Beforeenteringuponthesubject-matterofthesenewmemoirs，Imustexplainanhypothesiswhichwillundoubtedlyseemstrange，butintheabsenceofwhichitisimpossibleformetoproceedintelligibly：ImeanthehypothesisofaGod。

TosupposeGod，itwillbesaid，istodenyhim。Whydoyounotaffirmhim？

IsitmyfaultifbeliefinDivinityhasbecomeasuspectedopinion；

ifthebaresuspicionofaSupremeBeingisalreadynotedasevidenceofaweakmind；andif，ofallphilosophicalUtopias，thisistheonlyonewhichtheworldnolongertolerates？Isitmyfaultifhypocrisyandimbecilityeverywherehidebehindthisholyformula？

Letapublicteachersupposetheexistence，intheuniverse，ofanunknownforcegoverningsunsandatoms，andkeepingthewholemachineinmotion。

Withhimthissupposition，whollygratuitous，isperfectlynatural；itisreceived，encouraged：witnessattraction——anhypothesiswhichwillneverbeverified，andwhich，nevertheless，isthegloryofitsoriginator。

Butwhen，toexplainthecourseofhumanevents，Isuppose，withallimaginablecaution，theinterventionofaGod，Iamsuretoshockscientificgravityandoffendcriticalears：tosowonderfulanextenthasourpietydiscreditedProvidence，somanytrickshavebeenplayedbymeansofthisdogmaorfictionbycharlatansofeverystamp！Ihaveseenthetheistsofmytime，andblasphemyhasplayedovermylips；Ihavestudiedthebeliefofthepeople，——thispeoplethatBrydainecalledthebestfriendofGod，——andhaveshudderedatthenegationwhichwasabouttoescapeme。Tormentedbyconflictingfeelings，Iappealedtoreason；anditisreasonwhich，amidsomanydogmaticcontradictions，nowforcesthehypothesisuponme。Aprioridogmatism，applyingitselftoGod，hasprovedfruitless：whoknowswhitherthehypothesis，initsturn，willleadus？

Iwillexplainthereforehow，studyinginthesilenceofmyheart，andfarfromeveryhumanconsideration，themysteryofsocialrevolutions，God，thegreatunknown，hasbecomeformeanhypothesis，——Imeananecessarydialecticaltool。

I。

IfIfollowtheGod-ideathroughitssuccessivetransformations，Ifindthatthisideaispreeminentlysocial：Imeanbythisthatitismuchmoreacollectiveactoffaiththananindividualconception。Now，howandunderwhatcircumstancesisthisactoffaithproduced？Thispointitisimportanttodetermine。

Fromthemoralandintellectualpointofview，society，orthecollectiveman，isespeciallydistinguishedfromtheindividualbyspontaneityofaction，——inotherwords，instinct。Whiletheindividualobeys，orimaginesheobeys，onlythosemotivesofwhichheisfullyconscious，anduponwhichhecanatwilldeclineorconsenttoact；while，inaword，hethinkshimselffree，andallthefreerwhenheknowsthatheispossessedofkeenerreasoningfacultiesandlargerinformation，——societyisgovernedbyimpulseswhich，atfirstblush，exhibitnodeliberationanddesign，butwhichgraduallyseemtobedirectedbyasuperiorpower，existingoutsideofsociety，andpushingitwithirresistiblemighttowardanunknowngoal。Theestablishmentofmonarchiesandrepublics，caste-distinctions，judicialinstitutions，etc。，aresomanymanifestationsofthissocialspontaneity，tonotetheeffectsofwhichismucheasierthantopointoutitsprincipleandshowitscause。Thewholeeffort，evenofthosewho，followingBossuet，Vico，Herder，Hegel，haveappliedthemselvestothephilosophyofhistory，hasbeenhithertotoestablishthepresenceofaprovidentialdestinypresidingoverallthemovementsofman。AndIobserve，inthisconnection，thatsocietyneverfailstoevokeitsgeniusprevioustoaction：asifitwishedthepowersabovetoordainwhatitsownspontaneityhasalreadyresolvedon。Lots，oracles，sacrifices，popularacclamation，publicprayers，arethecommonestformsofthesetardydeliberationsofsociety。

Thismysteriousfaculty，whollyintuitive，and，sotospeak，super-social，scarcelyornotatallperceptibleinpersons，butwhichhoversoverhumanitylikeaninspiringgenius，istheprimordialfactofallpsychology。

Now，unlikeotherspeciesofanimals，which，likehim，aregovernedatthesametimebyindividualdesiresandcollectiveimpulses，manhastheprivilegeofperceivinganddesignatingtohisownmindtheinstinctorfatumwhichleadshim；weshallseelaterthathehasalsothepowerofforeseeingandeveninfluencingitsdecrees。Andthefirstactofman，filledandcarriedawaywithenthusiasm(ofthedivinebreath)，istoadoretheinvisibleProvidenceonwhichhefeelsthathedepends，andwhichhecallsGOD，——thatis，Life，Being，Spirit，or，simplerstill，Me；forallthesewords，intheancienttongues，aresynonymsandhomophones。

“IamMe，“GodsaidtoAbraham，“andIcovenantwithThee。”……AndtoMoses：“IamtheBeing。ThoushaltsayuntothechildrenofIsrael，`TheBeinghathsentmeuntoyou。”“Thesetwowords，theBeingandMe，haveintheoriginallanguage——themostreligiousthatmenhaveeverspoken——thesamecharacteristic。(1*)Elsewhere，whenIe-hovah，actingaslaw-giverthroughtheinstrumentalityofMoses，attestshiseternityandswearsbyhisownessence，heuses，asaformofoath，I；orelse，withredoubledforce，I，theBeing。ThustheGodoftheHebrewsisthemostpersonalandwilfulofallthegods，andnoneexpressbetterthanhetheintuitionofhumanity。

Godappearedtoman，then，asame，asapureandpermanentessence，placinghimselfbeforehimasamonarchbeforehisservant，andexpressinghimselfnowthroughthemouthofpoets，legislators，andsoothsayers，musa，nomos，numen；nowthroughthepopularvoice，voxpopulivoxDei。Thismayserve，amongotherthings，toexplaintheexistenceoftrueandfalseoracles；

whyindividualssecludedfrombirthdonotattainofthemselvestotheideaofGod，whiletheyeagerlygraspitassoonasitispresentedtothembythecollectivemind；why，finally，stationaryraces，liketheChinese，endbylosingit。(2*)Inthefirstplace，astooracles，itisclearthatalltheiraccuracydependsupontheuniversalconsciencewhichinspiresthem；and，astotheideaofGod，itiseasilyseenwhyisolationandstatuquoarealikefataltoit。Ontheonehand，absenceofcommunicationkeepsthemindabsorbedinanimalself-contemplation；ontheother，absenceofmotion，graduallychangingsociallifeintomechanicalroutine，finallyeliminatestheideaofwillandprovidence。Strangefact！religion，whichperishesthroughprogress，perishesalsothroughquiescence。

Noticefurtherthat，inattributingtothevagueand(sotospeak)objectifiedconsciousnessofauniversalreasonthefirstrevelationofDivinity，weassumeabsolutelynothingconcerningeventherealityornon-realityofGod。Infact，admittingthatGodisnothingmorethancollectiveinstinctoruniversalreason，wehavestilltolearnwhatthisuniversalreasonisinitself。For，asweshallshowdirectly，universalreasonisnotgiveninindividualreason，inotherwords，theknowledgeofsociallaws，orthetheoryofcollectiveideas，thoughdeducedfromthefundamentalconceptsofpurereason，isneverthelesswhollyempirical，andneverwouldhavebeendiscoveredaprioribymeansofdeduction，induction，orsynthesis。

Whenceitfollowsthatuniversalreason，whichweregardastheoriginoftheselaws；universalreason，whichexists，reasons，labors，inaseparatesphereandasarealitydistinctfrompurereason，justastheplanetarysystem，thoughcreatedaccordingtothelawsofmathematics，isarealitydistinctfrommathematics，whoseexistencecouldnothavebeendeducedfrommathematicsalone：itfollows，Isay，thatuniversalreasonis，inmodernlanguages，exactlywhattheancientscalledGod。Thenameischanged：

whatdoweknowofthething？

LetusnowtracetheevolutionoftheDivineidea。

TheSupremeBeingoncepositedbyaprimarymysticaljudgment，manimmediatelygeneralizesthesubjectbyanothermysticism，——analogy。God，sotospeak，isasyetbutapoint：directlyheshallfilltheworld。

As，insensinghissocialme，mansalutedhisAuthor，so，infindingevidenceofdesignandintentioninanimals，plants，springs，meteors，andthewholeuniverse，heattributestoeachspecialobject，andthentothewhole，asoul，spirit，orgeniuspresidingoverit；pursuingthisinductiveprocessofapotheosisfromthehighestsummitofNature，whichissociety，downtothehumblestformsoflife，toinanimateandinorganicmatter。Fromhiscollectiveme，takenasthesuperiorpoleofcreation，tothelastatomofmatter，manextends，then，theideaofGod，——thatis，theideaofpersonalityandintelligence，——justasGodhimselfextendedheaven，asthebookofGenesistellsus；thatis，createdspaceandtime，theconditionsofallthings。

Thus，withoutaGodormaster-builder，theuniverseandmanwouldnotexist：suchisthesocialprofessionoffaith。ButalsowithoutmanGodwouldnotbethought，or——tocleartheinterval——Godwouldbenothing。

Ifhumanityneedsanauthor，Godandthegodsequallyneedarevealer；

theogony，thehistoryofheaven，hell，andtheirinhabitants，——thosedreamsofthehumanmind，——isthecounterpartoftheuniverse，whichcertainphilosophershavecalledinreturnthedreamofGod。Andhowmagnificentthistheologicalcreation，theworkofsociety！Thecreationofthedemiourgoswasobliterated；whatwecalltheOmnipotentwasconquered；andforcenturiestheenchantedimaginationofmortalswasturnedawayfromthespectacleofNaturebythecontemplationofOlympianmarvels。

Letusdescendfromthisfancifulregion：pitilessreasonknocksatthedoor；herterriblequestionsdemandareply。

“WhatisGod？“sheasks；“whereishe？whatishisextent？whatarehiswishes？whathispowers？whathispromises？“——andhere，inthelightofanalysis，allthedivinitiesofheaven，earth，andhellarereducedtoanincorporeal，insensible，immovable，incomprehensible，undefinableI-know-not-what；inshort，toanegationofalltheattributesofexistence。

Infact，whethermanattributestoeachobjectaspecialspiritorgenius，orconceivestheuniverseasgovernedbyasinglepower，heineithercasebutSUPPOSESanunconditioned，thatis，animpossible，entity，thathemaydeducetherefromanexplanationofsuchphenomenaashedeemsinconceivableonanyotherhypothesis。ThemysteryofGodandreason！Inordertorendertheobjectofhisidolatrymoreandmorerational，thebelieverdespoilshimsuccessivelyofallthequalitieswhichwouldmakehimreal；and，aftermarvellousdisplaysoflogicandgenius，theattributesoftheBeingparexcellencearefoundtobethesameasthoseofnihility。Thisevolutionisinevitableandfatal：atheismisatthebottomofalltheodicy。

Letustrytounderstandthisprogress。

God，creatorofallthings，ishimselfnosoonercreatedbytheconscience，——inotherwords，nosoonerhaveweliftedGodfromtheideaofthesocialmetotheideaofthecosmicme，——thanimmediatelyourreflectionbeginstodemolishhimunderthepretextofperfectinghim。ToperfecttheideaofGod，topurifythetheologicaldogma，wasthesecondhallucinationofthehumanrace。

Thespiritofanalysis，thatuntiringSatanwhocontinuallyquestionsanddenies，mustsoonerorlaterlookforproofofreligiousdogmas。Now，whetherthephilosopherdeterminetheideaofGod，ordeclareitindeterminable；

whetherheapproachitwithhisreason，orretreatfromit，——Isaythatthisideareceivesablow；and，asitisimpossibleforspeculationtohalt，theideaofGodmustatlastdisappear。Thentheatheisticmovementisthesecondactofthetheologicdrama；andthissecondactfollowsfromthefirst，aseffectfromcause。“TheheavensdeclarethegloryofGod，“

saysthePsalmist。Letusadd，Andtheirtestimonydethroneshim。

Indeed，inproportionasmanobservesphenomena，hethinksthatheperceives，betweenNatureandGod，intermediaries；suchasrelationsofnumber，form，andsuccession；organiclaws，evolutions，analogies，——forminganunmistakableseriesofmanifestationswhichinvariablyproduceorgiverisetoeachother。Heevenobservesthat，inthedevelopmentofthissocietyofwhichheisapart，privatewillsandassociativedeliberationshavesomeinfluence；

andhesaystohimselfthattheGreatSpiritdoesnotactupontheworlddirectlyandbyhimself，orarbitrarilyandatthedictationofacapriciouswill，butmediately，byperceptiblemeansororgans，andbyvirtueoflaws。

And，retracinginhismindthechainofeffectsandcauses，heplacesclearattheextremity，asabalance，God。

Apoethassaid，——

Pardelatouslescieux，leDieudescieuxreside。

Thus，atthefirststepinthetheory，theSupremeBeingisreducedtothefunctionofamotivepower，amainspring，acorner-stone，or，ifastillmoretrivialcomparisonmaybeallowedme，aconstitutionalsovereign，reigningbutnotgoverning，swearingtoobeythelawandappointingministerstoexecuteit。But，undertheinfluenceofthemiragewhichfascinateshim，thetheistsees，inthisridiculoussystem，onlyanewproofofthesublimityofhisidol；who，inhisopinion，useshiscreaturesasinstrumentsofhispower，andcausesthewisdomofhumanbeingstoredoundtohisglory。

Soon，notcontentwithlimitingthepoweroftheEternal，man，increasinglydeicidalinhistendencies，insistsonsharingit。

IfIamaspirit，asentientmegivingvoicetoideas，continuesthetheist，Iconsequentlyamapartofabsoluteexistence；Iamfree，creative，immortal，equalwithGod。Cogito，ergosum，——Ithink，thereforeIamimmortal，thatisthecorollary，thetranslationofEgosumquisum：philosophyisinaccordwiththeBible。TheexistenceofGodandtheimmortalityofthesoularepositedbytheconscienceinthesamejudgment：there，manspeaksinthenameoftheuniverse，towhosebosomhetransportshisme；

here，hespeaksinhisownname，withoutperceivingthat，inthisgoingandcoming，heonlyrepeatshimself。

Theimmortalityofthesoul，atruedivisionofdivinity，which，atthetimeofitsfirstpromulgation，arrivingafteralonginterval，seemedaheresytothosefaithfultotheolddogma，hasbeennonethelessconsideredthecomplementofdivinemajesty，necessarilypostulatedbyeternalgoodnessandjustice。Unlessthesoulisimmortal，Godisincomprehensible，saythetheists；resemblinginthisthepoliticaltheoristswhoregardsovereignrepresentationandperpetualtenureofofficeasessentialconditionsofmonarchy。Buttheinconsistencyoftheideasisasglaringastheparityofthedoctrinesisexact：consequentlythedogmaofimmortalitysoonbecamethestumbling-blockofphilosophicaltheologians，who，eversincethedaysofPythagorasandOrpheus，havebeenmakingfutileattemptstoharmonizedivineattributeswithhumanliberty，andreasonwithfaith。Asubjectoftriumphfortheimpious！……Buttheillusioncouldnotyieldsosoon：

thedogmaofimmortality，fortheveryreasonthatitwasalimitationoftheuncreatedBeing，wasastepinadvance。Now，thoughthehumanminddeceivesitselfbyapartialacquisitionofthetruth，itneverretreats，andthisperseveranceinprogressisproofofitsinfallibility。Ofthisweshallsoonseefreshevidence。

InmakinghimselflikeGod，manmadeGodlikehimself：thiscorrelation，whichformanycenturieshadbeenexecrated，wasthesecretspringwhichdeterminedthenewmyth。InthedaysofthepatriarchsGodmadeanalliancewithman；now，tostrengthenthecompact，Godistobecomeaman。Hewilltakeonourflesh，ourform，ourpassions，ourjoys，andoursorrows；willbebornofwoman，anddieaswedo。Then，afterthishumiliationoftheinfinite，manwillstillpretendthathehaselevatedtheidealofhisGodinmaking，byalogicalconversion，himwhomhehadalwayscalledcreator，asaviour，aredeemer。Humanitydoesnotyetsay，IamGod：suchausurpationwouldshockitspiety；itsays，Godisinme，IMMANUEL，nobiscumDeus。

And，atthemomentwhenphilosophywithpride，anduniversalconsciencewithfright，shoutedwithunanimousvoice，Thegodsaredeparting！excederedeos！aperiodofeighteencenturiesofferventadorationandsuperhumanfaithwasinaugurated。

Butthefatalendapproaches。Theroyaltywhichsuffersitselftobelimitedwillendbytheruleofdemagogues；thedivinitywhichisdefineddissolvesinapandemonium。Christolatryisthelasttermofthislongevolutionofhumanthought。Theangels，saints，andvirginsreigninheavenwithGod，saysthecatechism；anddemonsandreprobatesliveinthehellsofeternalpunishment。Ultramundanesocietyhasitsleftanditsright：

itistimefortheequationtobecompleted；forthismysticalhierarchytodescenduponearthandappearinitsrealcharacter。

WhenMiltonrepresentsthefirstwomanadmiringherselfinafountain，andlovinglyextendingherarmstowardherownimageasiftoembraceit，hepaints，featureforfeature，thehumanrace——ThisGodwhomyouworship，Oman！thisGodwhomyouhavemadegood，just，omnipotent，omniscient，immortal，andholy，isyourself：thisidealofperfectionisyourimage，purifiedintheshiningmirrorofyourconscience。God，Nature，andmanarethreeaspectsofoneandthesamebeing；manisGodhimselfarrivingatself-consciousnessthroughathousandevolutions。InJesusChristmanrecognizedhimselfasGod；andChristianityisinrealitythereligionofGod-man。ThereisnootherGodthanhewhointhebeginningsaid，ME；

thereisnootherGodthanTHEE。

Sucharethelastconclusionsofphilosophy，whichdiesinunveilingreligion”smysteryanditsown。

II。

Itseems，then，thatallisended；itseemsthat，withthecessationoftheworshipandmystificationofhumanitybyitself，thetheologicalproblemisforeverputaside。Thegodshavegone：thereisnothingleftformanbuttogrowwearyanddieinhisegoism。Whatfrightfulsolitudeextendsaroundme，andforcesitswaytothebottomofmysoul！Myexaltationresemblesannihilation；and，sinceImademyselfaGod，Iseembutashadow。

ItispossiblethatIamstillame，butitisverydifficulttoregardmyselfastheabsolute；and，ifIamnottheabsolute，Iamonlyhalfofanidea。

Someironicalthinker，Iknownotwho，hassaid：“Alittlephilosophyleadsawayfromreligion，andmuchphilosophyleadsbacktoit。”Thispropositionishumiliatinglytrue。

Everysciencedevelopsinthreesuccessiveperiods，whichmaybecalled——comparingthemwiththegrandperiodsofcivilization——thereligiousperiod，thesophisticalperiod，thescientificperiod。(3*)Thus，alchemyrepresentsthereligiousperiodofthescienceafterwardscalledchemistry，whosedefinitiveplanisnotyetdiscovered；likewiseastrologywasthereligiousperiodofanotherscience，sinceestablished，——astronomy。

Now，afterbeinglaughedatforsixtyyearsaboutthephilosopher”sstone，chemists，governedbyexperience，nolongerdaretodenythetransmutabilityofbodies；whileastronomersareledbythestructureoftheworldtosuspectalsoanorganismoftheworld；thatis，somethingpreciselylikeastrology。

Arewenotjustifiedinsaying，inimitationofthephilosopherjustquoted，that，ifalittlechemistryleadsawayfromthephilosopher”sstone，muchchemistryleadsbacktoit；andsimilarly，that，ifalittleastronomymakesuslaughatastrologers，muchastronomywillmakeusbelieveinthem？(4*)

Icertainlyhavelessinclinationtothemarvellousthanmanyatheists，butIcannothelpthinkingthatthestoriesofmiracles，prophecies，charms，etc。，arebutdistortedaccountsoftheextraordinaryeffectsproducedbycertainlatentforces，or，aswasformerlysaid，byoccultpowers。Ourscienceisstillsobrutalandunfair；ourprofessorsexhibitsomuchimpertinencewithsolittleknowledge；theydenysoimpudentlyfactswhichembarrassthem，inordertoprotecttheopinionswhichtheychampion，——thatIdistruststrongmindsequallywithsuperstitiousones。Yes，Iamconvincedofit；

ourgrossrationalismistheinaugurationofaperiodwhich，thankstoscience，willbecometrulyprodigious；theuniverse，tomyeyes，isonlyalaboratoryofmagic，fromwhichanythingmaybeexpected……Thissaid，Ireturntomysubject。

Theywouldbedeceived，then，whoshouldimagine，aftermyrapidsurveyofreligiousprogress，thatmetaphysicshasuttereditslastworduponthedoubleenigmaexpressedinthesefourwords，——theexistenceofGod，theimmortalityofthesoul。Here，aselsewhere，themostadvancedandbestestablishedconclusions，thosewhichseemtohavesettledforeverthetheologicalquestion，leadusbacktoprimevalmysticism，andinvolvethenewdataofaninevitablephilosophy。Thecriticismofreligiousopinionsmakesussmiletodaybothatourselvesandatreligions；andyettheresumeofthiscriticismisbutareproductionoftheproblem。Thehumanrace，atthepresentmoment，isontheeveofrecognizingandaffirmingsomethingequivalenttotheoldnotionofDivinity；andthis，notbyaspontaneousmovementasbefore，butthroughreflectionandbymeansofirresistiblelogic。Iwilltry，inafewwords，tomakemyselfunderstood。

Ifthereisapointonwhichphilosophers，inspiteofthemselves，havefinallysucceededinagreeing，itiswithoutdoubtthedistinctionbetweenintelligenceandnecessity，thesubjectofthoughtanditsobject，themeandthenot-me；inordinaryterms，spiritandmatter。Iknowwellthatallthesetermsexpressnothingthatisrealandtrue；thateachofthemdesignatesonlyasectionoftheabsolute，whichaloneistrueandreal；

andthat，takenseparately，theyinvolve，allalike，acontradiction。Butitisnolesscertainalsothattheabsoluteiscompletelyinaccessibletous；thatweknowitonlybyitsoppositeextremes，whichalonefallwithinthelimitsofourexperience；andthat，ifunityonlycanwinourfaith，dualityisthefirstconditionofscience。

Thus，whothinks，andwhatisthought？Whatisasoul？whatisabody？

Idefyanyonetoescapethisdualism。Itiswithessencesaswithideas：

theformerareseenseparatedinNature，asthelatterintheunderstanding；

andjustastheideasofGodandimmortality，inspiteoftheiridentity，arepositedsuccessivelyandcontradictorilyinphilosophy，so，inspiteoftheirfusionintheabsolute，themeandthenot-mepositthemselvesseparatelyandcontradictorilyinNature，andwehavebeingswhothink，atthesametimewithotherswhichdonotthink。

Now，whoeverhastakenpainstoreflectknowstodaythatsuchadistinction，whollyrealizedthoughitbe，isthemostunintelligible，mostcontradictory，mostabsurdthingwhichreasoncanpossiblymeet。Beingisnomoreconceivablewithoutthepropertiesofspiritthanwithoutthepropertiesofmatter：

sothatifyoudenyspirit，because，includedinnoneofthecategoriesoftime，space，motion，solidity，etc。，itseemsdeprivedofalltheattributeswhichconstitutereality，Iinmyturnwilldenymatter，which，presentingnothingappreciablebutitsinertia，nothingintelligiblebutitsforms，manifestsitselfnowhereascause(voluntaryandfree)，anddisappearsfromviewentirelyassubstance；andwearriveatpureidealism，thatis，nihility。Butnihilityisinconsistentwiththeexistenceofliving，reasoning——Iknownotwhattocallthem——unitinginthemselves，inastateofcommencedsynthesisorimminentdissolution，alltheantagonisticattributesofbeing。Wearecompelled，then，toendinadualismwhosetermsweknowperfectlywelltobefalse，butwhich，beingforustheconditionofthetruth，forcesitselfirresistiblyuponus；wearecompelled，inshort，tocommence，likeDescartesandthehumanrace，withtheme；thatis，withspirit。

But，sincereligionsandphilosophies，dissolvedbyanalysis，havedisappearedinthetheoryoftheabsolute，weknownobetterthanbeforewhatspiritis，andinthisdifferfromtheancientsonlyinthewealthoflanguagewithwhichweadornthedarknessthatenvelopsus。Withthisexception，however；thatwhile，totheancients，orderrevealedintelligenceoutsideoftheworld，tothepeopleoftodayitseemstorevealitratherwithintheworld。Now，whetherweplaceitwithinorwithout，fromthemomentweaffirmitonthegroundoforder，wemustadmititwhereverorderismanifested，ordenyitaltogether。Thereisnomorereasonforattributingintelligencetotheheadwhichproducedthe“Iliad“thantoamassofmatterwhichcrystallizesinoctahedrons；and，reciprocally，itisasabsurdtoreferthesystemoftheworldtophysicallaws，leavingoutanordainingME，astoattributethevictoryofMarengotostrategiccombinations，leavingoutthefirstconsul。Theonlydistinctionthatcanbemadeisthat，inthelattercase，thethinkingMEislocatedinthebrainofaBonaparte，while，inthecaseoftheuniverse，theMEhasnospeciallocation，butextendseverywhere。

Thematerialiststhinkthattheyhaveeasilydisposedoftheiropponentsbysayingthatman，havinglikenedtheuniversetohisbody，finishesthecomparisonbypresumingtheexistenceintheuniverseofasoulsimilartothatwhichhesupposestobetheprincipleofhisownlifeandthought；

thatthusalltheargumentsinsupportoftheexistenceofGodarereducibletoananalogyallthemorefalsebecausethetermofcomparisonisitselfhypothetical。

Itiscertainlynotmyintentiontodefendtheoldsyllogism：Everyarrangementimpliesanordainingintelligence；thereiswonderfulorderintheworld；thentheworldistheworkofanintelligence。Thissyllogism，discussedsowidelysincethedaysofJobandMoses，veryfarfrombeingasolution，isbutthestatementoftheproblemwhichitassumestosolve。

Weknowperfectlywellwhatorderis，butweareabsolutelyignorantofthemeaningofthewordsSoul，Spirit，Intelligence：how，then，canwelogicallyreasonfromthepresenceoftheonetotheexistenceoftheother？

Ireject，then，evenwhenadvancedbythemostthoroughlyinformed，thepretendedproofoftheexistenceofGoddrawnfromthepresenceoforderintheworld；Iseeinitatmostonlyanequationofferedtophilosophy。

Betweentheconceptionoforderandtheaffirmationofspiritthereisadeepgulfofmetaphysicstobefilledup；Iamunwilling，Irepeat，totaketheproblemforthedemonstration。

Butthisisnotthepointwhichwearenowconsidering。Ihavetriedtoshowthatthehumanmindwasinevitablyandirresistiblyledtothedistinctionofbeingintomeandnot-me，spiritandmatter，soulandbody。

Now，whodoesnotseethattheobjectionofthematerialistsprovestheverythingitisintendedtodeny？Mandistinguishingwithinhimselfaspiritualprincipleandamaterialprinciple，——whatisthisbutNatureherself，proclaimingbyturnsherdoubleessence，andbearingtestimonytoherownlaws？Andnoticetheinconsistencyofmaterialism：itdenies，andhastodeny，thatmanisfree；now，thelesslibertymanhas，themoreweightistobeattachedtohiswords，andthegreatertheirclaimtoberegardedastheexpressionoftruth。WhenIhearthismachinesaytome，“IamsoulandIambody，“thoughsucharevelationastonishesandconfoundsme，itisinvestedinmyeyeswithanauthorityincomparablygreaterthanthatofthematerialistwho，correctingconscienceandNature，undertakestomakethemsay，“Iammatterandonlymatter，andintelligenceisbutthematerialfacultyofknowing。”

Whatwouldbecomeofthisassertion，if，assuminginmyturntheoffensive，Ishoulddemonstratethatbeliefintheexistenceofbodies，or，inotherwords，intherealityofapurelycorporealnature，isuntenable？Matter，theysay，isimpenetrable——Impenetrablebywhat？Iask。Itself，undoubtedly；

fortheywouldnotdaretosayspirit，sincetheywouldthereinadmitwhattheywishtosetaside。WhereuponIraisethisdoublequestion：Whatdoyouknowaboutit，andwhatdoesitsignify？

1。Impenetrability，whichispretendedtobethedefinitionofmatter，isonlyanhypothesisofcarelessnaturalists，agrossconclusiondeducedfromasuperficialjudgment。Experienceshowsthatmatterpossessesinfinitedivisibility，infiniteexpansibility，porositywithoutassignablelimits，andpermeabilitybyheat，electricity，andmagnetism，togetherwithapowerofretainingthemindefinitely；affinities，reciprocalinfluences，andtransformationswithoutnumber：qualities，allofthem，hardlycompatiblewiththeassumptionofanimpenetrablealiquid。Elasticity，which，betterthananyotherpropertyofmatter，couldlead，throughtheideaofspringorresistance，tothatofimpenetrability，issubjecttothecontrolofathousandcircumstances，anddependsentirelyonmolecularattraction：

now，whatismoreirreconcilablewithimpenetrabilitythanthisattraction？

Finally，thereisasciencewhichmightbedefinedwithexactnessasthescienceofpenetrabilityofmatter：Imeanchemistry。Infact，howdoeswhatiscalledchemicalcompositiondifferfrompenetration？(5*)……Inshort，weknowmatteronlythroughitsforms；ofitssubstanceweknownothing。How，then，isitpossibletoaffirmtherealityofaninvisible，impalpable，incoerciblebeing，everchanging，evervanishing，impenetrabletothoughtalone，towhichitexhibitsonlyitsdisguises？Materialist！

Ipermityoutotestifytotherealityofyoursensations；astowhatoccasionsthem，allthatyoucansayinvolvesthisreciprocity：something(whichyoucallmatter)istheoccasionofsensationswhicharefeltbyanothersomething(whichIcallspirit)。

2。Butwhat，then，isthesourceofthissuppositionthatmatterisimpenetrable，whichexternalobservationdoesnotjustifyandwhichisnottrue；andwhatisitsmeaning？

Hereappearsthetriumphofdualism。Matterispronouncedimpenetrable，not，asthematerialistsandthevulgarfancy，bythetestimonyofthesenses，butbytheconscience。Theme，anincomprehensiblenature，feelingitselffree，distinct，andpermanent，andmeetingoutsideofitselfanothernatureequallyincomprehensible，butalsodistinctandpermanentinspiteofitsmetamorphoses，declares，onthestrengthofthesensationsandideaswhichthisessencesuggeststoit，thatthenot-meisextendedandimpenetrable。

Impenetrabilityisafigurativeterm，animagebywhichthought，adivisionoftheabsolute，picturestoitselfmaterialreality，anotherdivisionoftheabsolute；butthisimpenetrability，withoutwhichmatterdisappears，is，inthelastanalysis，onlyaspontaneousjudgmentofinwardsensation，ametaphysicalapriori，anunverifiedhypothesisofspirit。

Thus，whetherphilosophy，afterhavingoverthrowntheologicaldogmatism，spiritualizesmatterormaterializesthought，idealizesbeingorrealizesideas；orwhether，identifyingsubstanceandcause，iteverywheresubstitutesFORCE，phrases，all，whichexplainandsignifynothing，——italwaysleadsusbacktothiseverlastingdualism，and，insummoningustobelieveinourselves，compelsustobelieveinGod，ifnotinspirits。Itistruethat，makingspiritapartofNature，indistinctionfromtheancients，whoseparatedit，philosophyhasbeenledtothisfamousconclusion，whichsumsupnearlyallthefruitofitsresearches：Inmanspiritknowsitself，whileeverywhereelseitseemsnottoknowitself——“Thatwhichisawakeinman，whichdreamsintheanimal，andsleepsinthestone，“saidaphilosopher。

Philosophy，then，initslasthour，knowsnomorethanatitsbirth：

asifithadappearedintheworldonlytoverifythewordsofSocrates，itsaystous，wrappingitselfsolemnlyaroundwithitsfuneralpall，“I

knowonlythatIknownothing。”WhatdoIsay？Philosophyknowstodaythatallitsjudgmentsrestontwoequallyfalse，equallyimpossible，andyetequallynecessaryandinevitablehypotheses，——matterandspirit。Sothat，whileinformertimesreligiousintoleranceandphilosophicdisputes，spreadingdarknesseverywhere，excuseddoubtandtemptedtolibidinousindifference，thetriumphofnegationonallpointsnolongerpermitseventhisdoubt；

thought，freedfromeverybarrier，butconqueredbyitsownsuccesses，isforcedtoaffirmwhatseemstoitclearlycontradictoryandabsurd。

Thesavagessaythattheworldisagreatfetichwatchedoverbyagreatmanitou。Forthirtycenturiesthepoets，legislators，andsagesofcivilization，handingdownfromagetoagethephilosophiclamp，havewrittennothingmoresublimethanthisprofessionoffaith。Andhere，attheendofthislongconspiracyagainstGod，whichhascalleditselfphilosophy，emancipatedreasonconcludeswithsavagereason，Theuniverseisanot-me，objectifiedbyame。

Humanity，then，inevitablysupposestheexistenceofGod：andif，duringthelongperiodwhichcloseswithourtime，ithasbelievedintherealityofitshypothesis；ifithasworshippedtheinconceivableobject；if，afterbeingapprehendedinthisactoffaith，itpersistsknowingly，butnolongervoluntarily，inthisopinionofasovereignbeingwhichitknowstobeonlyapersonificationofitsownthought；ifitisonthepointofagainbeginningitsmagicinvocations，——wemustbelievethatsoastonishinganhallucinationconcealssomemystery，whichdeservestobefathomed。

Isayhallucinationandmystery，butwithoutintendingtodenytherebythesuperhumancontentoftheGod-idea，andwithoutadmittingthenecessityofanewsymbolism，——Imeananewreligion。Forifitisindisputablethathumanity，inaffirmingGod，——orallthatisincludedinthewordmeorspirit，——onlyaffirmsitself，itisequallyundeniablethatitaffirmsitselfassomethingotherthanitsownconceptionofitself，asallmythologiesandtheologiesshow。Andsince，moreover，thisaffirmationisincontestable，itdepends，withoutdoubt，uponhiddenrelations，whichought，ifpossible，tobedeterminedscientifically。

Inotherwords，atheism，sometimescalledhumanism，trueinitscriticalandnegativefeatures，wouldbe，ifitstoppedatmaninhisnaturalcondition，ifitdiscardedasanerroneousjudgmentthefirstaffirmationofhumanity，thatitisthedaughter，emanation，image，reflection，orvoiceofGod，-humanism，Isay，ifitthusdenieditspast，wouldbebutonecontradictionmore。Weareforced，then，toundertakethecriticismofhumanism；thatis，toascertainwhetherhumanity，consideredasawholeandthroughoutallitsperiodsofdevelopment，satisfiestheDivineidea，aftereliminatingfromthelattertheexaggeratedandfancifulattributesofGod；whetheritsatisfiestheperfectionofbeing；whetheritsatisfiesitself。Weareforced，inshort，toinquirewhetherhumanitytendstowardGod，accordingtotheancientdogma，orisitselfbecomingGod，asmodernphilosophersclaim。Perhapsweshallfindintheendthatthetwosystems，despitetheirseemingopposition，arebothtrueandessentiallyidentical：inthatcase，theinfallibilityofhumanreason，initscollectivemanifestationsaswellasitsstudiedspeculations，wouldbedecisivelyconfirmed——Inaword，untilwehaveverifiedtomanthehypothesisofGod，thereisnothingdefinitiveintheatheisticnegation。

Itis，then，ascientific，thatis，anempiricaldemonstrationoftheideaofGod，thatweneed：now，suchademonstrationhasneverbeenattempted。

Theologydogmatizingontheauthorityofitsmyths，philosophyspeculatingbytheaidofcategories，Godhasexistedasatranscendentalconception，incognizablebythereason，andthehypothesisalwayssubsists。

Itsubsists，Isay，thishypothesis，moretenacious，morepitilessthanever。Wehavereachedoneofthosepropheticepochswhensociety，scornfulofthepastanddoubtfulofthefuture，nowdistractedlyclingstothepresent，leavingafewsolitarythinkerstoestablishthenewfaith；nowcriestoGodfromthedepthsofitsenjoymentsandasksforasignofsalvation，orseeksinthespectacleofitsrevolutions，asintheentrailsofavictim，thesecretofitsdestiny。

WhyneedIinsistfurther？ThehypothesisofGodisallowable，foritforcesitselfuponeverymaninspiteofhimself：noone，then，cantakeexceptiontoit。HewhobelievescandonolessthangrantmethesuppositionthatGodexists；hewhodeniesisforcedtograntittomealso，sinceheentertaineditbeforeme，everynegationimplyingapreviousaffirmation；

asforhimwhoisindoubt，heneedsbuttoreflectamomenttounderstandthathisdoubtnecessarilysupposesanunknownsomething，which，soonerorlater，hewillcallGod。

ButifIpossess，throughthefactofmythought，therighttosupposeGod，Imustabandontherighttoaffirmhim。Inotherwords，ifmyhypothesisisirresistible，that，forthepresent，isallthatIcanpretend。Fortoaffirmistodetermine；now，everydetermination，tobetrue，mustbereachedempirically。Infact，whoeversaysdetermination，saysrelation，conditionality，experience。Since，then，thedeterminationoftheideaofGodmustresultfromanempiricaldemonstration，wemustabstainfromeverythingwhich，inthesearchforthisgreatunknown，notbeingestablishedbyexperience，goesbeyondthehypothesis，underpenaltyofrelapsingintothecontradictionsoftheology，andconsequentlyarousinganewatheisticdissent。

III。

Itremainsformetotellwhy，inaworkonpoliticaleconomy，Ihavefeltitnecessarytostartwiththefundamentalhypothesisofallphilosophy。

Andfirst，IneedthehypothesisofGodtoestablishtheauthorityofsocialscience——Whentheastronomer，toexplainthesystemoftheworld，judgingsolelyfromappearance，supposes，withthevulgar，theskyarched，theearthflat，thesunmuchlikeafootball，describingacurveintheairfromeasttowest，hesupposestheinfallibilityofthesenses，reservingtherighttorectifysubsequently，afterfurtherobservation，thedatawithwhichheisobligedtostart。Astronomicphilosophy，infact，couldnotadmitapriorithatthesensesdeceiveus，andthatwedonotseewhatwedosee：admittingsuchaprinciple，whatwouldbecomeofthecertaintyofastronomy？Buttheevidenceofthesensesbeingable，incertaincases，torectifyandcompleteitself，theauthorityofthesensesremainsunshaken，andastronomyispossible。

Sosocialphilosophydoesnotadmitapriorithathumanitycanerrorbedeceivedinitsactions：ifitshould，whatwouldbecomeoftheauthorityofthehumanrace，thatis，theauthorityofreason，synonymousatbottomwiththesovereigntyofthepeople？Butitthinksthathumanjudgments，alwaystrueatthetimetheyarepronounced，cansuccessivelycompleteandthrowlightoneachother，inproportiontotheacquisitionofideas，insuchawayastomaintaincontinualharmonybetweenuniversalreasonandindividualspeculation，andindefinitelyextendthesphereofcertainty：

whichisalwaysanaffirmationoftheauthorityofhumanjudgments。

Now，thefirstjudgmentofthereason，thepreambleofeverypoliticalconstitutionseekingasanctionandaprinciple，isnecessarilythis：ThereisaGod；whichmeansthatsocietyisgovernedwithdesign，premeditation，intelligence。Thisjudgment，whichexcludeschance，is，then，thefoundationofthepossibilityofasocialscience；andeveryhistoricalandpositivestudyofsocialfacts，undertakenwithaviewtoameliorationandprogress，mustsuppose，withthepeople，theexistenceofGod，reservingtherighttoaccountforthisjudgmentatalaterperiod。

ThusthehistoryofsocietyistousbutalongdeterminationoftheideaofGod，aprogressiverevelationofthedestinyofman。AndwhileancientwisdommadealldependonthearbitraryandfancifulnotionofDivinity，oppressingreasonandconscience，andarrestingprogressthroughfearofaninvisiblemaster，thenewphilosophy，reversingthemethod，tramplingontheauthorityofGodaswellasthatofman，andacceptingnootheryokethanthatoffactandevidence，makesallconvergetowardthetheologicalhypothesis，astowardthelastofitsproblems。

Humanitarianatheismis，therefore，thelaststepinthemoralandintellectualenfranchisementofman，consequentlythelastphaseofphilosophy，servingasapathwaytothescientificreconstructionandverificationofallthedemolisheddogmas。

IneedthehypothesisofGod，notonly，asIhavejustsaid，togiveameaningtohistory，butalsotolegitimatethereformstobeeffected，inthenameofscience，intheState。

WhetherweconsiderDivinityasoutsideofsociety，whosemovementsitgovernsfromonhigh(awhollygratuitousandprobablyillusoryopinion)；

orwhetherwedeemitimmanentinsocietyandidenticalwiththatimpersonalandunconsciousreasonwhich，actinginstinctively，makescivilizationadvance(althoughimpersonalityandignoranceofselfarecontrarytotheideaofintelligence)；orwhether，finally，allthatisaccomplishedinsocietyresultsfromtherelationofitselements(asystemwhosewholemeritconsistsinchanginganactiveintoapassive，inmakingintelligencenecessity，or，whichamountstothesamething，intakinglawforcause)，——italwaysfollowsthatthemanifestationsofsocialactivity，necessarilyappearingtouseitherasindicationsofthewilloftheSupremeBeing，orasasortoflanguagetypicalofgeneralandimpersonalreason，or，finally，aslandmarksofnecessity，areabsoluteauthorityforus。Beingconnectedintimeaswellasinspirit，thefactsaccomplisheddetermineandlegitimatethefactstobeaccomplished；scienceanddestinyareinaccord；everythingwhichhappensresultingfromreason，and，reciprocally，reasonjudgingonlyfromexperienceofthatwhichhappens，sciencehasarighttoparticipateingovernment，andthatwhichestablishesitscompetencyasacounsellorjustifiesitsinterventionasasovereign。

Science，expressed，recognized，andacceptedbythevoiceofallasdivine，isqueenoftheworld。Thus，thankstothehypothesisofGod，allconservativeorretrogressiveopposition，everydilatorypleaofferedbytheology，tradition，orselfishness，findsitselfperemptorilyandirrevocablysetaside。

IneedthehypothesisofGodtoshowthetiewhichunitescivilizationwithNature。

Infact，thisastonishinghypothesis，bywhichmanisassimilatedtotheabsolute，implyingidentityofthelawsofNatureandthelawsofreason，enablesustoseeinhumanindustrythecomplementofcreativeaction，unitesmanwiththeglobewhichheinhabits，and，inthecultivationofthedomaininwhichProvidencehasplacedus，whichthusbecomesinpartourwork，givesusaconceptionoftheprincipleandendofallthings。

If，then，humanityisnotGod，itisacontinuationofGod；or，ifadifferentphraseologybepreferred，thatwhichhumanitydoestodaybydesignisthesamethingthatitbeganbyinstinct，andwhichNatureseemstoaccomplishbynecessity。Inallthesecases，andwhicheveropinionwemaychoose，onethingremainscertain：theunityofactionandlaw。Intelligentbeings，actorsinanintelligently-devisedfable，wemayfearlesslyreasonfromourselvestotheuniverseandtheeternal；and，whenweshallhavecompletedtheorganizationoflabor，maysaywithpride，Thecreationisexplained。

Thusphilosophy”sfieldofexplorationisfixed；traditionisthestarting-

pointofallspeculationastothefuture；utopiaisforeverexploded；

thestudyoftheme，transferredfromtheindividualconsciencetothemanifestationsofthesocialwill，acquiresthecharacterofobjectivityofwhichithasbeenhithertodeprived；and，historybecomingpsychology，theologyanthropology，thenaturalsciencesmetaphysics，thetheoryofthereasonisdeducednolongerfromthevacuumoftheintellect，butfromtheinnumerableformsofaNatureabundantlyanddirectlyobservable。

IneedthehypothesisofGodtoprovemygood-willtowardsamultitudeofsects，whoseopinionsIdonotshare，butwhosemaliceIfear：——theists；

Iknowonewho，inthecauseofGod，wouldbereadytodrawsword，and，likeRobespierre，usetheguillotineuntilthelastatheistshouldbedestroyed，notdreamingthatthatatheistwouldbehimself；——mystics，whoseparty，largelymadeupofstudentsandwomenmarchingunderthebannerofMM。

Lamennais，Quinet，Leroux，andothers，hastakenforamotto，“Likemaster，likeman；“likeGod，likepeople；and，toregulatethewagesoftheworkingman，beginsbyrestoringreligion；——spiritualists，who，shouldIoverlooktherightsofspirit，wouldaccusemeofestablishingtheworshipofmatter，againstwhichIprotestwithallthestrengthofmysoul；——sensualistsandmaterialists，towhomthedivinedogmaisthesymbolofconstraintandtheprincipleofenslavementofthepassions，outsideofwhich，theysay，thereisformanneitherpleasure，norvirtue，norgenius；——eclecticsandsceptics，sellersandpublishersofalltheoldphilosophies，butnotphilosophersthemselves，unitedinonevastbrotherhood，withapprobationandprivilege，againstwhoeverthinks，believes，oraffirmswithouttheirpermission；-conservativesfinally，retrogressives，egotists，andhypocrites，preachingtheloveofGodbyhatredoftheirneighbor，attributingtolibertytheworld”smisfortunessincethedeluge，andscandalizingreasonbytheirfoolishness。

Isitpossible，however，thattheywillattackanhypothesiswhich，farfromblasphemingthereveredphantomsoffaith，aspiresonlytoexhibittheminbroaddaylight；which，insteadofrejectingtraditionaldogmasandtheprejudicesofconscience，asksonlytoverifythem；which，whiledefendingitselfagainstexclusiveopinions，takesforanaxiomtheinfallibilityofreason，and，thankstothisfruitfulprinciple，willdoubtlessneverdecideagainstanyoftheantagonisticsects？Isitpossiblethatthereligiousandpoliticalconservativeswillchargemewithdisturbingtheorderofsociety，whenIstartwiththehypothesisofasovereignintelligence，thesourceofeverythoughtoforder；thatthesemi-ChristiandemocratswillcursemeasanenemyofGod，andconsequentlyatraitortotherepublic，whenIamseekingforthemeaningandcontentoftheideaofGod；andthatthetradesmenoftheuniversitywillimputetometheimpietyofdemonstratingthenon-valueoftheirphilosophicalproducts，whenIamespeciallymaintainingthatphilosophyshouldbestudiedinitsobject，——thatis，inthemanifestationsofsocietyandNature？……

IneedthehypothesisofGodtojustifymystyle。

InmyignoranceofeverythingregardingGod，theworld，thesoul，anddestiny；forcedtoproceedlikethematerialist，——thatis，byobservationandexperience，——andtoconcludeinthelanguageofthebeliever，becausethereisnoother；notknowingwhethermyformulas，theologicalinspiteofme，wouldbetakenliterallyorfiguratively；inthisperpetualcontemplationofGod，man，andthings，obligedtosubmittothesynonymyofallthetermsincludedinthethreecategoriesofthought，speech，andaction，butwishingtoaffirmnothingoneitheronesideortheother，——rigorouslogicdemandedthatIshouldsuppose，nomore，noless，thisunknownthatiscalledGod。

WearefullofDivinity，Jovisomniaplena；ourmonuments，ourtraditions，ourlaws，ourideas，ourlanguages，andoursciences，allareinfectedbythisindeliblesuperstitionoutsideofwhichwecanneitherspeaknoract，andwithoutwhichwedonoteventhink。

Finally，IneedthehypothesisofGodtoexplainthepublicationofthesenewmemoirs。

Oursocietyfeelsitselfbigwithevents，andisanxiousaboutthefuture：

howaccountforthesevaguepresentimentsbythesoleaidofauniversalreason，immanentifyouwill，andpermanent，butimpersonal，andthereforedumb，orbytheideaofnecessity，ifitimpliesthatnecessityisself-

conscious，andconsequentlyhaspresentiments？Thereremainsthen，oncemore，anagentornightmarewhichweighsuponsociety，andgivesitvisions。

Now，whensocietyprophesies，itputsquestionsinthemouthsofsome，andanswersinthemouthsofothers。Andwise，then，hewhocanlistenandunderstand；forGodhimselfhasspoken，quialocutusestDeus。

TheAcademyofMoralandPoliticalScienceshasproposedthefollowingquestion：——

“Todeterminethegeneralfactswhichgoverntherelationsofprofitstowages，andtoexplaintheirrespectiveoscillations。”

AfewyearsagothesameAcademyasked，“Whatarethecausesofmisery？“

Thenineteenthcenturyhas，infact，butoneidea，——equalityandreform。

Butthewindblowethwhereitlisteth：manybegantoreflectuponthequestion，nooneansweredit。Thecollegeofaruspiceshas，therefore，reneweditsquestion，butinmoresignificantterms。Itwishestoknowwhetherorderprevailsintheworkshop；whetherwagesareequitable；whetherlibertyandprivilegecompensateeachotherjustly；whethertheideaofvalue，whichcontrolsallthefactsofexchange，is，intheformsinwhichtheeconomistshaverepresentedit，sufficientlyexact；whethercreditprotectslabor；whethercirculationisregular；whethertheburdensofsocietyweighequallyonall，etc。

And，indeed，insufficiencyofincomebeingtheimmediatecauseofmisery，itisfittingthatweshouldknowwhy，misfortuneandmalevolenceaside，theworkingman”sincomeisinsufficient。Itisstillthesamequestionofinequalityoffortunes，whichhasmadesuchastirforacenturypast，andwhich，byastrangefatality，continuallyreappearsinacademicprogrammes，asiftherelaytherealdifficultyofmoderntimes。

Equality，then，——itsprinciple，itsmeans，itsobstacles，itstheory，themotivesofitspostponement，thecauseofsocialandprovidentialiniquities，——thesetheworldhasgottolearn，inspiteofthesneersofincredulity。

IknowwellthattheviewsoftheAcademyarenotthusprofound，andthatitequalsacounciloftheChurchinitshorrorofnovelties；butthemoreitturnstowardsthepast，themoreitreflectsthefuture，andthemore，consequently，mustwebelieveinitsinspiration：forthetrueprophetsarethosewhodonotunderstandtheirutterances。Listenfurther。

“What，“theAcademyhasasked，“arethemostusefulapplicationsoftheprincipleofvoluntaryandprivateassociationthatwecanmakeforthealleviationofmisery？“

Andagain：——

“Toexpoundthetheoryandprinciplesofthecontractofinsurance，togiveitshistory，andtodeducefromitsrationaleandthefactsthedevelopmentsofwhichthiscontractiscapable，andthevarioususefulapplicationspossibleinthepresentstateofcommercialandindustrialprogress。”

Publicistsadmitthatinsurance，arudimentaryformofcommercialsolidarity，isanassociationinthings，societasinre；thatis，asocietywhoseconditions，foundedonpurelyeconomicalrelations，escapeman”sarbitrarydictation。

Sothataphilosophyofinsuranceormutualguaranteeofsecurity，whichshallbededucedfromthegeneraltheoryofreal(inre)societies，willcontaintheformulaofuniversalassociation，inwhichnomemberoftheAcademybelieves。Andwhen，unitingsubjectandobjectinthesamepointofview，theAcademydemands，bythesideofatheoryofassociationofinterests，atheoryofvoluntaryassociation，itrevealstousthemostperfectformofsociety，andtherebyaffirmsallthatismostatvariancewithitsconvictions。Liberty，equality，solidarity，association！Bywhatinconceivableblunderhassoeminentlyconservativeabodyofferedtothecitizensthisnewprogrammeoftherightsofman？ItwasinthiswaythatCaiaphasprophesiedredemptionbydisowningJesusChrist。

Uponthefirstofthesequestions，forty-fivememoirswereaddressedtotheAcademywithintwoyears，——aproofthatthesubjectwasmarvellouslywellsuitedtothestateofthepublicmind。Butamongsomanycompetitorsnoonehavingbeendeemedworthyoftheprize，theAcademyhaswithdrawnthequestion；allegingasareasontheincapacityofthecompetitors，butinrealitybecause，thefailureofthecontestbeingthesoleobjectthattheAcademyhadinview，itbehoovedittodeclare，withoutfurtherdelay，thatthehopesofthefriendsofassociationweregroundless。

Thus，then，thegentlemenoftheAcademydisavow，intheirsession-chamber，theirannouncementsfromthetripod！Thereisnothinginsuchacontradictionastonishingtome；andmayGodpreservemefromcallingitacrime！Theancientsbelievedthatrevolutionsannouncedtheiradventbydreadfulsigns，andthatamongotherprodigiesanimalsspoke。Thiswasafigure，descriptiveofthoseunexpectedideasandstrangewordswhichcirculatesuddenlyamongthemassesatcriticalmoments，andwhichseemtobeentirelywithouthumanantecedent，sofarremovedaretheyfromthesphereofordinaryjudgment。

Atthetimeinwhichwelive，suchathingcouldnotfailtooccur。Afterhaving，byapropheticinstinctandamechanicalspontaneity，pecudesquelocutae，proclaimedassociation，thegentlemenoftheAcademyofMoralandPoliticalScienceshavereturnedtotheirordinaryprudence；andwiththemcustomhasconqueredinspiration。Letuslearn，then，howtodistinguishheavenlycounselfromtheinterestedjudgmentsofmen，andholditforcertainthat，inthediscourseofsages，thatisthemosttrustworthytowhichtheyhavegiventheleastreflection。

NeverthelesstheAcademy，inbreakingsorudelywithitsintuitions，seemstohavefeltsomeremorse。Inplaceofatheoryofassociationinwhich，afterreflection，itnolongerbelieves，itasksfora“CriticalexaminationofPestalozzi”ssystemofinstructionandeducation，consideredmainlyinitsrelationtothewell-beingandmoralityofthepoorclasses。”

Whoknows？perchancetherelationbetweenprofitsandwages，association，theorganizationoflaborindeed，aretobefoundatthebottomofasystemofinstruction。Isnotman”slifeaperpetualapprenticeship？Arenotphilosophyandreligionhumanity”seducation？Toorganizeinstruction，then，wouldbetoorganizeindustryandfixthetheoryofsociety：theAcademy，initslucidmoments，alwaysreturnstothat。

“Whatinfluence，“theAcademyagainasks，“doprogressandadesireformaterialcomforthaveuponanation”smorality？“

Takeninitsmostobvioussense，thisnewquestionoftheAcademyiscommonplace，andfitatbesttoexercisearhetorisian”sskill。ButtheAcademy，whichmustcontinuetilltheendinitsignoranceoftherevolutionarysignificanceofitsoracles，hasdrawnasidethecurtaininitscommentary。

What，then，soprofoundhasitdiscoveredinthisEpicureanthesis？

“Thedesireforluxuryanditsenjoyments，“ittellsus；“thesingularloveofitfeltbythemajority；thetendencyofheartsandmindstooccupythemselveswithitexclusively；theagreementofindividualsANDTHESTATE

inmakingitthemotiveandtheendofalltheirprojects，alltheirefforts，andalltheirsacrifices，——engendergeneralorindividualfeelingswhich，beneficentorinjurious，becomeprinciplesofactionmorepotent，perhaps，thananywhichhaveheretoforegovernedmen。”

Neverhadmoralistsamorefavorableopportunitytoassailthesensualismofthecentury，thevenalityofconsciences，andthecorruptioninstitutedbythegovernment：insteadofthat，whatdoestheAcademyofMoralSciencesdo？Withthemostautomaticcalmness，itestablishesaseriesinwhichluxury，solongproscribedbythestoicsandascetics，——thosemastersofholiness，——mustappearinitsturnasaprincipleofconductaslegitimate，aspure，andasgrandasallthoseformerlyinvokedbyreligionandphilosophy。

Determine，ittellsus，themotivesofaction(undoubtedlynowoldandworn-out)ofwhichLUXURYishistoricallytheprovidentialsuccessor，and，fromtheresultsoftheformer，calculatetheeffectsofthelatter。

Prove，inshort，thatAristippuswasonlyinadvanceofhiscentury，andthathissystemofmoralitymusthaveitsday，aswellasthatofZenoandAKempis。

Wearedealing，then，withasocietywhichnolongerwishestobepoor；

whichmocksateverythingthatwasoncedearandsacredtoit，——liberty，religion，andglory，——solongasithasnotwealth；which，toobtainit，submitstoalloutrages，andbecomesanaccompliceinallsortsofcowardlyactions：andthisburningthirstforpleasure，thisirresistibledesiretoarriveatluxury，——asymptomofanewperiodincivilization，——isthesupremecommandmentbyvirtueofwhichwearetolaborfortheabolitionofpoverty：thussaiththeAcademy。Whatbecomes，then，ofthedoctrineofexpiationandabstinence，themoralityofsacrifice，resignation，andhappymoderation？Whatdistrustofthecompensationpromisedintheotherlife，andwhatacontradictionoftheGospel！But，aboveall，whatajustificationofagovernmentwhichhasadoptedasitssystemthegoldenkey！Whyhavereligiousmen，Christians，Senecas，givenutteranceinconcerttosomanyimmoralmaxims？

TheAcademy，completingitsthought，willreplytous：——

“Showhowtheprogressofcriminaljustice，intheprosecutionandpunishmentofattacksuponpersonsandproperty，followsandmarkstheagesofcivilizationfromthesavageconditionuptothatofthebest-governednations。”

IsitpossiblethatthecriminallawyersintheAcademyofMoralSciencesforesawtheconclusionoftheirpremises？Thefactwhosehistoryisnowtobestudied，andwhichtheAcademydescribesbythewords“progressofcriminaljustice，“issimplythegradualmitigationwhichmanifestsitself，bothintheformsofcriminalexaminationsandinthepenaltiesinflicted，inproportionascivilizationincreasesinliberty，light，andwealth。

Sothat，theprincipleofrepressiveinstitutionsbeingthedirectoppositeofallthoseonwhichthewelfareofsocietydepends，thereisaconstanteliminationofallpartsofthepenalsystemaswellasalljudicialparaphernalia，andthefinalinferencefromthismovementisthattheguaranteeoforderliesneitherinfearnorpunishment；consequently，neitherinhellnorreligion。

Whatasubversionofreceivedideas！WhatadenialofallthatitisthebusinessoftheAcademyofMoralSciencestodefend！But，iftheguaranteeofordernolongerliesinthefearofapunishmenttobesuffered，eitherinthislifeorinanother，wherethenaretobefoundtheguaranteesprotectiveofpersonsandproperty？Orrather，withoutrepressiveinstitutions，whatbecomesofproperty？Andwithoutproperty，whatbecomesofthefamily？

TheAcademy，whichknowsnothingofallthesethings，replieswithoutagitation：——

“ReviewthevariousphasesoftheorganizationofthefamilyuponthesoilofFrancefromancienttimesdowntoourday。”

Whichmeans：Determine，bythepreviousprogressoffamilyorganization，theconditionsoftheexistenceofthefamilyinastateofequalityoffortunes，voluntaryandfreeassociation，universalsolidarity，materialcomfortandluxury，andpublicorderwithoutprisons，courts，police，orhangmen。

Therewillbeastonishment，perhaps，atfindingthattheAcademyofMoralandPoliticalSciences，afterhaving，liketheboldestinnovators，calledinquestionalltheprinciplesofsocialorder，——religion，family，property，justice，——hasnotalsoproposedthisproblem：Whatisthebestformofgovernment？Infact，governmentisforsocietythesourceofallinitiative，everyguarantee，everyreform。Itwouldbe，then，interestingtoknowwhetherthegovernment，asconstitutedbytheCharter，isadequatetothepracticalsolutionoftheAcademy”squestions。

Butitwouldbeamisconceptionoftheoraclestoimaginethattheyproceedbyinductionandanalysis；andpreciselybecausethepoliticalproblemwasaconditionorcorollaryofthedemonstrationsaskedfor，theAcademycouldnotofferitforcompetition。Suchaconclusionwouldhaveopeneditseyes，and，withoutwaitingforthememoirsofthecompetitors，itwouldhavehastenedtosuppressitsentireprogramme。TheAcademyhasapproachedthequestionfromabove。Ithassaid：——

TheworksofGodarebeautifulintheirownessence，justificatainsemetipsa；theyaretrue，inaword，becausetheyarehis。Thethoughtsofmanresembledensevaporspiercedbylongandnarrowflashes。What，then，isthetruthinrelationtous，andwhatisthecharacterofcertainty？

AsiftheAcademyhadsaidtous：Youshallverifythehypothesisofyourexistence，thehypothesisoftheAcademywhichinterrogatesyou，thehypothesesoftime，space，motion，thought，andthelawsofthought。Thenyoumayverifythehypothesisofpauperism，thehypothesisofinequalityofconditions，thehypothesisofuniversalassociation，thehypothesisofhappiness，thehypothesesofmonarchyandrepublicanism，thehypothesisofProvidence！……

AcompletecriticismofGodandhumanity。

Ipointtotheprogrammeofthehonorablesociety：itisnotIwhohavefixedtheconditionsofmytask，itistheAcademyofMoralandPoliticalSciences。Now，howcanIsatisfytheseconditions，ifIamnotmyselfendowedwithinfallibility；inaword，ifIamnotGodordivine？TheAcademyadmits，then，thatdivinityandhumanityareidentical，oratleastcorrelative；

butthequestionnowisinwhatconsiststhiscorrelation：suchisthemeaningoftheproblemofcertainty，suchistheobjectofsocialphilosophy。

Thus，then，inthenameofthesocietythatGodinspires，anAcademyquestions。

Inthenameofthesamesociety，Iamoneoftheprophetswhoattempttoanswer。Thetaskisanimmenseone，andIdonotpromisetoaccomplishit：IwillgoasfarasGodshallgivemestrength。But，whateverImaysay，itdoesnotcomefromme：thethoughtwhichinspiresmypenisnotpersonal，andnothingthatIwritecanbeattributedtome。IshallgivethefactsasIhaveseenthem；IshalljudgethembywhatIshallhavesaid；Ishallcalleverythingbyitsstrongestname，andnoonewilltakeoffence。Ishallinquirefreely，andbytherulesofdivinationwhichI

havelearned，intothemeaningofthedivinepurposewhichisnowexpressingitselfthroughtheeloquentlipsofsagesandtheinarticulatewailingsofthepeople：and，thoughIshoulddenyalltheprerogativesguaranteedbyourConstitution，Ishallnotbefactious。Ishallpointmyfingerwhitheraninvisibleinfluenceispushingus；andneithermyactionnormywordsshallbeirritating。Ishallstirupthecloud，and，thoughIshouldcauseittolaunchthethunderbolt，Ishouldbeinnocent。InthissolemninvestigationtowhichtheAcademyinvitesme，Ihavemorethantherighttotellthetruth，——IhavetherighttosaywhatIthink：maymythought，mywords，andthetruthbebutoneandthesamething！

Andyou，reader，——forwithoutareaderthereisnowriter，——youarehalfofmywork。Withoutyou，Iamonlysoundingbrass；withtheaidofyourattention，Iwillspeakmarvels。DoyouseethispassingwhirlwindcalledSOCIETY，fromwhichburstforth，withstartlingbrilliancy，lightnings，thunders，andvoices？Iwishtocauseyoutoplaceyourfingeronthehiddenspringswhichmoveit；buttothatendyoumustreduceyourselfatmycommandtoastateofpureintelligence。Theeyesofloveandpleasurearepowerlesstorecognizebeautyinaskeleton，harmonyinnakedviscera，lifeindarkandcoagulatedblood：consequentlythesecretsofthesocialorganismareasealedlettertothemanwhosebrainisbecloudedbypassionandprejudice。

Suchsublimitiesareunattainableexceptbycoldandsilentcontemplation。

Sufferme，then，beforerevealingtoyoureyestheleavesofthebookoflife，toprepareyoursoulbythisscepticalpurificationwhichthegreatteachersofthepeople——Socrates，JesusChrist，St。Paul，St。Remi，Bacon，Descartes，Galileo，Kant，etc——havealwaysclaimedoftheirdisciples。

Whoeveryoumaybe，cladintheragsofmiseryordeckedinthesumptuousvestmentsofluxury，Irestoreyoutothatstateofluminousnuditywhichneitherthefumesofwealthnorthepoisonsofenviouspovertydim。Howpersuadetherichthatthedifferenceofconditionsarisesfromanerrorintheaccounts；andhowcanthepoor，intheirbeggary，conceivethattheproprietorpossessesingoodfaith？Toinvestigatethesufferingsofthelaboreristotheidlerthemostintolerableofamusements；justastodojusticetothefortunateistothemiserablethebitterestofdraughts。

Youoccupyahighposition：Istripyouofit；thereyouare，free。

Thereistoomuchoptimismbeneaththisofficialcostume，toomuchsubordination，toomuchidleness。Sciencedemandsaninsurrectionofthought：now，thethoughtofanofficialishissalary。

Yourmistress，beautiful，passionate，artistic，is，Iliketobelieve，possessedonlybyyou。Thatis，yoursoul，yourspirit，yourconscience，havepassedintothemostcharmingobjectofluxurythatnatureandarthaveproducedfortheeternaltormentoffascinatedmortals。Iseparateyoufromthisdivinehalfofyourself：atthepresentdayitistoomuchtowishforjusticeandatthesametimetoloveawoman。Tothinkwithgrandeurandclearness，manmustremovetheliningofhisnatureandholdtohismasculinehypostasis。Besides，inthestateinwhichIhaveputyou，yourloverwouldnolongerknowyou：rememberthewifeofJob。

Whatisyourreligion？……Forgetyourfaith，and，throughwisdom，becomeanatheist——What！yousay；anatheistinspiteofourhypothesis！——

No，butbecauseofourhypothesis。One”sthoughtmusthavebeenraisedabovedivinethingsforalongtimetobeentitledtosupposeapersonalitybeyondman，alifebeyondthislife。Fortherest，havenofearsforyoursalvation。Godisnotangrywiththosewhoareledbyreasontodenyhim，anymorethanheisanxiousforthosewhoareledbyfaithtoworshiphim；

and，inthestateofyourconscience，thesurestcourseforyouistothinknothingabouthim。Doyounotseethatitiswithreligionaswithgovernments，themostperfectofwhichwouldbethedenialofall？Thenletnopoliticalorreligiousfancyholdyoursoulcaptive；inthiswayonlycanyounowkeepfrombeingeitheradupeorarenegade。Ah！saidIinthedaysofmyenthusiasticyouth，shallInothearthetollingforthesecondvespersoftherepublic，andourpriests，dressedinwhitetunics，singingaftertheDoricfashionthereturninghymn：Change，&ocirc；Dieu，notreservitude，commeleventdudesertenunsoufflerafra&icirc；chissan！……ButIhavedespairedofrepublicans，andnolongerknoweitherreligionorpriests。

Ishouldlikealso，inordertothoroughlysecureyourjudgment，dearreader，torenderyoursoulinsensibletopity，superiortovirtue，indifferenttohappiness。Butthatwouldbetoomuchtoexpectofaneophyte。Rememberonly，andneverforget，thatpity，happiness，andvirtue，likecountry，religion，andlove，aremasks……

NOTES：

1。Ie-hovah，andincompositionIah，theBeing；Iao，ioupitur，samemeaning；ha-iah，Heb。，hewas；ei，Gr，heis，ei-nai，tobe；an-i，Heb。，andinconjugationth-i，me；e-go，io，ich，i，m-i，me，t-ibi，te，andallthepersonalpronounsinwhichthevowelsi，e，ei，oi，denotepersonalityingeneral，andtheconsonants，morn，sort，servetoindicatethenumberoftheperson。Fortherest，letwhowilldisputeovertheseanalogies；

Ihavenoobjections：atthisdepth，thescienceofthephilologistisbutcloudandmystery。TheimportantpointtowhichIwishtocallattentionisthatthephoneticrelationofnamesseemstocorrespondtothemetaphysicalrelationofideas。

2。TheChinesehavepreservedintheirtraditionstheremembranceofareligionwhichhadceasedtoexistamongthemfiveorsixcenturiesbeforeourera。(SeePauthier，“China，“Paris，Didot。)Moresurprisingstillisitthatthissingularpeople，inlosingitsprimitivefaith，seemstohaveunderstoodthatdivinityissimplythecollectivemeofhumanity：sothat，morethantwothousandyearsago，Chinahadreached，initscommonly-acceptedbelief，thelatestresultsofthephilosophyoftheOccident。“WhatHeavenseesandunderstands，“itiswrittenintheShu-king，“isonlythatwhichthepeopleseeandunderstand。WhatthepeopledeemworthyofrewardandpunishmentisthatwhichHeavenwishestopunishandreward。ThereisanintimatecommunicationbetweenHeavenandthepeople：letthosewhogovernthepeople，therefore，bewatchfulandcautious。”Confuciusexpressedthesameideainanothermanner：“Gaintheaffectionofthepeople，andyougainempire。Losetheaffectionofthepeople，andyouloseempire。”There，then，generalreasonwasregardedasqueenoftheworld，adistinctionwhichelsewherehasbeenbestoweduponrevelations。TheTao-te-kingisstillmoreexplicit。Inthiswork，whichisbutanoutlinecriticismofpurereason，thephilosopherLao-tsecontinuallyidentifies，underthenameofTAO，universalreasonandtheinfinitebeing；andalltheobscurityofthebookofLaotseconsists，inmyopinion，ofthisconstantidentificationofprincipleswhichourreligiousandmetaphysicalhabitshavesowidelyseparated。

3。See，amongothers，AugusteComte，“CourseofPositivePhilosophy，“

andP。J。Proudhon，“CreationofOrderinHumanity。”

4。Idonotmeantoaffirmhereinapositivemannerthetransmutabilityofbodies，ortopointitoutasasubjectforinvestigation；stilllessdoIpretendtosaywhatoughttobetheopinionofsavantsuponthispoint。

Iwishonlytocallattentiontothespeciesofscepticismgeneratedineveryuninformedmindbythemostgeneralconclusionsofchemicalphilosophy，or，better，bytheirreconcilablehypotheseswhichserveasthebasisofitstheories。Chemistryistrulythedespairofreason：onallsidesitmingleswiththefanciful；andthemoreknowledgeofitwegainbyexperience，themoreitenvelopsitselfinimpenetrablemysteries。ThisthoughtwasrecentlysuggestedtomebyreadingM。Liebig”s“LettersonChemistry“

(Paris，Masgana，1845，translationofBertet-DupineyandDubreuilHelion)。

ThusM。Liebig，afterhavingbanishedfromsciencehypotheticalcausesandalltheentitiesadmittedbytheancients，——suchasthecreativepowerofmatter，thehorrorofavacuum，theespritrecteur，etc。(p。22)，——admitsimmediately，asnecessarytothecomprehensionofchemicalphenomena，aseriesofentitiesnolessobscure，——vitalforce，chemicalforce，electricforce，theforceofattraction，etc。(pp。146，149)。Onemightcallitarealizationofthepropertiesofbodies，inimitationofthepsychologists”

realizationofthefacultiesofthesoulunderthenamesliberty，imagination，memory，etc。Whynotkeeptotheelements？Why，iftheatomshaveweightoftheirown，asM。Liebigappearstobelieve，maytheynotalsohaveelectricityandlifeoftheirown？Curiousthing！thephenomenaofmatter，likethoseofmind，becomeintelligibleonlybysupposingthemtobeproducedbyunintelligibleforcesandgovernedbycontradictorylaws：suchistheinferencetobedrawnfromeverypageofM。Liebig”sbook。

Matter，accordingtoM。Liebig，isessentiallyinertandentirelydestituteofspontaneousactivity(p。148)：why，then，dotheatomshaveweight？

Isnottheweightinherentinatomsthereal，eternal，andspontaneousmotionofmatter？Andthatwhichwechancetoregardasrest，——mayitnotbeequilibriumrather？Why，then，supposenowaninertiawhichdefinitionscontradict，nowanexternalpotentialitywhichnothingproves？

Atomshavingweight，M。Liebiginfersthattheyareindivisible(p。

58)。Whatlogic！Weightisonlyforce，thatis，athinghiddenfromthesenses，whosephenomenaaloneareperceptible，——athing，consequently，towhichtheideaofdivisionandindivisionisinapplicable；andfromthepresenceofthisforce，fromthehypothesisofanindeterminateandimmaterialentity，isinferredanindivisiblematerialexistence！

Fortherest，M。Liebigconfessesthatitisimpossibleforthemindtoconceiveofparticlesabsolutelyindivisible；herecognizes，further，thatthefactofthisindivisibilityisnotproved；butheaddsthatsciencecannotdispensewiththishypothesis：sothat，bytheconfessionofitsteachers，chemistryhasforitspointofdepartureafictionasrepugnanttothemindasitisforeigntoexperience。Whatirony！

Atomsareunequalinweight，saysM。Liebig，becauseunequalinvolume：

nevertheless，itisimpossibletodemonstratethatchemicalequivalentsexpresstherelativeweightofatoms，or，inotherwords，thatwhatthecalculationofatomicequivalentsleadsustoregardasanatomisnotcomposedofseveralatoms。Thisistantamounttosayingthatmorematterweighsmorethanlessmatter；and，sinceweightistheessenceofmateriality，wemaylogicallyconcludethat，weightbeinguniversallyidenticalwithitself，thereisalsoanidentityinmatter；thatthedifferencesofsimplebodiesareduesolely，eithertodifferentmethodsofatomicassociation，ortodifferentdegreesofmolecularcondensation，andthat，inreality，atomsaretransmutable：whichM。Liebigdoesnotadmit。

“Wehave，“hesays，“noreasonforbelievingthatoneelementisconvertibleintoanotherelement“(p。135)。Whatdoyouknowaboutit？Thereasonsforbelievinginsuchaconversioncanverywellexistandatthesametimeescapeyourattention；anditisnotcertainthatyourintelligenceinthisrespecthasrisentothelevelofyourexperience。But，admittingthenegativeargumentofM。Liebig，whatfollows？That，withaboutfifty-

sixexceptions，irreducibleasyet，allmatterisinaconditionofperpetualmetamorphosis。Now，itisalawofourreasontosupposeinNatureunityofsubstanceaswellasunityofforceandsystem；moreover，theseriesofchemicalcompoundsandsimplesubstancesthemselvesleadsusirresistiblytothisconclusion。Why，then，refusetofollowtotheendtheroadopenedbyscience，andtoadmitanhypothesiswhichistheinevitableresultofexperienceitself？

M。Liebignotonlydeniesthetransmutabilityofelements，butrejectsthespontaneousformationofgerms。Now，ifwerejectthespontaneousformationofgerms，weareforcedtoadmittheireternity；andas，ontheotherhand，geologyprovesthattheglobehasnotbeeninhabitedalways，wemustadmitalsothat，atagivenmoment，theeternalgermsofanimalsandplantswereborn，withoutfatherormother，overthewholefaceoftheearth。Thus，thedenialofspontaneousgenerationleadsbacktothehypothesisofspontaneity：

whatisthereinmuch-deridedmetaphysicsmorecontradictory？

Letitnotbethought，however，thatIdenythevalueandcertaintyofchemicaltheories，orthattheatomictheoryseemstomeabsurd，orthatIsharetheEpicureanopinionastospontaneousgeneration。Oncemore，allthatIwishtopointoutisthat，fromthepointofviewofprinciples，chemistryneedstoexerciseextremetolerance，sinceitsownexistencedependsonacertainnumberoffictions，contrarytoreasonandexperience，anddestructiveofeachother。

5。Chemistsdistinguishbetweenmixtureandcomposition，justaslogiciansdistinguishbetweentheassociationofideasandtheirsynthesis。Itistrue，nevertheless，that，accordingtothechemists，compositionmaybeafterallbutamixture，orratheranaggregationofatoms，nolongerfortuitous，butsystematic，theatomsformingdifferentcompoundsbyvaryingtheirarrangement。Butstillthisisonlyanhypothesis，whollygratuitous；anhypothesiswhichexplainsnothing，andhasnoteventhemeritofbeinglogical。Whydoesapurelynumericalorgeometricaldifferenceinthecompositionandformofatomsgiverisetophysiologicalpropertiessodifferent？Ifatomsareindivisibleandimpenetrable，whydoesnottheirassociation，confinedtomechanicaleffects，leavethemunchangedinessence？Whereistherelationbetweenthecausesupposedandtheeffectobtained？

Wemustdistrustourintellectualvision：itiswithchemicaltheoriesaswithpsychologicalsystems。Themind，inordertoaccountforphenomena，workswithatoms，whichitdoesnotandcanneversee，aswiththeme，whichitdoesnotperceive：itappliesitscategoriestoeverything；thatis，itdistinguishes，individualizes，concretes，numbers，compares，thingswhich，materialorimmaterial，arethoroughlyidenticalandindistinguishable。

Matter，aswellasspirit，plays，asweviewit，allsortsofparts；and，asthereisnothingarbitraryinitsmetamorphoses，webuilduponthemthesepsychologicandatomictheories，trueinsofarastheyfaithfullyrepresent，intermsagreedupon，theseriesofphenomena，butradicallyfalseassoonastheypretendtorealizetheirabstractionsandareacceptedliterally。

chapter01

CHAPTERI。OFTHEECONOMICSCIENCE。

1——OppositionbetweenFACTandRIGHTinsocialeconomy。

IAFFIRMtheREALITYofaneconomicscience。

Thisproposition，whichfeweconomistsnowdaretoquestion，istheboldest，perhaps，thataphilosopherevermaintained；andtheinquiriestofollowwillprove，Ihope，thatitsdemonstrationwillonedaybedeemedthegreatesteffortofthehumanmind。

Iaffirm，ontheotherhand，theabsolutecertaintyaswellastheprogressivenatureofeconomicscience，ofallthesciencesinmyopinionthemostcomprehensive，thepurest，thebestsupportedbyfacts：anewproposition，whichaltersthisscienceintologicormetaphysicsinconcreto，andradicallychangesthebasisofancientphilosophy。Inotherwords，economicscienceistometheobjectiveformandrealizationofmetaphysics；itismetaphysicsinaction，metaphysicsprojectedonthevanishingplaneoftime；andwhoeverstudiesthelawsoflaborandexchangeistrulyandspeciallyametaphysician。

AfterwhatIhavesaidintheintroduction，thereisnothinginthiswhichshouldsurpriseanyone。ThelaborofmancontinuestheworkofGod，who，increatingallbeings，didbutexternallyrealizetheeternallawsofreason。Economicscienceis，then，necessarilyandatonceatheoryofideas，anaturaltheology，andapsychology。Thisgeneraloutlinealonewouldhavesufficedtoexplainwhy，havingtotreatofeconomicmatters，IwasobligedpreviouslytosupposetheexistenceofGod，andbywhattitleI，asimpleeconomist，aspiretosolvetheproblemofcertainty。

ButIhastentosaythatIdonotregardasasciencetheincoherentensembleoftheoriestowhichthenamepoliticaleconomyhasbeenofficiallygivenforalmostahundredyears，andwhich，inspiteoftheetymologyofthename，isafterailbutthecode，orimmemorialroutine，ofproperty。

Thesetheoriesofferusonlytherudiments，orfirstsection，ofeconomicscience；andthatiswhy，likeproperty，theyareallcontradictoryofeachother，andhalfthetimeinapplicable。Theproofofthisassertion，whichis，inonesense，adenialofpoliticaleconomyashandeddowntousbyAdamSmith，Ricardo，Malthus，andJ。B。Say，andaswehaveknownitforhalfacentury，willbeespeciallydevelopedinthistreatise。

Theinadequacyofpoliticaleconomyhasatalltimesimpressedthoughtfulminds，who，toofondoftheirdreamsforpracticalinvestigation，andconfiningthemselvestotheestimationofapparentresults，haveconstitutedfromthebeginningapartyofoppositiontothestatuquo，andhavedevotedthemselvestopersevering，andsystematicridiculeofcivilizationanditscustoms。Property，ontheotherhand，thebasisofallsocialinstitutions，hasneverlackedzealousdefenders，who，proudtobecalledpractical，haveexchangedblowforblowwiththetraducersofpoliticaleconomy，andhavelaboredwithacourageousandoftenskilfulhandtostrengthentheedificewhichgeneralprejudiceandindividuallibertyhaveerectedinconcert。Thecontroversybetweenconservativesandreformers，stillpending，findsitscounterpart，inthehistoryofphilosophy，inthequarrelbetweenrealistsandnominalists；itisalmostuselesstoaddthat，onbothsides，rightandwrongareequal，andthattherivalry，narrowness，andintoleranceofopinionshavebeenthesolecauseofthemisunderstanding。

Thustwopowersarecontendingforthegovernmentoftheworld，andcursingeachotherwiththefervoroftwohostilereligions：politicaleconomy，ortradition；andsocialism，orutopia。

Whatis，then，inmoreexplicitterms，politicaleconomy？Whatissocialism？

Politicaleconomyisacollectionoftheobservationsthusfarmadeinregardtothephenomenaoftheproductionanddistributionofwealth；

thatis，inregardtothemostcommon，mostspontaneous，andthereforemostgenuine，formsoflaborandexchange。

Theeconomistshaveclassifiedtheseobservationsasfarastheywereable；theyhavedescribedthephenomena，andascertainedtheircontingenciesandrelations；theyhaveobservedinthem，inmanycases，aqualityofnecessitywhichhasgiventhemthenameoflaws；andthisensembleofinformation，gatheredfromthesimplestmanifestationsofsociety，constitutespoliticaleconomy。

Politicaleconomyis，therefore，thenaturalhistoryofthemostapparentandmostuniversallyaccreditedcustoms，traditions，practices，andmethodsofhumanityinallthatconcernstheproductionanddistributionofwealth。

Bythistitle，politicaleconomyconsidersitselflegitimateinfactandinright：infact，becausethephenomenawhichitstudiesareconstant，spontaneous，anduniversal；inright，becausethesephenomenarestontheauthorityofthehumanrace，thestrongestauthoritypossible。Consequently，politicaleconomycallsitselfascience；thatis，arationalandsystematicknowledgeofregularandnecessaryfacts。

【推荐阅读】幽幽深宫，醒来一梦似千年，重生于下堂妃身躯中的她，将如何手刃仇人? 点击阅读