Chapter3
TheNetherlanders
Inrespecttotemperamentandmanners，totheoriginand
languageoftheirinhabitants，nolessthantotheirpolitical
connectionandgeographicalposition，Holland，Flanders，and
BrabantconstitutedportionsoftheGermanEmpire。Themore
frequentvisitsofCharlemagneandhisresidenceinthevicinityof
thesecountriesmusthaveexercisedamuchmorepowerfulinfluence
ontheircivilisationthanonthatofmoredistantGerman
territories。Furthermore，FlandersandBrabantwerespecially
favouredbynatureasrespectsagricultureandmanufactures，as
Hollandwasasrespectscattle-farmingandcommerce。
NowhereinGermanywasinternaltradesopowerfullyaidedby
extensiveandexcellentseaandrivernavigationasinthese
maritimestates。Thebeneficialeffectsofthesemeansofwater
transportontheimprovementofagricultureandonthegrowthof
thetownsmustinthesecountries，evenatanearlyperiod，have
ledtotheremovalofimpedimentswhichhinderedtheirprogressand
totheconstructionofartificialcanals。Theprosperityof
Flanderswasespeciallypromotedbythecircumstancethather
rulingCountsrecognisedthevalueofpublicsecurity，ofgood
roads，manufactures，andflourishingcitiesbeforeallotherGerman
potentates，Favouredbythenatureoftheirterritory，theydevoted
themselveswithzealtotheextirpationoftherobberknightsand
ofwildbeasts。Activecommercialintercoursebetweenthecities
andthecountry，theextensionofcattle-farming，especiallyof
sheep，andofthecultureofflaxandhemp，naturallyfollowed；and
wherevertherawmaterialisabundantlyproduced，andsecurityof
propertyandofintercourseismaintained，labourandskillfor
workingupthatmaterialwillsoonbefound。MeanwhiletheCounts
ofFlandersdidnotwaituntilchanceshouldfurnishthemwith
woollenweavers，forhistoryinformsusthattheyimportedsuch
artificersfromforeigncountries。
SupportedbythereciprocaltradeoftheHanseaticLeagueand
ofRolland，Flanderssoonrosebyherwoollenmanufacturestobe
thecentralpointofthecommerceoftheNorth，justasVeniceby
herindustryandhershippinghadbecomethecentreofthecommerce
oftheSouth。Themerchantshipping，andreciprocaltradeofthe
HanseaticLeagueandtheDutch，togetherwiththemanufacturing
tradeofFlanders，constitutedonegreatwhole，arealnational
industry。Apolicyofcommercialrestrictioncouldnotintheir
casebedeemednecessary，becauseasyetnocompetitionhadarisen
againstthemanufacturingsupremacyofFlanders。Thatundersuch
circumstancesmanufacturingindustrythrivesbestunderfreetrade，
theCountsofFlandersunderstoodwithouthavingreadAdamSmith。
Quiteinthespiritofthepresentpopulartheory，CountRobert
III，whentheKingofEnglandrequestedhimtoexcludetheScotch
fromtheFlemishmarkets，replied，'Flandershasalwaysconsidered
herselfafreemarketforallnations，anditdoesnotconsistwith
herintereststodepartfromthatprinciple。'
AfterFlandershadcontinuedforcenturiestobethechief
manufacturingcountry，andBrugesthechiefmarket，ofNorthern
Europe，theirmanufacturesandcommercepassedovertothe
neighbouringprovinceofBrabant，becausetheCountsofFlanders
wouldnotcontinuetograntthemthoseconcessionstowhichinthe
periodoftheirgreatprosperitytheyhadlaidclaim。Antwerpthen
becametheprincipalseatofcommerce，andLouvainthechief
manufacturingcityofNorthernEurope。Inconsequenceofthis
changeofcircumstances，theagricultureofBrabantsoonrosetoa
highstateofprosperity。Thechangeinearlytimesfrompaymentof
impostsinkindtotheirpaymentinmoney，and，aboveall，the
limitationofthefeudalsystem，alsotendedespeciallytoits
advantage。
InthemeantimetheDutch，whoappearedmoreandmoreuponthe
scene，withunitedpower，asrivalstotheHanseaticLeague，laid
thefoundationoftheirfuturepoweratsea。Naturehadconferred
benefitsonthissmallnationbothbyherfrownsandsmiles。Their
perpetualcontestswiththeinroadsoftheseanecessarily
developedinthemaspiritofenterprise，industry，andthrift，
whilethelandwhichtheyhadreclaimedandprotectedbysuch
indescribableexertionsmusthaveseemedtothemapropertyto
whichtoomuchcarecouldnotbedevoted。RestrictedbyNature
herselftothepursuitsofnavigation，offisheries，andthe
productionofmeat，cheese，andbutter，theDutchwerecompelledto
supplytheirrequirementsofgrain，timber，fuel，andclothing
materialsbytheirmarinecarryingtrade，theirexportsofdairy
produce，andtheirfisheries。
ThoseweretheprincipalcauseswhytheHansardswereata
laterperiodgraduallyexcludedbytheDutchfromthetradewith
thenorth-easterncountries。TheDutchrequiredtoimportfar
greaterquantitiesofagriculturalproduceandoftimberthandid
theHansards，whowerechieflysuppliedwiththesearticlesbythe
territoriesimmediatelyadjoiningtheircities。And，further，the
vicinitytoHollandoftheBelgianmanufacturingdistricts，andof
theRhinewithitsextensive，fertile，andvine-cladbanks，andits
streamnavigableuptothemountainsofSwitzerland，constituted
greatadvantagesfortheDutch。
Itmaybeconsideredasanaxiomthatthecommerceand
prosperityofcountriesontheseacoastisdependentonthe
greaterorlessmagnitudeoftheriverterritorieswithwhichthey
havecommunicationbywater。(1*)IfwelookatthemapofItaly，we
shallfindinthegreatextentandfertilityofthevalleyofthe
PothenaturalreasonwhythecommerceofVenicesogreatly
surpassedthatofGenoaorofPisa。ThetradeofHollandhasits
chiefsourcesintheterritorieswateredbytheRhineandits
tributarystreams，andinthesameproportionastheseterritories
weremuchricherandmorefertilethanthosewateredbytheElbe
andtheWesermustthecommerceofHollandexceedthatoftheHanse
Towns。Totheadvantagesabovenamedwasaddedanotherfortunate
incident——theinventionbyPeterB鯿kelsofthebestmodeof
saltingherrings。Thebestmodeofcatchingandof'b鯿kelling'
thesefish(thelattertermderivedfromtheinventor)remainedfor
alongperiodasecretknownonlytotheDutch，bywhichtheyknew
howtopreparetheirherringswithapeculiarexcellencesurpassing
thoseofallotherpersonsengagedinseafishery，andsecuredfor
themselvesapreferenceinthemarketsaswellasbetter
prices。(2*)Andersonallegesthatafterthelapseofcenturiesfrom
thedateoftheseinventionsinHolland，theEnglishandScotch
fishermen，notwithstandingtheirenjoymentofaconsiderablebounty
onexport，couldnotfindpurchasersfortheirherringsinforeign
markets，evesatmuchlowerprices，incompetitionwiththeDutch。
Ifwebearinmindhowgreatwastheconsumptionofseafishinall
countriesbeforetheReformation，wecanwellgivecredittothe
factthatatatimewhentheHanseaticshippingtradehadalready
beguntodecline，theDutchfoundoccasionforbuilding2，000new
vesselsannually。
FromtheperiodwhenalltheBelgianandBatavianprovinces
wereunitedunderthedominionoftheHouseofBurgundy，these
countriespartlyacquiredthegreatbenefitofnationalunity，a
circumstancewhichmustnotbeleftoutofsightinconnectionwith
Holland'ssuccessinmaritimetradeincompetitionwiththecities
ofNorthernGermany。UndertheEmperorCharlesVtheUnited
Netherlandsconstitutedamassofpowerandcapacitywhichwould
haveinsuredtotheirimperialrulersupremacyovertheworld，both
bylandandatsea，farmoreeffectuallythanallthegoldmineson
earthandallthepapalfavoursandbullscouldhavedone，hadhe
onlycomprehendedthenatureofthosepowersandknownhowto
directandtomakeuseofthem。
HadCharlesVcastawayfromhimthecrownofSpainasaman
castsawayaburdensomestonewhichthreatenstodraghimdowna
precipice，howdifferentwouldhavebeenthedestinyoftheDutch
andtheGermanpeoples！AsRuleroftheUnitedNetherlands，as
EmperorofGermany，andasHeadoftheReformation，Charles
possessedalltherequisitemeans，bothmaterialandintellectual，
forestablishingthemightiestindustrialandcommercialempire，
thegreatestmilitaryandnavalpowerwhichhadeverexisted——a
maritimepowerwhichwouldhaveunitedunderoneflagallthe
shippingfromDunkirkasfarasRiga。
Theconceptionofbutoneidea，theexerciseofbutoneman's
will，wereallthatwereseededtohaveraisedGermanytothe
positionofthewealthiestandmightiestempireintheworld，to
haveextendedhermanufacturingandcommercialsupremacyoverevery
quarteroftheglobe，andprobablytohavemaintaineditthusfor
manycenturies。
CharlesVandhismorosesonfollowedtheexactlyopposite
policy。Placingthemselvesattheheadofthefanaticalparty，they
madeittheirchiefobjecttohispanicisetheNetherlands。The
resultofthatpolicyismatterofhistory。ThenorthernDutch
provinces，strongbymeansoftheelementoverwhichtheywere
supreme，conqueredtheirindependence。Inthesouthernprovinces
industry，thearts，andcommerce，perishedunderthehandofthe
executioner，saveonlywheretheymanagedtoescapethatfateby
emigratingtoothercountries。Amsterdambecamethecentralpoint
oftheworld'scommerceinsteadofAntwerp。ThecitiesofHolland，
whichalreadyatanearlierperiod，inconsequenceofthe
disturbancesinBrabant，hadattractedagreatnumberofBelgian
woollenweavers，hadnownotroomenoughtoaffordrefugetoall
theBelgianfugitives，ofwhomagreatnumberwereconsequently
compelledtoemigratetoEnglandandtoSaxony。
ThestruggleforlibertybegotinHollandanheroicspiritat
sea，towhichnothingappearedtoodifficultortooadventurous，
whileonthecontrarythespiritoffanaticismenfeebledthevery
nervesofSpain。Hollandenrichedherselfprincipallyby
privateeringagainstSpain，especiallybythecaptureofthe
Spanishtreasurefleets。Bythatmeansshecarriedonanenormous
contrabandtradewiththePeninsulaandwithBelgium。Afterthe
unionofPortugalwithSpain，Hollandbecamepossessedofthemost
importantPortuguesecoloniesintheEastindies，andacquireda
partofBrazil。Uptothefirsthalfoftheseventeenthcenturythe
DutchsurpassedtheEnglishinrespectofmanufacturesandof
colonialpossessions，ofcommerceandofnavigation，asgreatlyas
inourtimestheEnglishhavesurpassedtheFrenchinthese
respects。ButwiththeEnglishRevolutionamightychangedeveloped
itself。Thespiritoffreedomhadbecomeonlyacitizenspiritin
Holland。Asinallmeremercantilearistocracies，allwentonwell
foratime；solongasthepreservationoflifeandlimbsandof
property，andmerematerialadvantages，weretheobjectsclearlyin
view，theyshowedthemselvescapableofgreatdeeds。But
statesmanshipofamoreprofoundcharacterwasbeyondtheirken。
Theydidnotperceivethatthesupremacywhichtheyhadwon，could
onlybemaintainedifitwerebasedonagreatnationalityand
supportedbyamightynationalspirit。Ontheotherhand，those
stateswhichhaddevelopedtheirnationalityonalargescaleby
meansofmonarchy，butwhichwereyetbehindhandinrespectof
commerceandindustry，becameanimatedbyasentimentofshamethat
sosmallacountryasHollandshouldactthepartofmasterover
theminmanufacturesandcommerce，infisheries，andnavalpower。
InEnglandthissentimentwasaccompaniedbyalltheenergyofthe
new-bornRepublic。TheNavigationLawswerethechallengeglove
whichtherisingsupremacyofEnglandcastintothefaceofthe
reigningsupremacyofHolland。Andwhentheconflictcame，it
becameevidentthattheEnglishnationalitywasoffarlarger
calibrethanthatoftheDutch。Theresultcouldnotremain
doubtful。
TheexampleofEnglandwasfollowedbyFrance。Colberthad
estimatedthattheentiremarinetransporttradeemployedabout
20，000vessels，ofwhich16，000wereownedbytheDutch——anumber
altogetheroutofproportionforsosmallanation。Inconsequence
ofthesuccessionoftheBourbonstotheSpanishthrone，Francewas
enabledtoextendhertradeoverthePeninsula(tothegreat
disadvantageoftheDutch)，andequallysointheLevant。
SimultaneouslytheprotectionbyFranceofhernativemanufactures，
navigation，andfisheries，madeimmenseinroadsontheindustryand
commerceofHolland。
EnglandhadgainedfromHollandthegreaterpartofthetrade
ofthelatterwiththenorthernEuropeanstates，hercontraband
tradewithSpainandtheSpanishcolonies，andthegreaterpartof
hertradewiththeEastandWestIndies，andofherfisheries。But
themostseriousblowwasinflictedonherbytheMethuenTreatyof
1703。FromthatthecommerceofHollandwithPortugal，the
Portuguesecolonies，andtheEastindies，receivedadeadlywound。
WhenHollandthuscommencedtolosesolargeaportionofher
foreigntrade，thesameresulttookplacewhichhadpreviouslybeen
experiencedbytheHanseaticcitiesandbyVenice：thematerial
andmentalcapitalwhichcouldnowfindnoemploymentinHolland，
wasdivertedbyemigrationorintheshapeofloanstothose
countrieswhichhadacquiredthesupremacyfromHollandwhichshe
hadpreviouslypossessed。
IfHollandinunionwithBelgium，withtheRhenishdistricts，
andwithNorthGermany，hadconstitutedonenationalterritory，it
wouldhavebeendifficultforEnglandandFrancetohaveweakened
hernavalpower，herforeigncommerce，andherinternalindustryby
warsandbycommercialpolicy，astheysucceededindoing。Anation
suchasthatwouldhavebeen，couldhaveplacedincompetitionwith
thecommercialsystemsofothernationsacommercialsystemofher
own。Andifowingtothedevelopmentofthemanufacturesofthose
othernationsherindustrysufferedsomeinjury，herowninternal
resources，aidedbyfoundingcoloniesabroad，wouldhaveabundantly
madegoodthatloss。Hollandsuffereddeclinebecauseshe，amere
stripofseacoast，inhabitedbyasmallpopulationofGerman
fishermen，sailors，merchants，anddairyfarmers，endeavouredto
constituteherselfanationalpower，whilesheconsideredandacted
towardstheinlandterritoryatherback(ofwhichsheproperly
formedapart)asaforeignland。
TheexampleofHolland，likethatofBelgium，oftheHanseatic
cities，andoftheitalianrepublics，teachesusthatmereprivate
industrydoesnotsufficetomaintainthecommerce，industry，and
wealthofentirestatesandnations，ifthepubliccircumstances
underwhichitiscarriedonareunfavourabletoit；andfurther，
thatthegreaterpartoftheproductivepowersofindividualsare
derivedfromthepoliticalconstitutionofthegovernmentandfrom
thepowerofthenation。TheagriculturalindustryofBelgium
becameflourishingagainunderAustrianrule。WhenunitedtoFrance
hermanufacturingindustryroseagaintoitsancientimmense
extent。Hollandbyherselfwasneverinapositiontoestablishand
maintainanindependentcommercialsystemofherownincompetition
withgreatnations。ButwhenbymeansofherunionwithBelgium
afterthegeneralpeace(in1815)herinternalresources，
population，andnationalterritorywereincreasedtosuchanextent
thatshecouldrankherselfamongthegreatnationalities，and
becamepossessedinherselfofagreatmassandvarietyof
productivepowers，weseetheprotectivesystemestablishedalsoin
theNetherlands，andunderitsinfluenceagriculture，manufactures，
andcommercemakearemarkableadvance。Thisunionhasnowbeen
againdissolved(owingtocauseswhichlieoutsidethescopeand
purposeofourpresentwork)，andthustheprotectivesystemin
Hollandhasbeendeprivedofthebasisonwhichitrested，whilein
Belgiumitisstillmaintained。
Hollandisnowmaintainedbyhercoloniesandbyhertransport
tradewithGermany。Butthenextgreatnavalwarmayeasilydeprive
heroftheformer；andthemoretheGermanZollvereinattainstoa
clearperceptionofitsinterests，andtotheexerciseofits
powers，themoreclearlywillitrecognizethenecessityof
includingHollandwithintheZollverein。
NOTES：
1。Theconstructionofgoodroads，andstillmoreofrailways，
whichhastakenplaceinquiterecenttimes，hasmaterially
modifiedthisaxiom。
2。IthasbeenrecentlystatedthattheexcellenceoftheDutch
herringsisattributablenotonlytothesuperiormethodsabove
named，butalsotothecasksinwhichtheyare'b鯿kelled'and
exportedbeingconstructedofoak。
Chapter4
TheEnglish
InouraccountoftheHanseaticLeaguewehaveshownhowin
Englandagricultureandsheepfarminghavebeenpromotedbyforeign
trade；howatasubsequentperiod，throughtheimmigrationof
foreignartificers，fleeingfrompersecutionintheirnativeland，
andalsoowingtothefosteringmeasuresadoptedbytheBritish
Government，theEnglishwoollenmanufacturingindustryhad
graduallyattainedtoaflourishingcondition；andhow，asadirect
consequenceofthatprogressinmanufacturingindustry，aswellas
ofthewiseandenergeticmeasuresadoptedbyQueenElizabeth，all
theforeigntradewhichformerlyhadbeenmonopolisedbyforeigners
hadbeensuccessfullydivertedintothehandsofthemerchantsat
home。
beforewecontinueourexpositionofthedevelopmentofEnglish
nationaleconomyfromthepointwhereweleftoffinChapter2，we
ventureheretomakeafewremarksastotheoriginofBritish
industry。
ThesourceandoriginofEngland'sindustrialandcommercial
greatnessmustbetracedmainlytothebreedingofsheepandtothe
woollenmanufacture。
beforethefirstappearanceoftheHansardsonBritishsoilthe
agricultureofEnglandwasunskilfulandhersheepfarmingof
littleimportance。Therewasascarcityofwinterfodderforthe
cattle，consequentlyalargeproportionhadtobeslaughteredin
autumn，andhencebothstockandmanurewerealikedeficient。Just
asinalluncultivatedterritories——asformerlyinGermany，and
intheuncleareddistricts，ofAmericauptothepresenttime——
hogbreedingfurnishedtheprincipalsupplyofmeat，andthatfor
obviousreasons。Thepigsneededlittlecare——foragedfor
themselves，andfoundaplentifulsupplyoffoodonthewastelands
andintheforests；andbykeepingonlyamoderatenumberof
breedingsowsthroughthewinter，onewassureinthefollowing
springofpossessingconsiderableherds。
butwiththegrowthofforeigntradehogbreedingdiminished，
sheepfarmingassumedlargerproportions，andagricultureandthe
breedingofhornedcattlerapidlyimproved。
Hume，inhis'HistoryofEngland，'(1*)givesaveryinteresting
accountoftheconditionofEnglishagricultureatthebeginningof
thefourteenthcentury：
'Intheyear1327LordSpencercountedupon63estatesinhis
possession，28，000sheep，1，000oxen，1，200cows，560horses，and
2，000hogs：givingaproportionof450sheep，35headofcattle，9
horses，and22hogstoeachestate。'
Fromthisstatementwemayperceivehowgreatly，eveninthose
earlydays，thenumberofsheepinEnglandexceededthatofallthe
otherdomesticanimalsputtogether。Thegreatadvantagesderived
bytheEnglisharistocracyfromthebusinessofsheepfarminggave
themaninterestinindustryandinimprovedmethodsofagriculture
evenatthatearlyperiod，whennoblemeninmostContinentalstates
knewnobettermodeofutilisingthegreaterpartoftheir
possessionsthanbypreservinglargeherdsofdeer，andwhenthey
knewnomorehonourableoccupationthanharassingtheneighbouring
citiesandtheirtradebyhostilitiesofvariouskinds。
Andatthisperiod，ashasbeenthecaseinHungarymore
recently，theflockssogreatlyincreasedthatmanyestatescould
boastofthepossessionoffrom10，000to24，000sheep。Underthese
circumstancesitnecessarilyfollowedthat，undertheprotection
affordedbythemeasuresintroducedbyQueenElizabeth，thewoollen
manufacture，whichhadalreadyprogressedveryconsiderablyinthe
daysofformerEnglishrulers，shouldrapidlyreachaveryhigh
degreeofprosperity。(2*)
InthepetitionoftheHansardstotheImperialDiet，mentioned
inChapterII，whichprayedfortheenactmentofretaliatory
measures，England'sexportofclothwasestimatedat200，000
pieces；whileinthedaysofJamesIthetotalvalueofEnglish
clothsexportedhadalreadyreachedtheprodigiousamountoftwo
millionpoundssterling，whileintheyear1354thetotalmoney
valueofthewoolexportedhadamountedonlyto277，000l。，and
thatofallotherarticlesofexporttonomorethan16，400l。Down
tothereignofthelast-namedmonarchthegreatbulkofthecloth
manufacturedinEnglandusedtobeexportedtobelgiumintherough
stateandwastheredyedanddressed；butowingtothemeasuresof
protectionandencouragementintroducedunderJamesIandCharles
ItheartofdressingclothinEnglandattainedsohighapitchof
perfectionthatthenceforwardtheimportationofthefiner
descriptionsofclothnearlyceased，whileonlydyedandfinely
dressedclothswereexported。
Inorderfullytoappreciatetheimportanceoftheseresultsof
theEnglishcommercialpolicy，itmustbehereobservedthat，prior
tothegreatdevelopmentofthelinen，cotton，silk，andiron
manufacturesinrecenttimes，themanufactureofclothconstituted
byfarthelargestproportionofthemediumofexchangeinthe
tradewithallEuropeannations，particularlywiththenorthern
kingdoms，aswellasinthecommercialintercoursewiththeLevant
andtheEastandWestIndies。Towhatagreatextentthiswasthe
casewemayinferfromtheundoubtedfactthatasfarbackasthe
daysofJamesItheexportofwoollenmanufacturesrepresented
nine-tenthsofalltheEnglishexportsputtogether。(3*)
ThisbranchofmanufactureenabledEnglandtodrivethe
HanseaticLeagueoutofthemarketsofRussia，Sweden，Norway，and
Denmark，andtoacquireforherselfthebestpartoftheprofits
attachingtothetradewiththeLevantandtheEastandWest
Indies。Itwasthisindustrythatstimulatedthatofcoalmining，
whichagaingaverisetoanextensivecoastingtradeandthe
fisheries，bothwhich，asconstitutingthebasisofnavalpower，
renderedpossiblethepassingofthefamousNavigationLawswhich
reallylaidthefoundationofEngland'smaritimesupremacy。Itwas
roundthewoollenindustryofEnglandthatallotherbranchesof
manufacturegrewupasroundacommonparentstem；anditthus
constitutesthefoundationofEngland'sgreatnessinindustry，
commerce，andnavalpower。
AtthesametimetheotherbranchesofEnglishmanufacturewere
innowayneglected。
AlreadyunderthereignofElizabeththeimportationofmetal
andleathergoods，andofagreatmanyothermanufacturedarticles，
hadbeenprohibited，whiletheimmigrationofGermanminersand
metalworkerswasencouraged。Formerlyshipshadbeenboughtofthe
Hansardsorwereorderedtobebuiltinthebalticports。Butshe
contrived，byrestrictionsontheonehandandencouragementson
theother，topromoteshipbuildingathome。
ThetimberrequiredforthepurposewasbroughttoEnglandfrom
thebalticports，wherebyagainagreatimpetuswasgiventothe
Britishexporttradetothoseregions。
TheherringfisheryhadbeenlearnedfromtheDutch，whale
fishingfromthedwellersontheshoresoftheBayofBiscay；and
boththesefisherieswerenowstimulatedbymeansofbounties。
JamesImoreparticularlytookalivelyinterestinthe
encouragementofshipbuildingandoffisheries。Thoughwemaysmile
athisunceasingexhortationstohispeopletoeatfish，yetwe
mustdohimthejusticetosaythatheveryclearlyperceivedon
whatthefuturegreatnessofEnglanddepended。Theimmigrationinto
England，moreover，oftheProtestantartificerswhohadbeendriven
fromBelgiumandFrancebyPhilipIIandLouisXIVgavetoEngland
anincalculableincreaseofindustrialskillandmanufacturing
capital。TothesemenEnglandoweshermanufacturesoffinewoollen
cloth，herprogressintheartsofmakinghats，linen，glass，
paper，silk，clocksandwatches，aswellasapartofhermetal
manufacture；branchesofindustrywhichsheknewhowspeedilyto
increasebymeansofprohibitionandhighduties。
TheislandkingdomborrowedfromeverycountryoftheContinent
itsskillinspecialbranchesofindustry，andplantedthemon
Englishsoil，undertheprotectionofhercustomssystem。Venice
hadtoyield(amongstothertradesinarticlesofluxury)theart
ofglassmanufacture，whilePersiahadtogiveuptheartofcarpet
weavinganddyeing。
Oncepossessedofanyonebranchofindustry，Englandbestowed
uponitsedulouscareandattention，forcenturiestreatingitas
ayoungtreewhichrequiressupportandcare。Whoeverisnotyet
convincedthatbymeansofdiligence，skill，andeconomy，every
branchofindustrymustbecomeprofitableintime——thatinany
nationalreadyadvancedinagricultureandcivilisation，bymeans
ofmoderateprotection，itsinfantmanufactures，howeverdefective
anddeartheirproductionsatfirstmaybe，canbypractice，
experience，andinternalcompetitionreadilyattainabilityto
equalineveryrespecttheolderproductionsoftheirforeign
competitors；whoeverisignorantthatthesuccessofoneparticular
branchofindustrydependsonthatofseveralotherbranches，orto
whatahighdegreeanationcandevelopitsproductivepowers，if
shetakescarethateachsuccessivegenerationshallcontinuethe
workofindustrywhereformergenerationshaveleftit；lethim
firststudythehistoryofEnglishindustrybeforeheventuresto
frametheoreticalsystems，ortogivecounseltopractical
statesmentowhosehandsisgiventhepowerofpromotingtheweal
orthewoeofnations。
UnderGeorgeIEnglishstatesmenhadlongagoclearlyperceived
thegroundsonwhichthegreatnessofthenationdepends。Atthe
openingofParliamentin1721，theKingismadetosaybythe
Ministry，that'itisevidentthatnothingsomuchcontributesto
promotethepublicwell-beingastheexportationofmanufactured
goodsandtheimportationofforeignrawmaterial。(4*)
ThisforcenturieshadbeentherulingmaximofEnglish
commercialpolicy，asformerlyithadbeenthatofthecommercial
policyoftheVenetianRepublic。Itisinforceatthisday(1841)
justasitwasinthedaysofElizabeth。Thefruitsithasborne
lierevealedtotheeyesofthewholeworld。Thetheoristshave
sincecontendedthatEnglandhasattainedtowealthandpowernot
bymeansof，butinspiteof，hercommercialpolicy。Aswellmight
theyarguethattreeshavegrowntovigourandfruitfulness，notby
meansof，butinspiteof，thepropsandfenceswithwhichtheyhad
beensupportedwhentheywerefirstplanted。
NordoesEnglishhistorysupplylessconclusiveevidenceofthe
intimateconnectionsubsistingbetweenanation'sgeneralpolitical
policyandpoliticaleconomy。Clearlytheriseandgrowthof
manufacturesinEngland，withtheincreaseofpopulationresulting
fromit，tendedtocreateanactivedemandforsaltfishandfor
coals，whichledtoagreatincreaseofthemercantilemarine
devotedtofisheriesandthecoastingtrade。Boththefisheriesand
thecoastingtradewerepreviouslyinthehandsoftheDutch。
Stimulatedbyhighcustomsdutiesandbybounties，theEnglishnow
directedtheirownenergiestothefisherytrade，andbythe
NavigationLawstheysecuredchieflytoBritishsailorsnotonly
thetransportofsea-bornecoal，butthewholeofthecarrying
tradebysea。TheconsequentincreaseinEngland'smercantile
marineledtoaproportionateaugmentationofhernavalpower，
whichenabledtheEnglishtobiddefiancetotheDutchfleet。
ShortlyafterthepassingoftheNavigationLaws，anavalwarbroke
outbetweenEnglandandHolland，wherebythetradeoftheDutch
withcountriesbeyondtheEnglishChannelsufferedalmosttotal
suspension，whiletheirshippingintheNorthSeaandtheBaltic
wasalmostannihilatedbyEnglishprivateers。Humeestimatesthe
numberofDutchvesselswhichthusfellintothehandsofEnglish
cruisersat1，600，whileDavenant，inhis'ReportonthePublic
Revenue，'assuresusthatinthecourseofthetwenty-eightyears
nextfollowingthepassingoftheEnglishNavigationLaws，the
Englishshippingtradehadincreasedtodoubleitsprevious
extent。(5*)
AmongstthemoreimportantresultsoftheNavigationLaws，the
followingdeservespecialmention，viz。：
1。TheexpansionoftheEnglishtradewithallthenorthern
kingdoms，withGermanyandBelgium(exportofmanufacturesand
importofrawmaterial)，fromwhich，accordingtoAnderson's
account，uptotheyear1603theEnglishhadbeenalmostentirely
shutoutbytheDutch。
2。AnimmenseextensionofthecontrabandtradewithSpainand
Portugal，andtheirWestIndiancolonies。
3。AgreatincreaseofEngland'sherringandwhalefisheries，
whichtheDutchhadpreviouslyalmostentirelymonopolised。
4。TheconquestofthemostimportantEnglishcolonyinthe
WestIndies——Jamaica——in1655；andwiththat，thecommandof
theWestIndiansugartrade。
5。TheconclusionoftheMethuenTreaty(1703)withPortugal，
ofwhichwehavefullytreatedinthechaptersdevotedtoSpainand
Portugalinthiswork。BytheoperationofthistreatytheDutch
andtheGermanswereentirelyexcludedfromtheimportanttrade
withPortugalandhercolonies：Portugalsankintocomplete
politicaldependenceuponEngland，whileEnglandacquiredthe
means，throughthegoldandsilverearnedinhertradewith
Portugal，ofextendingenormouslyherowncommercialintercourse
withChinaandtheEastIndies，andtherebysubsequentlyoflaying
thefoundationforhergreatIndianempire，anddispossessingthe
Dutchfromtheirmostimportanttradingstations。
Thetworesultslastenumeratedstandinintimateconnection
onewiththeother。Andtheskillisespeciallynoteworthywith
whichEnglandcontrivedtomakethesetwocountries——Portugaland
India——theinstrumentsofherownfuturegreatness。Spainand
Portugalhadinthemainlittletodisposeofbesidestheprecious
metals，whiletherequirementsoftheEast，withtheexceptionof
cloths，consistedchieflyofthepreciousmetals。Sofareverything
suitedmostadmirably。ButtheEasthadprincipallyonlycottonand
silkmanufacturestoofferinexchange，andthatdidnotfitin
withtheprincipleoftheEnglishMinistrybeforereferredto，
namely，toexportmanufacturedarticlesandimportrawmaterials。
How，then，didtheyactunderthecircumstances？Didtheyrest
contentwiththeprofitsaccruingfromthetradeinclothswith
PortugalandincottonandsilkmanufactureswithIndia？Byno
means。TheEnglishMinisterssawfartherthanthat。
HadtheysanctionedthefreeimportationintoEnglandofIndian
cottonandsilkgoods，theEnglishcottonandsilkmanufactories
mustofnecessitysooncometoastand。Indiahadnotonlythe
advantageofcheaperlabourandrawmaterial，butalsothe
experience，theskill，andthepracticeofcenturies。Theeffectof
theseadvantagescouldnotfailtotellunderasystemoffree
competition。
ButEnglandwasunwillingtofoundsettlementsinAsiainorder
tobecomesubservienttoAsiainmanufacturingindustry。Shestrove
forcommercialsupremacy，andfeltthatoftwocountries
maintainingfreetradebetweenoneanother，thatonewouldbe
supremewhichsoldmanufacturedgoods，whilethatonewouldbe
subservientwhichcouldonlysellagriculturalproduce。Inher
NorthAmericancoloniesEnglandhadalreadyactedonthose
principlesindisallowingthemanufactureinthosecoloniesofeven
asinglehorseshoenail，and，stillmore，thatnohorseshoenails
madethereshouldbeimportedintoEngland。Howcoulditbe
expectedofherthatshewouldgiveupherownmarketfor
manufactures，thebasisofherfuturegreatness，toapeopleso
numerous，sothrifty，soexperiencedandperfectintheoldsystems
ofmanufactureastheHindoos？
Accordingly，Englandprohibitedtheimportofthegoodsdealt
inbyherownfactories，theIndiancottonandsilkfabrics。(6*)
Theprohibitionwascompleteandperemptory。Notsomuchasa
threadofthemwouldEnglandpermittobeused。Shewouldhavenone
ofthesebeautifulandcheapfabrics，butpreferredtoconsumeher
owninferiorandmorecostlystuffs。Shewas，however，quite
willingtosupplytheContinentalnationswiththefarfiner
fabricsofIndiaatlowerprices，andwillinglyyieldedtothemall
thebenefitofthatcheapness；sheherselfwouldhavenoneofit。
WasEnglandafoolinsoacting？Mostassuredly，accordingto
thetheoriesofAdamSmithandJ。B。SaytheTheoryofValues。For，
accordingtothem，Englandshouldhaveboughtwhatsherequired
whereshecouldbuythemcheapestandbest：itwasanactoffolly
tomanufactureforherselfgoodsatagreatercostthanshecould
buythematelsewhere，andatthesametimegiveawaythat
advantagetotheContinent。
Thecaseisquitethecontrary，accordingtoourtheory，which
wetermtheTheoryofthePowersofProduction，andwhichthe
EnglishMinistry，withouthavingexaminedthefoundationonwhich
itrests，yetpracticallyadoptedwhenenforcingtheirmaximof
importingproduceandexportingfabrics。
TheEnglishMinisterscarednotfortheacquisitionof
low-pricedandperishablearticlesofmanufacture，butforthatof
amorecostlybutenduringmanufacturingpower。
Theyhaveattainedtheirobjectinabrilliantdegree。Atthis
dayEnglandproducesseventymillionpounds'worthofcottonand
silkgoods，andsuppliesallEurope，theentireworld，Indiaitself
included，withBritishmanufactures。Herhomeproductionexceedsby
fiftyorahundredtimesthevalueofherformertradeinIndian
manufacturedgoods。
Whatwouldithaveprofitedherhadshebeenbuyingfora
centurythecheapgoodsofIndianmanufacture？
Andwhathavetheygainedwhopurchasedthosegoodssocheaply
ofher？TheEnglishhavegainedpower，incalculablepower，while
theothershavegainedthereverseofpower。
Thatinthefaceofresultslikethese，historicallyattested
uponunimpeachableevidence，AdamSmithshouldhaveexpressedso
warpedajudgmentupontheNavigationLaws，canonlybeaccounted
foruponthesameprincipleonwhichweshallinanotherchapter
explainthiscelebratedauthor'sfallaciousconclusionsrespecting
commercialrestrictions。Thesefactsstoodinthewayofhispet
notionofunrestrictedfreetrade。Itwasthereforenecessaryfor
himtoobviatetheobjectionthatcouldbeadducedagainsthis
principlefromtheeffectsoftheNavigationLaws，bydrawinga
distinctionbetweentheirpoliticalobjectsandtheireconomical
objects。Hemaintainedthat，althoughtheNavigationLawshadbeen
politicallynecessaryandbeneficial，yetthattheywere
economicallyprejudicialandinjurious。Howlittlethisdistinction
canbejustifiedbythenatureofthingsorbyexperience，wetrust
tomakeapparentinthecourseofthistreatise。
J。B。Say，thoughhemighthaveknownbetterfromthe
experienceofNorthAmerica，heretoo，asineveryinstancewhere
theprinciplesoffreetradeandprotectionclash，goesstill
fartherthanhispredecessor。Sayreckonsupwhatthecostofa
sailortotheFrenchnationis，owingtothefisherybounties，in
ordertoshowhowwastefulandunremunerativethesebountiesare。
Thesubjectofrestrictionsuponnavigationconstitutesa
formidablestumbling-blockinthepathoftheadvocatesof
unrestrictedfreetrade，whichtheyareonlytoogladtopassover
insilence，especiallyiftheyaremembersofthemercantile
communityinseaporttowns。
Thetruthofthematteristhis。Restrictionsonnavigationare
governedbythesamelawasrestrictionsuponanyotherkindof
trade。Freedomofnavigationandthecarryingtradeconductedby
foreignersareserviceableandwelcometocommunitiesintheearly
stagesoftheircivilisation，solongastheiragricultureand
manufacturesstillremainundeveloped。Owingtowantofcapitaland
ofexperiencedseamen，theyarewillingtoabandonnavigationand
foreigntradetoothernations。Lateron，however，whentheyhave
developedtheirproducingpowertoacertainpointandacquired
skillinshipbuildingandnavigation，thentheywilldesireto
extendtheirforeigntrade，tocarryitonintheirownships，and
becomeanavalpowerthemselves。Graduallytheirownmercantile
marinegrowstosuchadegreethattheyfeelthemselvesina
positiontoexcludetheforeignerandtoconducttheirtradetothe
mostdistantplacesbymeansoftheirownvessels。Thenthetime
hascomewhen，bymeansofrestrictionsonnavigation，anationcan
successfullyexcludethemorewealthy，moreexperienced，andmore
powerfulforeignerfromparticipationintheprofitsofthat
business。Whenthehighestdegreeofprogressinnavigationand
maritimepowerhasbeenreached，anewerawillsetin，nodoubt；
andsuchwasthatstageofadvancementwhichDrPriestleyhadin
hismindwhenhewrote'thatthetimemaycomewhenitmaybeas
politictorepealthisActasitwastomakeit。'(7*)
Thenitisthat，bymeansoftreatiesofnavigationbasedupon
equalityofrights，anationcan，ontheonehand，secureundoubted
advantagesasagainstlesscivilisednations，whowillthusbe
debarredfromintroducingrestrictionsonnavigationintheirown
specialbehalf；while，ontheotherhand，itwilltherebypreserve
itsownseafaringpopulationfromsloth，andspurthemontokeep
pacewithothercountriesinshipbuildingandintheartof
navigation。Whileengagedinherstruggleforsupremacy，Venicewas
doubtlessgreatlyindebtedtoherpolicyofrestrictionson
navigation；butassoonasshehadacquiredsupremacyintrade，
manufactures，andnavigation，itwasfollytoretainthem。For
owingtothemshewasleftbehindintherace，bothasrespects
shipbuilding，navigation，andseamanshipofhersailors，withother
maritimeandcommercialnationswhichwereadvancinginher
footsteps。ThusEnglandbyherpolicyincreasedhernavalpower，
andbymeansofhernavalpowerenlargedtherangeofher
manufacturingandcommercialpowers，andagain，bythelatter，
thereaccruedtoherfreshaccessionsofmaritimestrengthandof
colonialpossessions。AdamSmith，whenhemaintainsthatthe
NavigationLawshavenotbeenbeneficialtoEnglandincommercial
respects，admitsthat，inanycase，theselawshaveincreasedher
power。Andpowerismoreimportantthanwealth。Thatisindeedthe
fact。Powerismoreimportantthanwealth。Andwhy？Simplybecause
nationalpowerisadynamicforcebywhichnewproductiveresources
areopenedout，andbecausetheforcesofproductionarethetree
onwhichwealthgrows，andbecausethetreewhichbearsthefruit
isofgreatervaluethanthefruititself。Powerisofmore
importancethanwealthbecauseanation，bymeansofpower，is
enablednotonlytoopenupnewproductivesources，buttomaintain
itselfinpossessionofformerandofrecentlyacquiredwealth，and
becausethereverseofpower——namely，feebleness——leadstothe
relinquishmentofallthatwepossess，notofacquiredwealth
alone，butofourpowersofproduction，ofourcivilisation，ofour
freedom，nay，evenofournationalindependence，intothehandsof
thosewhosurpassusinmight，asisabundantlyattestedbythe
historyoftheItalianrepublics，oftheHanseaticLeague，ofthe
Belgians，theDutch，theSpaniards，andthePortuguese。
Buthowcameitthat，unmindfulofthislawofalternating
actionandreactionbetweenpoliticalpower，theforcesof
productionandwealth，AdamSmithcouldventuretocontendthatthe
MethuenTreatyandtheActofNavigationhadnotbeenbeneficialto
Englandfromacommercialpointofview？WehaveshownhowEngland
bythepolicywhichshepursuedacquiredpower，andbyher
politicalpowergainedproductivepower，andbyherproductive
powergainedwealth。Letusnowseefurtherhow，asaresultof
thispolicy，powerhasbeenaddedtopower，andproductiveforces
toproductiveforces。
Englandhasgotintoherpossessionthekeysofeverysea，and
placedasentryovereverynation：overtheGermans，Heligoland；
overtheFrench，GuernseyandJersey；overtheinhabitantsofNorth
America，NovaScotiaandtheBermudas；overCentralAmerica，the
islandofJamaica；overallcountriesborderingonthe
Mediterranean，Gibraltar，Malta，andtheIonianIslands。She
possesseseveryimportantstrategicalpositiononboththeroutes
toIndiawiththeexceptionoftheIsthmusofSuez，whichsheis
strivingtoacquire；shedominatestheMediterraneanbymeansof
Gibraltar，theRedSeabyAden，andthePersianGulfbyBushireand
Karrack。SheneedsonlythefurtheracquisitionoftheDardanelles，
theSound，andtheIsthmusesofSuezandPanama，inordertobe
abletoopenandcloseatherpleasureeveryseaandeverymaritime
highway。Hernavyalonesurpassesthecombinedmaritimeforcesof
allothercountries，ifnotinnumberofvessels，atanyratein
fightingstrength。
Hermanufacturingcapacityexcelsinimportancethatofall
othernations。Andalthoughherclothmanufactureshaveincreased
morethantenfold(toforty-fourandahalfmillions)sincethe
daysofJamesI，wefindtheyieldofanotherbranchofindustry，
whichwasestablishedonlyinthecourseofthelastcentury，
namely，themanufactureofcotton，amountingtoamuchlargersum，
fifty-twoandahalfmillions。(8*)
Notcontentwiththat，Englandisnowattemptingtoraiseher
linenmanufacture，whichhasbeenlonginabackwardstateas
comparedwiththatofothercountries，toasimilarposition，
possiblytoahigheronethanthatofthetwoabove-namedbranches
ofindustry：itnowamountstofifteenandahalfmillions
sterling。Inthefourteenthcentury，Englandwasstillsopoorin
ironthatshethoughtitnecessarytoprohibittheexportationof
thisindispensablemetal；shenow，inthenineteenthcentury，
manufacturesmoreironandsteelwaresthanalltheothernations
onearth(namely，thirty-onemillions'worth)，whilesheproduces
thirty-fourmillionsinvalueofcoalandotherminerals。Thesetwo
sumsexceedbyoversevenfoldthevalueoftheentiregoldand
silverproductionofallothernations，whichamounttoabouttwo
hundredandtwentymillionfrancs，orninemillionssterling。
AtthisdaysheproducesmoresilkgoodsthanalltheItalian
republicsproducedintheMiddleAgestogether，namely，thirteen
andahalfmillionpounds。IndustrieswhichatthetimeofHenry
VIIIandElizabethscarcelydeservedclassification，nowyield
enormoussums；as，forinstance，theglass，china，andstoneware
manufactures，representingelevenmillions；thecopperandbrass
manufactures，fourandahalfmillions；themanufacturesofpaper，
books，colours，andfurniture，fourteenmillions。
Englandproduces，moreover，sixteenmillions'worthofleather
goods，besidestenmillions'worthofunenumeratedarticles。The
manufactureofbeerandspirituousliquorsinEnglandalonegreatly
exceedsinvaluetheaggregateofnationalproductioninthedays
ofJamesI，namely，forty-sevenmillionssterling。
TheentiremanufacturingproductionoftheUnitedKingdomat
thepresenttime，isestimatedtoamounttotwohundredand
fifty-nineandahalfmillionssterling。
Asaconsequence，andmainlyasaconsequence，ofthisgigantic
manufacturingproduction，theproductivepowerofagriculturehas
beenenabledtoyieldatotalvalueexceedingtwicethatsum(five
hundredandthirty-ninemillionssterling)。
Itistruethatforthisincreaseinherpower，andinher
productivecapacity，Englandisnotindebtedsolelytoher
commercialrestrictions，herNavigationLaws，orhercommercial
treaties，butinalargemeasurealsotoherconquestsinscience
andinthearts。
Buthowcomesit，thatinthesedaysonemillionofEnglish
operativescanperformtheworkofhundredsofmillions？Itcomes
fromthegreatdemandformanufacturedgoodswhichbyherwiseand
energeticpolicyshehasknownhowtocreateinforeignlands，and
especiallyinhercolonies；fromthewiseandpowerfulprotection
extendedtoherhomeindustries；fromthegreatrewardswhichby
meansofherpatentlawsshehasofferedtoeverynewdiscovery；
andfromtheextraordinaryfacilitiesforherinlandtransport
affordedbypublicroads，canals，andrailways。
Englandhasshowntheworldhowpowerfulistheeffectof
facilitiesoftransportinincreasingthepowersofproduction，and
therebyincreasingthewealth，thepopulation，andthepolitical
powerofanation。Shehasshownuswhatafree，industrious，and
well-governedcommunitycandointhisrespectwithinthebrief
spaceofhalfacentury，eveninthemidstofforeignwars。That
whichtheItalianrepublicshadpreviouslyaccomplishedinthese
respectswasmerechild'splay。Itisestimatedthatasmuchasa
hundredandeighteenmillionssterlinghavebeenexpendedin
Englanduponthesemightyinstrumentsofthenation'sproductive
power。
England，however，onlycommencedandcarriedouttheseworks
whenhermanufacturingpowerbegantogrowstrong。Sincethen，it
hasbecomeevidenttoallobserversthatthatnationonlywhose
manufacturingpowerbeginstodevelopitselfuponanextensive
scaleisabletoaccomplishsuchworks；thatonlyinanationwhich
developsconcurrentlyitsinternalmanufacturingandagricultural
resourceswillsuchcostlyenginesoftraderepaytheircost；and
thatinsuchanationonlywilltheyproperlyfulfiltheirpurpose。
Itmustbeadmitted，too，thattheenormousproducingcapacity
andthegreatwealthofEnglandarenottheeffectsolelyof
nationalpowerandindividualloveofgain。Thepeople'sinnate
loveoflibertyandofjustice，theenergy，thereligiousandmoral
characterofthepeople，haveashareinit。Theconstitutionof
thecountry，itsinstitutions，thewisdomandpowerofthe
Governmentandofthearistocracy，haveashareinit。The
geographicalposition，thefortunesofthecountry，nay，evengood
luck，haveashareinit。
Itisnoteasytosaywhetherthematerialforcesexerta
greaterinfluenceoverthemoralforces，orwhetherthemoral
outweighthematerialintheiroperation；whetherthesocialforces
actupontheindividualforcesthemorepowerfully，orwhetherthe
latterupontheformer。Thismuchiscertain，however，namely，that
betweenthetwotheresubsistsaninterchangingsequenceofaction
andreaction，withtheresultthattheincreaseofonesetof
forcespromotestheincreaseoftheother，andthatthe
enfeeblementoftheoneeverinvolvestheenfeeblementofthe
other。
ThosewhoseekforthefundamentalcausesofEngland'sriseand
progressintheblendingofAnglo-SaxonwiththeNormanblood，
shouldfirstcastaglanceattheconditionofthecountrybefore
thereignofEdwardIII。Wherewerethenthediligenceandthe
habitsofthriftofthenation？Thoseagainwhowouldlookforthem
intheconstitutionallibertiesenjoyedbythepeoplewilldowell
toconsiderhowHenryVIIIandElizabethtreatedtheirParliaments。
WhereindidEngland'sconstitutionalfreedomconsistunderthe
Tudors？AtthatperiodthecitiesofGermanyandItalyenjoyeda
muchgreateramountofindividualfreedomthantheEnglishdid。
Onlyonejeweloutofthetreasure-houseoffreedomwas
preservedbytheAnglo-Saxon-Normanrace——beforeotherpeoplesof
Germanicorigin；andthatwasthegermfromwhichalltheEnglish
ideasoffreedomandjusticehavesprung——therightoftrialby
jury。
WhileinItalythePandectswerebeingunearthed，andthe
exhumedremains(nodoubtofdepartedgreatnessandwisdomintheir
day)werespreadingthepestilenceoftheCodesamongstContinental
nations，wefindtheEnglishBaronsdeclaringtheywouldnothear
ofanychangeinthelawoftheland。Whatastoreofintellectual
forcedidtheynottherebysecureforthegenerationstocome！How
muchdidthisintellectualforcesubsequentlyinfluencetheforces
ofmaterialproduction！
HowgreatlydidtheearlybanishmentoftheLatinlanguagefrom
socialandliterarycircles，fromtheStatedepartments，andthe
courtsoflawinEngland，influencethedevelopmentofthenation，
itslegislation，lawadministration，literature，andindustry！What
hasbeentheeffectuponGermanyofthelongretentionoftheLatin
inconjunctionwithforeignCodes，andwhathasbeenitseffectin
Hungarytothepresentday？Whataneffecthavetheinventionof
gunpowder，theartofprinting，theReformation，thediscoveryof
thenewroutestoIndiaandofAmerica，hadonthegrowthof
Englishliberties，ofEnglishcivilisation，andofEnglish
industry？ComparewiththistheireffectuponGermanyandFrance。
InGermany——discordintheEmpire，intheprovinces，evenwithin
thewallsofcities；miserablecontroversies，barbarismin
literature，intheadministrationoftheStateandofthelaw；
civilwar，persecutions，expatriation，foreigninvasion，
depopulation，desolation；theruinofcities，thedecayof
industry，agriculture，andtrade，offreedomandcivic
institutions；supremacyofthegreatnobles；decayoftheimperial
power，andofnationality；severanceofthefairestprovincesfrom
theEmpire。InFrance——subjugationofthecitiesandofthe
noblesintheinterestofdespotism；alliancewiththepriesthood
againstintellectualfreedom，butatthesametimenationalunity
andpower；conquestwithitsgainanditscurse，but，asagainst
that，downfalloffreedomandofindustry。InEngland——therise
ofcities，progressinagriculture，commerce，andmanufactures；
subjectionofthearistocracytothelawoftheland，andhencea
preponderatingparticipationbythenobilityintheworkof
legislation，intheadministrationoftheStateandofthelaw，as
alsointheadvantagesofindustry；developmentofresourcesat
home，andofpoliticalpowerabroad；internalpeace；influenceover
alllessadvancedcommunities；limitationofthepowersofthe
Crown，butgainbytheCrowninroyalrevenues，insplendourand
stability。Altogether，ahigherdegreeofwell-being，civilisation，
andfreedomathome，andpreponderatingmightabroad。
Butwhocansayhowmuchofthesehappyresultsisattributable
totheEnglishnationalspiritandtotheconstitution；howmuchto
England'sgeographicalpositionandcircumstancesinthepast；or
again，howmuchtochance，todestiny，tofortune？
LetCharlesVandHenryVIIIchangeplaces，and，inconsequence
ofavillanousdivorcetrial，itisconceivable(thereaderwill
understandwhywesay'conceivable')thatGermanyandthe
NetherlandsmighthavebecomewhatEnglandandSpainhavebecome。
PlaceinthepositionofElizabeth，aweakwomanallyingherselfto
aPhilipII，andhowwouldithavefaredwiththepower，the
civilisation，andthelibertiesofGreatBritain？
Iftheforceofnationalcharacterwillaloneaccountfor
everythinginthismightyrevolution，mustnotthenthegreatest
shareofitsbeneficialresultshaveaccruedtothenationfrom
whichitsprang，namely，toGermany？Insteadofthat，itisjust
theGermannationwhichreapednothingsavetroubleandweakness
fromthismovementinthedirectionofprogress。
InnoEuropeankingdomistheinstitutionofanaristocracy
morejudiciouslydesignedthaninEnglandforsecuringtothe
nobility，intheirrelationtotheCrownandthecommonalty，
individualindependence，dignity，andstability；togivethema
Parliamentarytrainingandposition；todirecttheirenergiesto
patrioticandnationalaims；toinducethemtoattracttotheirown
bodythe閘iteofthecommonalty，toincludeintheirranksevery
commonerwhoearnsdistinction，whetherbymentalgifts，
exceptionalwealth，orgreatachievements；and，ontheotherhand，
tocastbackagainamongstthecommonsthesurplusprogenyof
aristocraticdescent，thusleadingtotheamalgamationofthe
nobilityandthecommonaltyinfuturegenerations。Bythisprocess
thenobilityiseverreceivingfromtheCommonsfreshaccessionsof
civicandpatrioticenergy，ofscience，learning，intellectualand
materialresources，whileitiseverrestoringtothepeoplea
portionofthecultureandofthespiritofindependencepeculiarly
itsown，leavingitsownchildrentotrusttotheirownresources，
andsupplyingthecommonaltywithincentivestorenewedexertion。
InthecaseoftheEnglishlord，howeverlargemaybethenumberof
hisdescendants，onlyonecanholdthetitleatatime。Theother
membersofthefamilyarecommoners，whogainalivelihoodeither
inoneofthelearnedprofessions，orintheCivilService，in
commerce，industry，oragriculture。Thestorygoesthatsometime
agooneofthefirstdukesinEnglandconceivedtheideaof
invitingallthebloodrelationsofhishousetoabanquet，buthe
wasfaintoabandonthedesignbecausetheirnamewaslegion，
notwithstandingthatthefamilypedigreehadnotreachedfarther
backthanforafewcenturies。Itwouldrequireawholevolumeto
showtheeffectofthisinstitutionuponthespiritofenterprise，
thecolonisation，themightandtheliberties，andespeciallyupon
theforcesofproductionofthisnation。(9*)
ThegeographicalpositionofEngland，too，hasexercisedan
immenseinfluenceupontheindependentdevelopmentofthenation。
EnglandinitsrelationtothecontinentofEuropehaseverbeena
worldbyitself；andwasalwaysexemptfromtheeffectsofthe
rivalries，theprejudices，theselfishness，thepassions，andthe
disastersofherContinentalneighbours。Tothisisolatedcondition
sheismainlyindebtedfortheindependentandunalloyedgrowthof
herpoliticalconstitution，fortheundisturbedconsummationofthe
Reformation，andforthesecularisationofecclesiasticalproperty
whichhasprovedsobeneficialtoherindustries。Tothesamecause
sheisalsoindebtedforthatcontinuouspeace，which，withthe
exceptionoftheperiodofthecivilwar，shehasenjoyedfora
seriesofcenturies，andwhichenabledhertodispensewith
standingarmies，whilefacilitatingtheearlyintroductionofa
consistentcustomssystem。
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