardsintoItaly——TheLombardschangetheformofgovernment。

AtthistimetheancientRomanempirewasgovernedbythefollowingprinces:Zeno，reigninginConstantinople，commandedthewholeoftheeasternempire；theOstrogothsruledMesiaandPannonia；theVisigoths，Suavi，andAlans，heldGasconyandSpain；theVandals，Africa；theFranksandBurgundians，France；andtheEruliandTuringi，Italy。ThekingdomoftheOstrogothshaddescendedtoTheodoric，nephewofVelamir，who，beingontermsoffriendshipwithZenotheeasternemperor，wrotetohimthathisOstrogothsthoughtitaninjusticethatthey，beingsuperiorinvalortothepeoplethereabout，shouldbeinferiortothemindominion，andthatitwasimpossibleforhimtorestrainthemwithinthelimitsofPannonia。So，seeinghimselfunderthenecessityofallowingthemtotakearmsandgoinsearchofnewabodes，hewishedfirsttoacquaintZenowithit，inorderthathemightprovideforthem，bygrantingsomecountryinwhichtheymightestablishthemselves，byhisgoodfavorwithgreaterproprietyandconvenience。Zeno，partlyfromfearandpartlyfromadesiretodriveOdoaceroutofItaly，gaveTheodoricpermissiontoleadhispeopleagainsthim，andtakepossessionofthecountry。LeavinghisfriendstheZepidiinPannonia，TheodoricmarchedintoItaly，slewOdoacerandhisson，and，movedbythesamereasonswhichhadinducedValentiniantodoso，establishedhiscourtatRavenna，andlikeOdoacertookthetitleofkingofItaly。

Theodoricpossessedgreattalentsbothforwarandpeace；intheformerhewasalwaysconqueror，andinthelatterheconferredverygreatbenefitsuponthecitiesandpeopleunderhim。HedistributedtheOstrogothsoverthecountry，eachdistrictunderitsleader，thathemightmoreconvenientlycommandtheminwar，andgoverntheminpeace。HeenlargedRavenna，restoredRome，and，withtheexceptionofmilitarydiscipline，conferredupontheRomanseveryhonor。Hekeptwithintheirproperbounds，whollybytheinfluenceofhischaracter，allthebarbariankingswhooccupiedtheempire；hebuilttownsandfortressesbetweenthepointoftheAdriaticandtheAlps，inorder，withthegreaterfacility，toimpedethepassageofanynewhordesofbarbarianswhomightdesigntoassailItaly；andif，towardthelatterendofhislife，somanyvirtueshadnotbeensulliedbyactsofcruelty，causedbyvariousjealousiesofhispeople，suchasthedeathofSymmachusandBoethius，menofgreatholiness，everypointofhischaracterwouldhavedeservedthehighestpraise。Byhisvirtueandgoodness，notonlyRomeandItaly，buteverypartofthewesternempire，freedfromthecontinualtroubleswhichtheyhadsufferedfromthefrequentinfluxofbarbarians，acquirednewvigor，andbegantoliveinanorderlyandcivilizedmanner。ForsurelyifanytimesweretrulymiserableforItalyandtheprovincesoverrunbythebarbarians，theywerethosewhichoccurredfromArcadiusandHonoriustoTheodoric。Ifweonlyconsidertheevilswhicharisetoarepublicorakingdombyachangeofprinceorofgovernment；notbyforeigninterference，butbycivildiscord(inwhichwemayseehowevenslightvariationssufficetoruinthemostpowerfulkingdomsorstates)，wemaytheneasilyimaginehowmuchItalyandtheotherRomanprovincessuffered，whentheynotonlychangedtheirformsofgovernmentandtheirprinces，butalsotheirlaws，customs，modesofliving，religion，language，andname。Anyoneofsuchchanges，byitself，withoutbeingunitedwithothers，might，withthinkingofit，tosaynothingoftheseeingandsuffering，infuseterrorintothestrongestminds。

Fromthesecausesproceededtheruinaswellastheoriginandextensionofmanycities。AmongthosewhichwereruinedwereAquileia，Luni，Chiusi，Popolonia，Fiesole，andmanyothers。ThenewcitieswereVenice，Sienna，Ferrara，Aquila，withmanytownsandcastleswhichforbrevityweomit。ThosewhichbecameextendedwereFlorence，Genoa，Pisa，Milan，Naples，andBologna；toallofwhichmaybeadded，theruinandrestorationofRome，andofmanyothercitiesnotpreviouslymentioned。

Fromthisdevastationandnewpopulationarosenewlanguages，asweseeinthedifferentdialectsofFrance，SpainandItaly；which，partakingofthenativeidiomofthenewpeopleandoftheoldRoman，formedanewmannerofdiscourse。Besides，notonlywerethenamesofprovinceschanged，butalsooflakes，rivers，seas，andmen；forFrance，Spain，andItalyarefulloffreshnames，whollydifferentfromtheancient；as，omittingmanyothers，weseethatthePo，theGarda，theArchipelago，arenamesquitedifferentfromthosewhichtheancientsused；whileinsteadofC鎠arandPompeywehavePeter，Matthew，John，etc。

Amongsomanyvariations，thatofreligionwasnotoflittleimportance；for，whilecombatingthecustomsoftheancientfaithwiththemiraclesofthenew，veryserioustroublesanddiscordswerecreatedamongmen。AndiftheChristianshadbeenunitedinonefaith，fewerdisorderswouldhavefollowed；butthecontentionsamongthemselves，ofthechurchesofRome，Greece，andRavenna，joinedtothoseofthehereticsectswiththeCatholics，servedinmanywaystorendertheworldmiserable。Africaisaproofofthis；havingsufferedmorehorrorsfromtheAriansect，whosedoctrineswerebelievedbytheVandals，thanfromanyavariceornaturalcrueltyofthepeoplethemselves。Livingamidsomanypersecutions，thecountenancesofmenborewitnessoftheterribleimpressionsupontheirminds；forbesidestheevilstheysufferedfromthedisorderedstateoftheworld，theyscarcelycouldhaverecoursetothehelpofGod，inwhomtheunhappyhopeforrelief；forthegreaterpartofthem，beinguncertainwhatdivinitytheyoughttoaddress，diedmiserably，withouthelpandwithouthope。

Havingbeenthefirstwhoputastoptosomanyevils，Theodoricdeservesthehighestpraise:forduringthethirty-eightyearshereignedinItaly，hebroughtthecountrytosuchastateofgreatnessthatherprevioussufferingswerenolongerrecognizable。Butathisdeath，thekingdomdescendingtoAtalaric，sonofAmalasontha，hisdaughter，andthemaliceoffortunenotbeingyetexhausted，theoldevilssoonreturned；forAtalaricdiedsoonafterhisgrandfather，andthekingdomcomingintothepossessionofhismother，shewasbetrayedbyTheodatus，whomshehadcalledtoassistherinthegovernment。Heputhertodeathandmadehimselfking；andhavingthusbecomeodioustotheOstrogoths，theemperorJustinianentertainedthehopeofdrivinghimoutofItaly。JustinianappointedBelisariustothecommandofthisexpedition，ashehadalreadyconqueredAfrica，expelledtheVandals，andreducedthecountrytotheimperialrule。

BelisariustookpossessionofSicily，andfromthencepassingintoItaly，occupiedNaplesandRome。TheGoths，seeingthis，slewTheodatustheirking，whomtheyconsideredthecauseoftheirmisfortune，andelectedVitigesinhisstead，who，aftersomeskirmishes，wasbesiegedandtakenbyBelisariusatRavenna；butbeforehehadtimetosecuretheadvantagesofhisvictory，BelisariuswasrecalledbyJustinian，andJoannesandVitaliswereappointedinhisplace。TheirprinciplesandpracticesweresodifferentfromthoseofBelisarius，thattheGothstookcourageandcreatedIldovadus，governorofVerona，theirking。AfterIldovadus，whowasslain，cameTotila，whoroutedtheimperialforces，tookTuscanyandNaples，andrecoverednearlythewholeofwhatBelisariushadtakenfromthem。OnthisaccountJustiniandeterminedtosendhimintoItalyagain；but，comingwithonlyasmallforce，helostthereputationwhichhisformervictorieshadwonforhim，inlesstimethanhehadtakentoacquireit。TotilabeingatOstiawithhisforces，tookRomebeforehiseyes；butbeingunabletoholdortoleavethecity，hedestroyedthegreaterpartofit，droveoutthecitizens，andtookthesenatorsawayfromhim。ThinkinglittleofBelisarius，heledhispeopleintoCalabria，toattacktheforceswhichhadbeensentfromGreece。

Belisarius，seeingthecityabandoned，turnedhismindtotheperformanceofanhonourablework。ViewingtheruinsofRome，hedeterminedtorebuildherwallsandrecallherinhabitantswithaslittledelayaspossible。Butfortunewasopposedtothislaudableenterprise；forJustinian，beingatthistimeassailedbytheParthians，recalledhim；andhisdutytohissovereigncompelledhimtoabandonItalytoTotila，whoagaintookRome，butdidnottreatherwithsuchseverityasupontheformeroccasion；forattheentreatyofSt。Benedict，whointhosedayshadgreatreputationforsanctity，heendeavoredtorestoreher。Inthemeantime，JustinianhavingarrangedmatterswiththeParthians，againthoughtofsendingaforcetothereliefofItaly；buttheSclavi，anothernorthernpeople，havingcrossedtheDanubeandattackedIllyriaandThrace，preventedhim，sothatTotilaheldalmostthewholecountry。HavingconqueredtheSlavonians，JustiniansentNarses，aeunuch，amanofgreatmilitarytalent，who，havingarrivedinItaly，routedandslewTotila。TheGothswhoescapedsoughtrefugeinPavia，wheretheycreatedTeiastheirking。Ontheotherhand，NarsesafterthevictorytookRome，andcomingtoanengagementwithTeiasnearNocera，slewhimandroutedhisarmy。Bythisvictory，thepoweroftheGothsinItalywasquiteannihilated，afterhavingexistedforseventyyears，fromthecomingofTheodorictothedeathofTeias。

NosoonerwasItalydeliveredfromtheGothsthanJustiniandied，andwassucceededbyJustin，hisson，who，attheinstigationofSophia，hiswife，recalledNarses，andsentLonginusinhisstead。Likethosewhoprecededhim，hemadehisabodeatRavenna，andbesidesthis，gaveanewformtothegovernmentofItaly；forhedidnotappointgovernorsofprovinces，astheGothshaddone，butineverycityandtownofimportanceplacedarulerwhomhecalledaduke。NeitherinthisarrangementdidherespectRomemorethantheothercities；forhavingsetasidetheconsulsandsenate，nameswhichuptothistimehadbeenpreserved，heplacedherunderaduke，whowassenteveryyearfromRavenna，andcalledhertheduchyofRome；whiletohimwhoremainedinRavenna，andgovernedthewholeofItalyfortheemperor，wasgiventhenameofExarch。ThisdivisionofthecountrygreatlyfacilitatedtheruinofItaly，andgavetheLombardsanearlyoccasionofoccupyingit。Narseswasgreatlyenragedwiththeemperor，forhavingrecalledhimfromthegovernmentoftheprovince，whichhehadwonwithhisownvalorandblood；whileSophia，notcontentwiththeinjurydonebywithdrawinghim，treatedhiminthemostoffensivemanner，sayingshewishedhimtocomebackthathemightspinwiththeothereunuchs。Fullofindignation，NarsespersuadedAlboin，kingoftheLombards，whothenreignedinPannonia，toinvadeandtakepossessionofItaly。

TheLombards，aswassaidbefore，occupiedthoseplacesupontheDanubewhichhadbeenvacatedbytheEruliandTuringi，whenOdoacertheirkingledthemintoItaly；where，havingbeenestablishedforsometime，theirdominionswereheldbyAlboin，amanferociousandbold，underwhomtheycrossedtheDanube，andcomingtoanengagementwithCunimund，kingoftheZepidi，whoheldPannonia，conqueredandslewhim。AlboinfindingRosamond，daughterofCunimund，amongthecaptives，tookhertowife，andmadehimselfsovereignofPannonia；

and，movedbyhissavagenature，causedtheskullofCunimundtobeformedintoacup，fromwhich，inmemoryofthevictory，hedrank。

BeinginvitedintoItalybyNarses，withwhomhehadbeeninfriendshipduringthewarwiththeGoths，heleftPannoniatotheHuns，whoafterthedeathofAttilahadreturnedtotheircountry。

Finding，onhisarrival，theprovincedividedintosomanyparts，hepresentlyoccupiedPavia，Milan，Verona，Vicenza，thewholeofTuscany，andthegreaterpartofFlamminia，whichisnowcalledRomagna。ThesegreatandrapidacquisitionsmadehimthinktheconquestofItalyalreadysecured；hethereforegaveagreatfeastatVerona，andhavingbecomeelevatedwithwine，orderedtheskullofCunimundtobefilled，andcausedittobepresentedtothequeenRosamond，whosatopposite，sayingloudenoughforhertohear，thatuponoccasionofsuchgreatjoysheshoulddrinkwithherfather。

Thesewordswerelikeadaggertothelady'sbosomandsheresolvedtohaverevenge。KnowingthatHelmichis，anobleLombard，wasinlovewithoneofhermaids，shearrangedwiththeyoungwoman，thatHelmichis，withoutbeingacquaintedwiththefact，shouldsleepwithherinsteadofhismistress。Havingeffectedherdesign，RosamonddiscoveredherselftoHelmichis，andgavehimthechoiceeitherofkillingAlboin，andtakingherselfandthekingdomashisreward，orofbeingputtodeathastheravisherofthequeen。HelmichisconsentedtodestroyAlboin；butafterthemurder，findingtheycouldnotoccupythekingdom，andfearfulthattheLombardswouldputthemtodeathforthelovetheyboretoAlboin，theyseizedtheroyaltreasure，andfledwithittoLonginus，atRavenna，whoreceivedthemfavorably。

DuringthesetroublestheemperorJustinusdied，andwassucceededbyTiberius，who，occupiedinthewarswiththeParthians，couldnotattendtotheaffairsofItaly；andthisseemingtoLonginustopresentanopportunity，bymeansofRosamondandherwealth，ofbecomingkingoftheLombardsandofthewholeofItaly，hecommunicatedhisdesigntoher，persuadedhertodestroyHelmichis，andsotakehimforherhusband。Tothisend，havingpreparedpoisonedwine，shewithherownhandpresentedittoHelmichis，whocomplainedofthirstashecamefromthebath。Havingdrunkhalfofit，hesuspectedthetruth，fromtheunusualsensationitoccasionedandcompelledhertodrinktheremainder；sothatinafewhoursbothcametotheirend，andLonginuswasdeprivedofthehopeofbecomingking。

InthemeantimetheLombards，havingdrawnthemselvestogetherinPavia，whichwasbecometheprincipalseatoftheirempire，madeClefistheirking。HerebuiltImola，destroyedbyNarses，andoccupiedReminiandalmosteveryplaceuptoRome；buthediedinthecourseofhisvictories。Clefiswascrueltosuchadegree，notonlytowardstrangers，buttohisownLombards，thatthesepeople，sickenedofroyalpower，didnotcreateanotherking，butappointedamongthemselvesthirtydukestogoverntherest。ThispreventedtheLombardsfromoccupyingthewholeofItaly，orofextendingtheirdominionfurtherthanBenevento；for，ofthecitiesofRome，Ravenna，Cremona，Mantua，Padua，Monselice，Parma，Bologna，Faenza，Forli，andCesena，somedefendedthemselvesforatime，andothersneverfellundertheirdominion；since，nothavingaking，theybecamelesspromptforwar，andwhentheyafterwardappointedone，theywere，bylivinginfreedom，becomelessobedient，andmoreapttoquarrelamongthemselves；whichfromthefirstpreventedafortunateissueoftheirmilitaryexpeditions，andwastheultimatecauseoftheirbeingdrivenoutofItaly。TheaffairsoftheLombardsbeinginthestatejustdescribed，theRomansandLonginuscametoanagreementwiththem，thateachshouldlaydowntheirarmsandenjoywhattheyalreadypossessed。

CHAPTERIII

BeginningofthegreatnessofthepontiffsinItaly——Abuseofcensuresandindulgences——ThepopeappliestoPepin，kingofFrance，forassistance——DonationofPepintothepontiff——

Charlemagne——EndofthekingdomoftheLombards——Thetitleofcardinalbeginstobeused——TheempirepassestotheGermans——

Berengarius，dukeofFruili，createdkingofItaly——Pisabecomesgreat——OrderanddivisionofthestatesofItaly——Electorsoftheemperorcreated。

Inthesetimesthepopesbegantoacquiregreatertemporalauthoritythantheyhadpreviouslypossessed；althoughtheimmediatesuccessorsofSt。Peterweremorereverencedfortheholinessoftheirlives，andthemiracleswhichtheyperformed；andtheirexamplesogreatlyextendedtheChristianreligion，thatprincesofotherstatesembracedit，inordertoobviatetheconfusionwhichprevailedatthatperiod。

TheemperorhavingbecomeaChristianandreturnedtoConstantinople，itfollowed，aswasremarkedatthecommencementofthebook，thattheRomanempirewasthemoreeasilyruined，andthechurchmorerapidlyincreasedherauthority。Nevertheless，thewholeofItaly，beingsubjecteithertotheemperorsorthekingstillthecomingoftheLombards，thepopesneveracquiredanygreaterauthoritythanwhatreverencefortheirhabitsanddoctrinegavethem。Inotherrespectstheyobeyedtheemperorsorkings；officiatedforthemintheiraffairs，asministersoragents，andwereevensometimesputtodeathbythem。HewhocausedthemtobecomeofmoreimportanceintheaffairsofItaly，wasTheodoric，kingoftheGoths，whenheestablishedtheseatofhisempireatRavenna；for，Romebeingwithoutaprince，theRomansfounditnecessary，fortheirsafety，toyieldobediencetothepope；hisauthority，however，wasnotgreatlyincreasedthereby，theonlyadvantagebeing，thatthechurchofRomewasallowedtotakeprecedenceofthatofRavenna。ButtheLombardshavingtakenpossession，andItalybeingdividedintomanyparts，thepopehadanopportunityofgreaterexertion。BeingasitweretheheadofRome，boththeemperorofConstantinopleandtheLombardsrespectedhim；sothattheRomans，byhismeans，enteredintoleaguewiththeLombards，andwithLonginus，notassubjects，butasequals。Thusthepopes，atonetimefriendsoftheGreeks，andatanotheroftheLombards，increasedtheirownpower；butupontheruinoftheeasternempire，whichoccurredduringthetimeofHeraclius，theirinfluencewasreduced；fortheSclavi，ofwhomwespokebefore，againassailedIllyria，andhavingoccupiedthecountry，nameditSclavonia，afterthemselves；andtheotherpartswereattackedbythePersians，thenbytheSaracensunderMohammed，andlastlybytheTurks，whotookSyria，Africa，andEgypt。Thesecausesinducedthereigningpope，inhisdistress，toseeknewfriends，andheappliedtothekingofFrance。

NearlyallthewarswhichthenorthernbarbarianscarriedoninItaly，itmaybehereremarked，wereoccasionedbythepontiffs；andthehordes，withwhichthecountrywasinundated，weregenerallycalledinbythem。Thesamemodeofproceedingstillcontinued，andkeptItalyweakandunsettled。And，therefore，inrelatingtheeventswhichhavetakenplacefromthosetimestothepresent，theruinoftheempirewillbenolongerillustrated，butonlytheincreaseofthepontificateandoftheotherprincipalitieswhichruledItalytillthecomingofCharlesVIII。Itwillbeseenhowthepopes，firstwithcensures，andafterwardwiththeseandarms，mingledwithindulgences，becamebothterribleandvenerable；andhow，fromhavingabusedboth，theyceasedtopossessanyinfluence，andwerewhollydependentonthewillofothersforassistanceintheirwars。

Buttoreturntotheorderofournarration。GregoryIII。occupiedthepapacy，andthekingdomoftheLombardswasheldbyAstolphus，who，contrarytoagreement，seizedRavenna，andmadewaruponthepope。Onthisaccount，GregorynolongerrelyingupontheemperorofConstantinople，sincehe，forthereasonsabovegiven，wasunabletoassisthim，andunwillingtotrusttheLombards，fortheyhadfrequentlybrokentheirfaith，hadrecoursetoPepinII。，who，frombeinglordofAustriaandBrabant，hadbecomekingofFrance；notsomuchbyhisownvalorasbythatofCharlesMartel，hisfather，andPepinhisgrandfather；forCharlesMartel，beinggovernorofthekingdom，effectedthememorabledefeatoftheSaracensnearTours，upontheLoire，inwhichtwohundredthousandofthemaresaidtohavebeenleftdeaduponthefieldofbattle。Hence，Pepin，byhisfather'sreputationandhisownabilities，becameafterwardkingofFrance。TohimPopeGregory，aswehavesaid，appliedforassistanceagainsttheLombards，whichPepinpromisedtogrant，butdesiredfirsttoseehimandbehonoredwithhispresence。GregoryaccordinglywenttoFrance，passinguninjuredthroughthecountryofhisenemies，sogreatwastherespecttheyhadforreligion，andwastreatedhonorablybyPepin，whosentanarmyintoItaly，andbesiegedtheLombardsinPavia。KingAstolphus，compelledbynecessity，madeproposalsofpeacetotheFrench，whoagreedtothemattheentreatyofthepope——forhedidnotdesirethedeathofhisenemy，butthatheshouldbeconvertedandlive。Inthistreaty，Astolphuspromisedtogivetothechurchalltheplaceshehadtakenfromher；buttheking'sforceshavingreturnedtoFrance，hedidnotfulfilltheagreement，andthepopeagainhadrecoursetoPepin，whosentanotherarmy，conqueredtheLombards，tookRavenna，and，contrarytothewishesoftheGreekemperor，gaveittothepope，withalltheplacesthatbelongedtotheexarchate，andaddedtothemUrbinoandtheMarca。ButAstolphus，whilefulfillingthetermsofhisagreement，died，andDesiderius，aLombard，whowasdukeofTuscany，tookuparmstooccupythekingdom，anddemandedassistanceofthepope，promisinghimhisfriendship。Thepopeaccedingtohisrequest，theotherprincesassented。Desideriuskeptfaithatfirst，andproceededtoresignthedistrictstothepope，accordingtotheagreementmadewithPepin，sothatanexarchwasnolongersentfromConstantinopletoRavenna，butitwasgovernedaccordingtothewillofthepope。Pepinsoonafterdied，andwassucceededbyhissonCharles，thesamewho，onaccountofthemagnitudeandsuccessofhisenterprises，wascalledCharlemagne，orCharlestheGreat。TheodoreI。nowsucceededtothepapacy，anddiscordarisingbetweenhimandDesiderius，thelatterbesiegedhiminRome。ThepoperequestedassistanceofCharles，who，havingcrossedtheAlps，besiegedDesideriusinPavai，wherehetookbothhimandhischildren，andsentthemprisonerstoFrance。HethenwenttovisitthepontiffatRome，wherehedeclared，THATTHEPOPE，BEINGVICAROFGOD，COULDNOTBEJUDGEDBYMEN。ThepopeandthepeopleofRomemadehimemperor；andthusRomebegantohaveanemperorofthewest。Andwhereasthepopesusedtobeestablishedbytheemperors，thelatternowbegantohaveneedofthepopesattheirelections；theempirecontinuedtoloseitspowers，whilethechurchacquiredthem；and，bythesemeans，sheconstantlyextendedherauthorityovertemporalprinces。

TheLombards，havingnowbeentwohundredandthirty-twoyearsinthecountry，werestrangersonlyinname，andCharles，wishingtoreorganizethestatesofItaly，consentedthattheyshouldoccupytheplacesinwhichtheyhadbeenbroughtup，andcalltheprovinceaftertheirownname，Lombardy。ThattheymightbeledtorespecttheRomanname，heorderedallthatpartofItalyadjoiningtothem，whichhadbeenundertheexarchateofRavenna，tobecalledRomagna。Besidesthis，hecreatedhissonPepin，kingofItaly，whosedominionextendedtoBenevento；alltherestbeingpossessedbytheGreekemperor，withwhomCharleswasinleague。AboutthistimePascalI。occupiedthepontificate，andthepriestsofthechurchesofRome，frombeingneartothepope，andattendingtheelectionsofthepontiff，begantodignifytheirownpowerwithatitle，bycallingthemselvescardinals，andarrogatedsogreatauthority，thathavingexcludedthepeopleofRomefromtheelectionofpontiff，theappointmentofanewpopewasscarcelyevermadeexceptfromoneoftheirownnumber:thusonthedeathofPascal，thecardinalofSt。SabinawascreatedpopebythetitleofEugeniusII。ItalyhavingcomeintothehandsoftheFrench，achangeofformandordertookplace，thepopesacquiringgreatertemporalpower，andthenewauthoritiesadoptingthetitlesofcountandmarquis，asthatofdukehadbeenintroducedbyLonginus，exarchofRavenna。Afterthedeathsofsomepontiffs，Osporco，aRoman，succeededtothepapacy；butonaccountofhisunseemlyappellation，hetookthenameofSergius，andthiswastheoriginofthatchangeofnameswhichthepopesadoptupontheirelectiontothepontificate。

Inthemeantime，theEmperorCharlesdiedandwassucceededbyLewis(thePious，afterwhosedeathsomanydisputesaroseamonghissons，thatatthetimeofhisgrandchildren，thehouseofFrancelosttheempire，whichthencametotheGermans；thefirstGermanemperorbeingcalledArnolfus。NordidtheCarlovingianfamilylosetheempireonly；

theirdiscordsalsooccasionedthemthelossofItaly；fortheLombards，gatheringstrength，offendedthepopeandtheRomans，andArnolfo，notknowingwheretoseekrelief，wascompelledtocreateBerengarius，dukeofFruili，kingofItaly。TheseeventsinducedtheHuns，whooccupiedPannonia，toassailItaly；but，inanengagementwithBerengarius，theywerecompelledtoreturntoPannonia，whichhadfromthembeennamedHungary。

RomanowasatthistimeemperorofGreece，having，whileprefectofthearmy，dethronedConstantine；andasPugliaandCalabria，which，asbeforeobserved，werepartsoftheGreekempire，hadrevolted，hegavepermissiontotheSaracanstooccupythem；andtheyhavingtakenpossessionoftheseprovinces，besiegedRome。TheRomans，BerengariusbeingthenengagedindefendinghimselfagainsttheHuns，appointedAlberic，dukeofTuscany，theirleader。ByhisvalorRomewassavedfromtheSaracens，who，withdrawingfromthesiege，erectedafortressuponMountGargano，bymeansofwhichtheygovernedPugliaandCalabria，andharassedthewholecountry。ThusItalywasinthosetimesverygrievouslyafflicted，beinginconstantwarfarewiththeHunsinthedirectionoftheAlps，and，ontheNeapolitanside，sufferingfromtheinroadsoftheSaracens。Thisstateofthingscontinuedmanyyears，occupyingthereignsofthreeBerengarii，whosucceededeachother；andduringthistimethepopeandthechurchweregreatlydisturbed；theimpotenceoftheeastern，andthedisunionwhichprevailedamongthewesternprinces，leavingthemwithoutdefense。ThecityofGenoa，withallherterritoryupontherivers，havingbeenoverrunbytheSaracens，animpulsewasthusgiventotherisinggreatnessofPisa，inwhichcitymultitudestookrefugewhohadbeendrivenoutoftheirowncountry。Theseeventsoccurredintheyear931，whenOtho，dukeofSaxony，thesonofHenryandMatilda，amanofgreatprudenceandreputation，beingmadeemperor，thepopeAgapito，beggedthathewouldcomeintoItalyandrelievehimfromthetyrannyoftheBerengarii。

TheStatesofItalyweregovernedinthismanner:LombardywasunderBerengariusIII。andAlfredhisson；TuscanyandRomagnaweregovernedbyadeputyofthewesternemperor；PugliaandCalabriawerepartlyundertheGreekemperor，andpartlyundertheSaracens；inRometwoconsulswereannuallychosenfromthenobility，whogovernedheraccordingtoancientcustom；tothesewasaddedaprefect，whodispensedjusticeamongthepeople；andtherewasacounciloftwelve，whoeachyearappointedrectorsfortheplacessubjecttothem。ThepopeshadmoreorlessauthorityinRomeandtherestofItaly，inproportionastheywerefavoritesoftheemperororofthemostpowerfulstates。TheEmperorOthocameintoItaly，tookthekingdomfromtheBerengarii，inwhichtheyhadreignedfifty-fiveyears，andreinstatedthepontiffinhisdignity。Hehadasonandanephew，eachnamedOtho，who，oneaftertheother，succeededtotheempire。InthereignofOthoIII。，PopeGregoryV。wasexpelledbytheRomans；

whereupontheemperorcameintoItalyandreplacedhim；andthepope，torevengehimselfontheRomans，tookfromthemtherighttocreateanemperor，andgaveittothreeprincesandthreebishopsofGermany；

theprincesofBrandenburg，Palatine，andSaxony，andthebishopsofMagonza，Treveri，andColonia。Thisoccurredintheyear1002。AfterthedeathofOthoIII。theelectorscreatedHenry，dukeofBavaria，emperor，whoattheendoftwelveyearswascrownedbyPopeStephenVIII。HenryandhiswifeSimeondawerepersonsofveryholylife，asisseenbythemanytemplesbuiltandendowedbythem，ofwhichthechurchofSt。Miniato，nearFlorence，isone。Henrydiedin1024，andwassucceededbyConradofSuabia；andthelatterbyHenryII。，whocametoRome；andastherewasaschisminthechurchofthreepopes，hesetthemallaside，andcausedtheelectionofClementII。，bywhomhewascrownedemperor。

CHAPTERIV

NicholasII。commitstheelectionofthepopetothecardinals——

Firstexampleofaprincedeprivedofhisdominionsbythepope——

GuelphsandGhibellines——EstablishmentofthekingdomofNaples——

PopeUrbanII。goestoFrance——Thefirstcrusade——Newordersofknighthood——SaladintakesfromtheChristianstheirpossessionsintheeast——DeathoftheCountessMatilda——CharacterofFrederickBarbarossa——Schism——Frederickcreatesananti-pope——BuildingofAlexandriainPuglia——DisgracefulconditionsimposedbythepopeuponHenry，kingofEngland——ReconciliationofFrederickwiththepope——ThekingdomofNaplespassestotheGermans——OrdersofSt。

DominicandSt。Francis。

Italywasatthistimegovernedpartlybythepeople，somedistrictsbytheirownprinces，andothersbythedeputiesoftheemperor。Thehighestinauthority，andtowhomtheothersreferred，wascalledthechancellor。Oftheprinces，themostpowerfulwereGodfredandtheCountessMatildahiswife，whowasdaughterofBeatrice，thesisterofHenryII。SheandherhusbandpossessedLucca，Parma，Reggio，Mantua，andthewholeofwhatisnowcalledTHEPATRIMONYOFTHECHURCH。TheambitionoftheRomanpeoplecausedmanywarsbetweenthemandthepontiffs，whoseauthorityhadpreviouslybeenusedtofreethemfromtheemperors；butwhentheyhadtakenthegovernmentofthecitytothemselves，andregulateditaccordingtotheirownpleasure，theyatoncebecameatenmitywiththepopes，whoreceivedfarmoreinjuriesfromthemthanfromanyChristianpotentate。Andwhilethepopescausedallthewesttotremblewiththeircensures，thepeopleofRomewereinopenrebellionagainstthem；norhadtheyorthepopesanyotherpurpose，buttodepriveeachotherofreputationandauthority。

NicholasII。nowattainedthepapacy；andasGregoryV。hadtakenfromtheRomanstherighttocreateanemperor，heinthesamemannerdeterminedtodeprivethemoftheirshareintheelectionofthepope；

andconfinedthecreationtothecardinalsalone。Nordidthissatisfyhim；for，havingagreedwiththeprinceswhogovernedCalabriaandPuglia，withmethodswhichweshallpresentlyrelate，hecompelledtheofficerswhomtheRomansappointedtotheirdifferentjurisdictions，torenderobediencetohim；andsomeofthemheevendeprivedoftheiroffices。AfterthedeathofNicholas，therewasaschisminthechurch；theclergyofLombardyrefusedobediencetoAlexanderII。，createdatRome，andelectedCadoloofParmaanti-pope；andHenry，whohatedthepowerofthepontiffs，gaveAlexandertounderstandthathemustrenouncethepontificate，andorderedthecardinalstogointoGermanytoappointanewpope。Hewasthefirstwhofelttheimportanceofspiritualweapons；forthepopecalledacouncilatRome，anddeprivedHenryofboththeempireandthekingdom。SomeofthepeopleofItalytookthepartofthepope，othersofHenry；andhencearosethefactionsoftheGuelphsandtheGhibellines；thatItaly，relievedfromtheinundationsofbarbarians，mightbedistractedwithintestinestrife。Henry，beingexcommunicated，wascompelledbyhispeopletocomeintoItaly，andfallbarefooteduponhiskneesbeforethepope，andaskhispardon。Thisoccurredintheyear1082。Nevertheless，thereshortlyafterwardarosenewdiscordsbetweenthepopeandHenry；uponwhichthepopeagainexcommunicatedhim，andtheemperorsenthisson，alsonamedHenry，withanarmytoRome，andhe，withtheassistanceoftheRomans，whohatedthepope，besiegedhiminthefortress。RobertGuiscardthemcamefromPugliatohisrelief，butHenryhadleftbeforehisarrival，andreturnedtoGermany。TheRomansstoodoutalone，andthecitywassackedbyRobert，andreducedtoruins。AsfromthisRobertsprungtheestablishmentofthekingdomofNaples，itseemsnotsuperfluoustorelateparticularlyhisactionsandorigin。

DisunionhavingarisenamongthedescendantsofCharlemagne，occasionwasgiventoanothernorthernpeople，calledNormans，toassailFranceandoccupythatportionofthecountrywhichisnownamedNormandy。A

partofthesepeoplecameintoItalyatthetimewhentheprovincewasinfestedwiththeBerengarii，theSaracans，andtheHuns，andoccupiedsomeplacesinRomagna，where，duringthewarsofthatperiod，theyconductedthemselvesvaliantly。Tancred，oneoftheseNormanprinces，hadmanychildren；amongtherestwereWilliam，surnamedFerabac，andRobert，calledGuiscard。WhentheprincipalitywasgovernedbyWilliam，thetroublesofItalywereinsomemeasureabated；buttheSaracensstillheldSicily，andplunderedthecoastsofItalydaily。

OnthisaccountWilliamarrangedwiththeprincesofCapuaandSalerno，andwithMelorco，aGreek，whogovernedPugliaandCalabriafortheGreekemperor，toattackSicily；anditwasagreedthat，iftheywerevictorious，eachshouldhaveafourthpartofthebootyandtheterritory。Theywerefortunateintheirenterprise，expelledtheSaracens，andtookpossessionoftheisland；but，afterthevictory，MelorcosecretlycausedforcestobebroughtfromGreece，seizedSicilyinthenameoftheemperor，andappropriatedthebootytohimselfandhisfollowers。Williamwasmuchdissatisfiedwiththis，butreservedtheexhibitionofhisdispleasureforasuitableopportunity，andleftSicilywiththeprincesofSalernoandCapua。

Butwhentheyhadpartedfromhimtoreturntotheirhomes，insteadofproceedingtoRomagnaheledhispeopletowardsPuglia，andtookMelfi；andfromthence，inashorttime，recoveredfromtheGreekemperoralmostthewholeofPugliaandCalabria，overwhichprovinces，inthetimeofpopeNicholasII。hisbrotherRobertGuiscardwassovereign。Roberthavinghadmanydisputeswithhisnephewsfortheinheritanceofthesestates，requestedtheinfluenceofthepopetosettlethem；whichhisholinesswasverywillingtoafford，beinganxioustomakeafriendofRobert，todefendhimselfagainsttheemperorofGermanyandtheinsolenceoftheRomanpeople，whichindeedshortlyfollowed，when，attheinstanceofGregory，hedroveHenryfromRome，andsubduedthepeople。RobertwassucceededbyhissonsRogerandWilliam，towhosedominionnotonlywasNaplesadded，butalltheplacesinterjacentasfarasRome，andafterwardSicily，ofwhichRogerbecamesovereign；but，uponWilliamgoingtoConstantinople，tomarrythedaughteroftheemperor，hisdominionswerewrestedfromhimbyhisbrotherRoger。Inflatedwithsogreatanacquisition，RogerfirsttookthetitleofkingofItaly，butafterwardcontentedhimselfwiththatofkingofPugliaandSicily。Hewasthefirstwhoestablishedandgavethatnametothiskingdom，whichstillretainsitsancientboundaries，althoughitssovereignshavebeenofmanyfamiliesandcountries。UponthefailureoftheNormans，itcametotheGermans，afterthesetotheFrench，thentotheAragonese，anditisnowheldbytheFlemish。

AboutthistimeUrbanII。becamepopeandexcitedthehatredoftheRomans。AshedidnotthinkhimselfsafeeveninItaly，onaccountofthedisunionwhichprevailed，hedirectedhisthoughtstoagenerousenterprise。WithhiswholeclergyhewentintoFrance，andatAnvers，havingdrawntogetheravastmultitudeofpeople，deliveredanorationagainsttheinfidels，whichsoexcitedthemindsofhisaudience，thattheydeterminedtoundertaketheconquestofAsiafromtheSaracens；

whichenterprise，withallthoseofasimilarnature，wereafterwardcalledcrusades，becausethepeoplewhojoinedinthemboreupontheirarmorandapparelthefigureofacross。TheleaderswereGodfrey，Eustace，andBaldwinofBouillon，countsofBoulogne，andPeter，ahermitcelebratedforhisprudenceandsagacity。Manykingsandpeoplejoinedthem，andcontributedmoney；andmanyprivatepersonsfoughtunderthemattheirownexpense；sogreatwastheinfluenceofreligioninthosedaysuponthemindsofmen，excitedbytheexampleofthosewhowereitsprincipalministers。Theproudestsuccessesattendedthebeginningofthisenterprise；forthewholeofAsiaMinor，Syria，andpartofEgypt，fellunderthepoweroftheChristians。TocommemoratetheseeventstheorderoftheKnightsofJerusalemwascreated，whichstillcontinues，andholdstheislandofRhodes——theonlyobstacletothepoweroftheMohammedans。ThesameeventsgaverisetotheorderoftheKnightsTemplars，which，afterashorttime，onaccountoftheirshamelesspractices，wasdissolved。

Variousfortunesattendedthecrusadersinthecourseoftheirenterprises，andmanynationsandindividualsbecamecelebratedaccordingly。ThekingsofFranceandEnglandjoinedthem，and，withtheVenetians，Pisans，andGenoese，acquiredgreatreputation，tillthetimeofSaladin，when，bywhosetalents，andthedisagreementoftheChristiansamongthemselves，thecrusaderswererobbedofallthatglorywhichtheyhadatfirstacquired；and，afterninetyyears，weredrivenfromthoseplaceswhichtheyhadsohonorablyandhappilyrecovered。

AfterthedeathofUrban，PascalII。becamepope，andtheempirewasunderthedominionofHenryIV。whocametoRomepretendingfriendshipforthepontiffbutafterwardputhisholinessandallhisclergyinprison；nordidhereleasethemtillitwasconcededthatheshoulddisposeofthechurchesofGermanyaccordingtohisownpleasure。

Aboutthistime，theCountessMatildadied，andmadethechurchheirtoallherterritories。AfterthedeathsofPascalandHenryIV。manypopesandemperorsfollowed，tillthepapacywasoccupiedbyAlexanderIII。andtheempirebyFrederick，surnamedBarbarossa。ThepopesduringthisperiodhadmetwithmanydifficultiesfromthepeopleofRomeandtheemperors；andinthetimeofBarbarossatheyweremuchincreased。Frederickpossessedmilitarytalent，butwassofullofpridethathewouldnotsubmittothepontiff。However，athiselectiontotheempirehecametoRometobecrowned，andreturnedpeaceablytoGermany，wherehedidnotlongremaininthesamemind，butcameagainintoItalytosubduecertainplacesinLombardy，whichdidnotobeyhim。IthappenedatthistimethatthecardinalSt。

Clement，ofaRomanfamily，separatedfromAlexander，andwasmadepopebysomeofthecardinals。TheEmperorFrederick，beingencampedatCerma，Alexandercomplainedtohimoftheanti-pope，andreceivedforanswer，thattheywerebothtogotohim，and，havingheardeachside，hewoulddeterminewhichwasthetruepope。ThisreplydispleasedAlexander；and，ashesawtheemperorwasinclinedtofavortheanti-pope，heexcommunicatedhim，andthenfledtoPhilip，kingofFrance。Frederick，inthemeantime，carryingonthewarinLombardy，destroyedMilan；whichcausedtheunionofVerona，Padua，andVicenzaagainsthimfortheircommondefense。Aboutthesameperiodtheanti-

popedied，andFredericksetupGuidoofCremona，inhisstead。

TheRomans，fromtheabsenceofthepope，andfromtheemperorbeinginLombardy，hadreacquiredsomeauthorityinRome，andproceededtorecovertheobedienceofthoseplaceswhichhadbeensubjecttothem。

AndasthepeopleofTusculumrefusedtosubmittotheirauthority，theyproceededagainstthemwiththeirwholeforce；butthese，beingassistedbyFrederick，routedtheRomanarmywithsuchdreadfulslaughter，thatRomewasneveraftereithersopopulousorsorich。

Alexandernowreturnedtothecity，thinkinghecouldbesafethereonaccountoftheenmitysubsistingbetweentheRomansandtheemperor，andfromtheenemieswhichthelatterhadinLombardy。ButFrederick，settingasideeveryotherconsideration，ledhisforcesandencampedbeforeRome；andAlexanderfledtoWilliam，kingofPuglia，whohadbecomehairofthatkingdomafterthedeathofRoger。Frederick，however，withdrewfromRomeonaccountoftheplaguewhichthenprevailed，andreturnedtoGermany。ThecitiesofLombardyinleagueagainsthim，inordertocommandPaviaandTortona，whichadheredtotheimperialparty，builtacity，tobetheirmagazineintimeofwar，andnamedinAlexandria，inhonorofthepopeandincontemptofFrederick。

Guidotheanti-popedied，andGiovanniofFermowasappointedinhisstead，who，beingfavoredbytheimperialists，livedatMontefiascone。

PopeAlexanderbeingatTusculum，whitherhehadbeencalledbytheinhabitants，thatwithhisauthorityhemightdefendthemfromtheRomans，ambassadorscametohimfromHenry，kingofEngland，tosignifythathewasnotblamableforthedeathofThomas？Becket，archbishopofCanterbury，althoughpublicreporthadslanderedhimwithit。OnthisthepopesenttwocardinalstoEngland，toinquireintothetruthofthematter；andalthoughtheyfoundnoactualchargeagainsttheking，still，onaccountoftheinfamyofthecrime，andfornothavinghonoredthearchbishopsomuchashedeserved，thesentenceagainstthekingofEnglandwas，thathavingcalledtogetherthebaronsofhisempire，heshoulduponoathbeforethemaffirmhisinnocence；thatheshouldimmediatelysendtwohundredsoldierstoJerusalem，paidforoneyear；that，beforetheendofthreeyears，heshouldhimselfproceedthitherwithaslargeanarmyashecoulddrawtogether；thathissubjectsshouldhavethepowerofappealingtoRomewhentheythoughtproper；andthatheshouldannulwhateveractshadbeenpassedinhiskingdomunfavorabletoecclesiasticalrule。ThesetermswereallacceptedbyHenry；andthusagreatkingsubmittedtoasentencethatinourdayaprivatepersonwouldhavebeenashamedof。

Butwhilethepopeexercisedsogreatauthorityoverdistantprinces，hecouldnotcompelobediencefromtheRomansthemselves，orobtaintheirconsentthatheshouldremaininRome，eventhoughhepromisedtointermeddleonlywithecclesiasticalaffairs。

AboutthistimeFrederickreturnedtoItaly，andwhilehewaspreparingtocarryonnewwarsagainstthepope，hisprelatesandbaronsdeclaredthattheywouldabandonhimunlesshereconciledhimselfwiththechurch；sothathewasobligedtogoandsubmittothepopeatVenus，whereapacificationwaseffected，butinwhichthepopedeprivedtheemperorofallauthorityoverRome，andnamedWilliam，kingofSicilyandPuglia，acoadjutorwithhim。Frederick，unabletoexistwithoutwar，joinedthecrusadersinAsia，thathemightexercisethatambitionagainstMohammed，whichhecouldnotgratifyagainstthevicarsofChrist。AndbeingneartheriverCydnus，temptedbytheclearnessofitswaters，bathedtherein，tookcold，anddied。ThustheriverdidagreaterfavortotheMohammedansthanthepope'sexcommunicationshaddonetotheChristians；forthelatteronlycheckedhispride，whiletheformerfinishedhiscareer。

Frederickbeingdead，thepopehadnowonlytosuppressthecontumacyoftheRomans；and，aftermanydisputesconcerningthecreationofconsuls，itwasagreedthattheyshouldelectthemastheyhadbeenaccustomedtodo，butthattheseshouldnotundertaketheoffice，tilltheyhadfirstsworntobefaithfultothechurch。Thisagreementbeingmade，Giovannitheanti-popetookrefugeinMountAlbano，whereheshortlyafterwarddied。William，kingofNaples，diedaboutthesametime，andthepopeintendedtooccupythatkingdomonthegroundthatthekinghadleftonlyanaturalsonnamedTancred。Butthebaronswouldnotconsent，andwishedthatTancredshouldbeking。

CelestineIII。，thethenpope，anxioustosnatchthekingdomfromthehandsofTancred，contrivedthatHenry，sonofFrederickshouldbeelectedemperor，andpromisedhimthekingdomontheconditionthatheshouldrestoretothechurchalltheplacesthathadbelongedtoher。

Tofacilitatethisaffair，hecausedGostanza，adaughterofWilliam，whohadbeenplacedinamonasteryandwasnowold，tobebroughtfromherseclusionandbecomethewifeofHenry。ThusthekingdomofNaplespassedfromtheNormans，whohadbeenthefoundersofit，totheGermans。AssoonastheaffairsofGermanywerearranged，theEmperorHenrycameintoItalywithGostanzahiswife，andasonaboutfouryearsofagenamedFrederick；and，asTancredwasnowdead，leavingonlyaninfantnamedRoger，hetookpossessionofthekingdomwithoutmuchdifficulty。Aftersomeyears，HenrydiedinSicily，andwassucceededinthekingdombyFrederick，andintheempirebyOtho，dukeofSaxony，whowaselectedthroughtheinfluenceofInnocentIII。Butassoonashehadtakenthecrown，contrarytothegeneralexpectation，hebecameanenemyofthepope，occupiedRomagna，andpreparedtoattackthekingdom。Onthisaccountthepopeexcommunicatedhim；hewasabandonedbyeveryone，andtheelectorsappointedFrederick，kingofNaples，emperorinhisstead。FrederickcametoRomeforhiscoronation；butthepope，beingafraidofhispower，wouldnotcrownhim，andendeavoredtowithdrawhimfromItalyashehaddoneOtho。FrederickreturnedtoGermanyinanger，and，aftermanybattleswithOtho，atlengthconqueredhim。Meanwhile，Innocentdied，who，besidesotherexcellentworks，builtthehospitaloftheHolyGhostatRome。HewassucceededbyHonoriusIII。，inwhosetimethereligiousordersofSt。DominicandSt。Franciswerefounded，1218。HonoriuscrownedFrederick，towhomGiovanni，descendedfromBaldwin，kingofJerusalem，whocommandedtheremainderoftheChristianarmyinAsiaandstillheldthattitle，gaveadaughterinmarriage；and，withherportion，concededtohimthetitletothatkingdom:henceitisthateverykingofNaplesiscalledkingofJerusalem。

CHAPTERV

ThestateofItaly——BeginningofthegreatnessofthehouseofEste——GuelphsandGhibellines——DeathoftheEmperorFrederickII——

ManfredtakespossessionofthekingdomofNaples——MovementsoftheGuelphsandGhibellinesinLombardy——CharlesofAnjouinvestedbythepopewiththekingdomofNaplesandSicily——Restlesspolicyofthepopes——AmbitiousviewsofpopeNicholasIII——Nephewsofthepopes——Sicilianvespers——TheEmperorRodolphallowsmanycitiestopurchasetheirindependence——Institutionofthejubilee——ThepopesatAvignon。

AtthistimethestatesofItalyweregovernedinthefollowingmanner:theRomansnolongerelectedconsuls，butinsteadofthem，andwiththesamepowers，theyappointedonesenator，andsometimesmore。

TheleaguewhichthecitiesofLombardyhadformedagainstFrederickBarbarossastillcontinued，andcomprehendedMilan，Brescia，Mantua，andthegreaternumberofthecitiesofRomagna，togetherwithVerona，Vicenza，Padua，andTrevisa。Thosewhichtookpartwiththeemperor，wereCremona，Bergamo，Parma，Reggio，andTrento。TheothercitiesandfortressesofLombardy，Romagna，andthemarchofTrevisa，favored，accordingtotheirnecessities，sometimesoneparty，sometimestheother。

InthetimeofOthoIII。therehadcomeintoItalyamancalledEzelin，who，remaininginthecountry，hadason，andhetoohadasonnamedEzelin。Thisperson，beingrichandpowerful，tookpartwithFrederick，who，aswehavesaid，wasatenmitywiththepope；

Frederick，attheinstigationandwiththeassistanceofEzelin，tookVeronaandMantua，destroyedVicenza，occupiedPadua，routedthearmyoftheunitedcities，andthendirectedhiscoursetowardsTuscany。

Ezelin，inthemeantime，hadsubduedthewholeoftheTrevisianMarch，butcouldnotprevailagainstFerrara，whichwasdefendedbyAzonedaEsteandtheforceswhichthepopehadinLombardy；and，astheenemywerecompelledtowithdraw，thepopegaveFerrarainfeetothisAzone，fromwhomaredescendedthosewhonowgovernthatcity。

FrederickhaltedatPisa，desirousofmakinghimselflordofTuscany；

but，whileendeavoringtodiscoverwhatfriendsandfoeshehadinthatprovince，hescatteredsomanyseedsofdiscordasoccasionedtheruinofItaly；forthefactionsoftheGuelphsandGhibellinesmultiplied，——thosewhosupportedthechurchtakingthenameofGuelphs，whilethefollowersoftheemperorwerecalledGhibellines，thesenamesbeingfirstheardatPistoia。Frederick，marchingfromPisa，assailedandwastedtheterritoriesofthechurchinavarietyofways；sothatthepope，havingnootherremedy，unfurledagainsthimthebannerofthecross，ashispredecessorhaddoneagainsttheSaracens。Frederick，thathemightbesuddenlyabandonedbyhispeople，asFrederickBarbarossaandothershadbeen，tookintohispayanumberofSaracens；andtobindthemtohim，andestablishinItalyafirmbulwarkagainstthechurch，withoutfearofpapalmaledictions，hegavethemNocerainthekingdomofNaples，that，havingarefugeoftheirown，theymightbeplacedingreatersecurity。ThepontificatewasnowoccupiedbyInnocentIV。，who，beinginfearofFrederick，wenttoGenoa，andthencetoFrance，whereheappointedacounciltobeheldatLyons，whereitwastheintentionofFredericktoattend，buthewaspreventedbytherebellionofParma:and，beingrepulsed，hewentintoTuscany，andfromthencetoSicily，wherehedied，leavinghissonConradinSuabia；andinPuglia，Manfred，whomhehadcreateddukeofBenevento，bornofaconcubine。Conradcametotakepossessionofthekingdom，andhavingarrivedatNaples，died，leavinganinfantsonnamedCorradino，whowastheninGermany。OnthisaccountManfredoccupiedthestate，firstasguardianofCorradino，butafterward，causingareporttobecirculatedthatCorradinohaddied，madehimselfking，contrarytothewishesofboththepopeandtheNeapolitans，who，however，wereobligedtosubmit。

WhilethesethingswereoccurringinthekingdomofNaples，manymovementstookplaceinLombardybetweentheGuelphsandtheGhibellines。TheGuelphswereheadedbyalegateofthepope；andtheGhibellinepartybyEzelin，whopossessednearlythewholeofLombardybeyondthePo；and，asinthecourseofthewarPaduarebelled，heputtodeathtwelvethousandofitscitizens。Butbeforeitsclosehehimselfwasslain，intheeightiethyearofhisage，andalltheplaceshehadheldbecamefree。Manfred，kingofNaples，continuedthoseenmitiesagainstthechurchwhichhadbeenbegunbyhisancestors，andkeptthepope，UrbanIV。，incontinualalarm；sothat，inordertosubduehim，Urbansummonedthecrusaders，andwenttoPerugiatoawaittheirarrival。Seeingthemfewandslowintheirapproach，hefoundthatmoreableassistancewasnecessarytoconquerManfred。HethereforesoughtthefavorofFrance；createdLouisofAnjou，theking'sbrother，sovereignofNaplesandSicily，andexcitedhimtocomeintoItalytotakepossessionofthatkingdom。ButbeforeCharlescametoRomethepopedied，andwassucceededbyClementIV。，inwhosetimehearrivedatOstia，withthirtygalleys，andorderedthattherestofhisforcesshouldcomebyland。DuringhisabodeatRome，thecitizens，inordertoattachhimtothem，madehimtheirsenator，andthepopeinvestedhimwiththekingdom，onconditionthatheshouldpayannuallytothechurchthesumoffiftythousandducats；

anditwasdecreedthat，fromthenceforth，neitherCharlesnoranyotherperson，whomightbekingofNaples，shouldbeemperoralso。

CharlesmarchedagainstManfred，routedhisarmy，andslewhimnearBenevento，andthenbecamesovereignofSicilyandNaples。Corradino，towhom，byhisfather'swill，thestatebelonged，havingcollectedagreatforceinGermany，marchedintoItalyagainstCharles，withwhomhecametoanengagementatTagliacozzo，wastakenprisonerwhileendeavoringtoescape，andbeingunknown，puttodeath。

ItalyremainedinreposeuntilthepontificateofAdrianV。Charles，beingatRomeandgoverningthecitybyvirtueofhisofficeofsenator，thepope，unabletoendurehispower，withdrewtoViterbo，andsolicitedtheEmperorRodolphtocomeintoItalyandassisthim。

Thusthepopes，sometimesinzealforreligion，atothersmovedbytheirownambition，werecontinuallycallinginnewpartiesandexcitingnewdisturbances。Assoonastheyhadmadeaprincepowerful，theyviewedhimwithjealousyandsoughthisruin；andneverallowedanothertorulethecountry，which，fromtheirownimbecility，theywerethemselvesunabletogovern。Princeswereinfearofthem；for，fightingorrunningaway，thepopesalwaysobtainedtheadvantage，unlessithappenedtheywereentrappedbydeceit，asoccurredtoBonifaceVIII。，andsomeothers，whounderpretenseoffriendship，wereensnaredbytheemperors。RodolphdidnotcomeintoItaly，beingdetainedbythewarinwhichhewasengagedwiththekingofBohemia。

【推荐阅读】幽幽深宫，醒来一梦似千年，重生于下堂妃身躯中的她，将如何手刃仇人? 点击阅读